Vol. 12 · No. 3 Fall 2008 The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology

Editor-in-Chief: R. Albert Mohler, Jr. Exodus Executive Editor: Russell D. Moore Editorial: Stephen J. Wellum Editor: Stephen J. Wellum 2 Reading and Applying the Book of Exodus Today Book Review Editor: Chad Owen Brand Stephen G. Dempster Exodus and Biblical Theology: On Moving into the Associate Editor: Christopher W. Cowan 4 Neighborhood with a New Name Assistant Editor: Brian Vickers Graham A. Cole Advisory Board: Timothy K. Beougher 24 Exodus 34, the Middoth and the Doctrine of God: John B. Polhill The Importance of Biblical Theology to Evangelical Chuck Lawless Systematic Theology Peter J. Gentry Peter J. Gentry Esther H. Crookshank The Covenant at Sinai Mark A. Seifrid 38 Randy Stinson D. Jeffrey Mooney Israel in Slavery and Slavery in Israel Design: Jared Hallal 64 T. J. Betts Typographer: John Rogers 82 Dating the Exodus Editorial Office & Subscription Services: Russell D. Moore SBTS Box 832 Sermon: You Cannot Serve Both God and Mummy: 2825 Lexington Rd. 96 Pharaoh Hunger and the Draw of a Golden-Calf Spirituality Louisville, KY 40280 (Exodus 32:1-35) (800) 626-5525, x4413

Editorial E-Mail: [email protected] 78 Book Reviews Yearly subscription costs for four issues: $20, individual inside the U. S.; $30, ATLA Religion Database on CD-ROM, published by the American Theological individual outside the U. S.; $35, institutional inside the U. S.; $45, institutional Library Association, 250 S. Wacker Dr., 16th Flr., Chicago, IL 60606, E-mail: outside the U. S. Opinions expressed in The Southern Baptist Journal of Theol- [email protected], WWW: http://atla.com/. ogy are solely the responsibility of the authors and are not necessarily those of THE SOUTHERN BAPTIST JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY is published quarterly by the editors, members of the Advisory Board, or The Forum. We encourage the The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2825 Lexington Road, Louisville, submission of letters, suggestions and articles by our readers. Any article submis- KY 40280. Fall 2008. Vol. 12, No. 3. Copyright ©2008 The Southern Baptist sions should conform to the Journal of Biblical Literature stylistic guidelines. Theological Seminary. ISSN 1520-7307. Second Class postage paid at This periodical is indexed in Religion Index One: Periodicals, the Index to Book Louisville, KY. Postmaster: Send address changes to: SBTS Box 832, Reviews in Religions, Religion Indexes: Ten Year Subset on CD-ROM, and the 2825 Lexington Road, Louisville, KY 40280. Editorial: Reading and Applying the Book of Exodus Today Stephen J. Wellum

Stephen J. Wellum is Professor As the old adage goes, the three rules of why biblical theology, rightly understood, of Christian Theology at The South- real estate are summed up in three words: seeks to examine the unfolding nature of ern Baptist Theological Seminary. location, location, location. By analogy, God’s plan as it thinks through the rela- Dr. Wellum received his Ph.D. degree we can say that the three rules of bibli- tionship between before and after in God’s in theology from Trinity Evangelical cal hermeneutics are also summed up plan, along the Bible’s own storyline. In Divinity School and has also taught in three words: context, context, context. this light, as we read Scripture, it is help- ­theology at the Associated Canadian To read and apply the Bible correctly, it ful to think of interpreting biblical books Theological Schools and Northwest is crucial that we always ask ourselves: according to three horizons: textual, Baptist Theological College and Semi- What is the context of this text? epochal, and canonical. nary in Canada. He has contributed to But more needs to be said. In asking, The textual horizon involves reading several publications and a collection “What is the context of this text?” it is also texts in light of their immediate context, of essays on theology and worldview important to remind ourselves that cor- which is normally associated with gram- issues. rect biblical interpretation cannot simply matical-historical exegesis. The epochal begin and end with a text’s immediate horizon goes one step further and seeks context, as important as that is. Given to think through where the text is placed the fact that Scripture, like God’s plan in the unfolding plan of God. Lastly, the of redemption, has not come to us all canonical horizon reads the book in light at once, but, instead, has progressively of the fullness of revelation that has now come over time, we must learn to read come in Christ. At the canonical level, we every biblical text in light of the entire must pay careful attention to how the sto- canon of Scripture. In other words, if we ryline of Scripture develops and how the are going to interpret Scripture correctly particular book we are reading fits into and not simply read biblical books in an the larger canonical presentation. Why is isolated fashion, we must learn to read the this important to stress? For this simple “parts” in terms of the “whole” and vice reason: unless we learn to read Scripture versa, otherwise we will fail to interpret this way we will not only read Scripture Scripture accurately. as merely a series of unconnected seg- In contemporary idiom, the discipline ments without an overall plan, purpose, which best helps us read Scripture in its and goal, which will simply lead us to overall context is “biblical theology.” At misunderstand the Bible and undercut its heart, biblical theology is the discipline the glory of our Lord Jesus, we will also which seeks to understand the whole fail to understand the divine intention of Bible by carefully interpreting biblical the text. texts in light of the entire canon, taking With all of this in mind, this edition of into consideration the progressive nature SBJT is devoted to understanding better of God’s redemptive plan and revelation the book of Exodus. Our primary goal is of himself through human authors. That is to help our readers interpret this impor- 2 tant book both in its immediate context they were better or more numerous than as well as its place in the overall plan of the nations (Deut 7:7). Neither was it for God. It goes without saying that the book their righteousness that they were given of Exodus is an important book in the the land of Canaan. The basis for God’s Bible’s overall storyline. In many ways it calling of Israel was not to be found in is a hinge book that not only introduces them but in God’s sovereign choice and us to the nation of Israel, but it does so by covenant loyalty to Abraham (Exod 19:4; placing them within the stream of God’s Deut 7:8). Israel, then, which serves as a glorious work of creation, the disastrous kind of new Adam, will be the means by effects of the Fall, and God’s gracious pur- which God will bring about a resolution poses of redemption for this world cen- of the sin and death caused by the first tered in the promises given to Abraham of Adam. Israel, as a nation, is the agent and a great name, seed, and land (Gen 12:1-3). means God will use to achieve the wider Abraham, as presented in Genesis, is cru- purposes of the Abrahamic covenant that cial since he is the one who is the means will ultimately lead us to Christ. by which God will reverse the effects of Now it is in the book of Exodus that sin and judgment begun in Genesis 3, and this storyline of Genesis is unpacked restore us and creation to its rightful role and developed. To understand this book and purpose. As a result of the disobedi- aright is to understand more of God’s ence of Adam—our covenantal head—sin unfolding drama of redemption, and and death have entered God’s good world. ultimately to learn better where we fit But thankfully, God has chosen not to into that plan, now that Christ has come. leave us to ourselves. He has graciously It is in this book, with the establishment promised that his purposes for creation of Israel in the exodus and the inaugura- and the human race will continue through tion of the old covenant, that many of his provision of a Redeemer, the seed of the typological structures and building the woman, to bring us back to him and blocks of God’s redemptive plan are laid ultimately to restore the old creation. This out before us—e.g., priesthood, sacrifice, promise, first given to Noah, is passed tabernacle, etc.—which, as redemptive on through Abraham, by God’s own gra- history unfolds, ultimately point beyond cious calling and election of him. Through themselves to the coming of our Lord. Abraham, and his seed, blessing will In a variety of ways, all of our articles come to the nations. In this way, Abraham are attempting to help us understand emerges within Genesis as the answer to Exodus afresh. Some articles are seek- the plight of all humankind. But it is not ing to place the book within its larger only in Abraham that God’s promises historical context, while others are lay- are realized, it is also in his progeny, ing out the overall theology of the book, Isaac, Jacob, and the nation of Israel. but all of the articles combined have the In fact, God’s calling and establishing goal of enabling Christians today better his covenant with Israel—that which is to read and apply Exodus for the good of unpacked for us in the book of Exodus— the church, and for the glory of our Lord is in fulfillment of the promises made Jesus Christ. It is my prayer that this edi- to Abraham and his seed (see Exod 3:6). tion of SBJT will lead to that end. God did not set his love on Israel because 3 Exodus and Biblical Theology: On Moving into the Neighborhood with a New Name Stephen G. Dempster

Stephen G. Dempster is Profes- “To know God’s name is to know that Bible is the verb “to go up” (2 Chron his purpose for all mankind from 5 sor of Religious Studies and Stuart 1 36:23). A short Israelite creed could be the beginning to the end.” E. Murray Chair of Christian Studies reduced in essentials to the words: “I am at Atlantic Baptist University in New “The Word became flesh and blood, Yahweh, your God, who brought you up Brunswick, Canada, where he teaches and moved into the neighborhood” from the land of Egypt, from the house of (John 1:14a, The Message). Old Testament, Ancient Near Eastern bondage” (Exod 20:1). This language could History, and Hebrew. He has published Introduction: The Importance of even be used to interpret Abraham’s much a number of scholarly articles and is the Exodus earlier departure from Mesopotamia (Gen the author of Dominion and Dynasty: A The story of the Exodus is the central 15:6). Because Yahweh was the God of the Biblical Theology of the Hebrew Bible salvation event in the Old Testament. Exodus, this meant that he must have been (InterVarsity, 2003) in the New Studies The account of the liberation of a band of the God who brought up Abraham from in Biblical Theology series. 6 Hebrew slaves from horrific oppression in Ur, and even returned Jacob from Haran. Egypt is the event that shaped virtually Similarly, Exodus language becomes the everything in the biblical imagination. grammar used to express future salva- One scholar remarks, “There are over 120 tion. Whether it is Hosea speaking of explicit Old Testament references to the Israel going up from the land (Hos 1:11 Exodus in law, narrative, prophecy and [2:2 MT]), Isaiah of leading the people psalm, and it is difficult to exaggerate through the sea again (Isa 11:15), Micah its importance.”2 Another writes, “This of Yahweh leading an exodus of crippled act of God, the leading of Israel out of and outcasts (Mic 4:6-7), Jeremiah of a new Egypt—from Israel’s point of view, the covenant (Jeremiah 31-34.), the Exodus march out of Egypt, the Exodus, is the language of salvation is the way Israel determinative event in Israel’s history for construed its understanding of the future. all time to come.”3 In many ways it pro- Moreover, the language of worship and vided the ground floor of that imagination praise begun on the other side of the Red for the majority of ancient Israelites, for Sea by Miriam and Moses lived on many thinking not only about faith but history, generations later in Israel’s worship at the future, nationhood, law, and ethics. the sanctuary. Israel was never to forget It shaped the essential grammar that that it was a redeemed people, and that articulated Israel’s language of experi- their God was the one who split the sea ence. “To go down” would often have (Ps 66:6; 74:13-14; 77:16-20; 78:13, 53; 106:9- 7 negative connotations while “to go up” 11, 22; 114:3, 5; 136:13-15). This gave them had positive associations. The first book hope in time of despair and praise in time of the Hebrew Bible presents the descent of celebration. into Egypt (Gen 37-50).4 The last word of Culturally, the Exodus changed how 4 Israel even thought about time. Its new image of the glory of God completely fill- year began on the note of a celebration ing the tabernacle, the first down payment of the divine presence (Exod 40:17) and of a future glory-filled earth in which Exodus liberation (Exod 12:6). From this God would be all in all (Exod 40:34). But temporal orientation, other major celebra- all of these events are a consequence of tions were marked, the Feast of Unleav- the great revelation of the divine name ened Bread following Passover (Exod to Moses, a name that summarized in a 12:16-20); The Feast of Weeks coinciding word God’s purpose for mankind from with the giving of the Law at Sinai, fifty beginning to end.11 days after Passover (Exod 19:1; 23:16); and But it is not only Israelites and Jews the Feast of Booths, remembering the time whose worldview was shaped by the in the wilderness (Lev 23:40-43). Even the Exodus. Christians too inherited this weekly orientation became based on Exo- new vision of the world. They had the dus salvation, its weekly relief from work same Bible as their Jewish counterparts. becoming a way of institutionalizing the In the developing New Testament, Exodus Exodus salvation for Israelites, foreign language is pervasive. Herod’s brutal residents, animals, and even land (Deut murder of the infants in the district of 5:12-15). The Exodus became the first event Bethlehem echoes the slaughter of the that was used to date the construction of Israelite newborns in Egypt (Matt 2:16-18). Israel’s Solomonic temple; the first record Jesus’ descent into Egypt and exodus from of era dating begins with the Exodus it as a child mirrors early Israel’s experi- (1 Kgs 6:1). Israel’s legal traditions and ence (Matt 2:13-15). His depiction as a new institutions also have Exodus origins. The Moses giving his new commandments Exodus was viewed as the great indica- from the Mount is in both continuity and tive that provided the basis for the great contrast with the old Moses at Sinai (Mat- imperative: “I am Yahweh your God who thew 5-7).12 His feeding of the crowds in brought you up from Egypt, the house of the wilderness with bread shows that he bondage” (indicative). Therefore, “have no is the ultimate manna come down from other gods before me” (imperative). Ethics heaven (John 6:35). His last supper recalls and Law were rooted in salvation from the original Passover and his words of oppression, which in turn was rooted in institution regarding the blood of the cov- the character of God. The Exodus was enant deliberately recall Moses’ words to nothing less than one of the events that the Israelites when sealing the Sinai cov- shaped ancient Israel’s worldview, and enant (Matt 26:28, cf. Exod 24:8). His entire made it essentially a foreigner in the life and ministry is viewed as the antitype ancient world.8 Finally, the great event of the tabernacle built at Sinai: The Word marked the presence of God in a new became flesh and moved into the neigh- way in the world. Astonishingly, the goal borhood and we beheld his glory—not the of the Exodus was that the great Creator old glory of the cloud filling the tent—but and Redeemer of his people would come “the glory of the One and Only, who came and live with them, as it were, “move from the Father, full of grace and truth” permanently into their neighborhood,”9 (John 1:14, NIV; cf. Exod 34:5). Those who and bring a bit of heaven to earth.10 The dwell in the midst of this tabernacle, book of Exodus finishes with the powerful leave with a face set on fire by the divine 5 presence, just like Moses (2 Cor 3; cf. Exod Exodus and Interpretive Impasses 34:29-35). In the apocalyptic scenario with There are three hermeneutical “dead- which the Bible closes, the judgment ends” that need to be avoided in dealing that falls upon the world is essentially with these stories: (1) Often, Old Testa- a great amplification of the plagues that ment theologies and history books about afflicted Egypt (Revelation 8-18; 15-18.). ancient Israel begin with the Exodus This end-time judgment is followed by as the first of God’s mighty acts with the most dramatic depiction of salvation Israel and then proceed to rehearse the in the entire Bible that brings to a final other mighty acts: wilderness provision, culmination the covenantal words first conquest, kingship, and liberation from enunciated in Exodus: exile.15 In this view, it is as if Israel’s exis- tence began in Egypt; and the Exodus I saw Heaven and earth new-cre- ated. Gone the first Heaven, gone the was the pivotal event that not only cre- first earth, gone the sea. I saw Holy ated Israel but also wrenched it from its Jerusalem, new-created, descending mythical past and started it on a historical resplendent out of Heaven, as ready for God as a bride for her husband. trajectory.16 But this overlooks the fact that I heard a voice thunder from the the Exodus story is part of a larger biblical Throne: “Look! Look! God has moved into the neighborhood, making his home narrative—it does not begin the biblical with men and women! They’re his narrative but is the continuation of a nar- people, he’s their God (Rev 21:1-3; cf. rative that precedes it. In other words, Exod 6:7, The Message). the story of Israel is part of a world Story, 17 Again all of this comes as a consequence with cosmic implications. (2) The sec- of the revelation of the divine name, ond impasse isolates the book from both which comprehended in its laconic form its preceding and subsequent contexts, the saving purpose of God from begin- and thus it becomes a paradigm for how ning to end. Fittingly, it is this name in its oppressed peoples can think about their 18 Greek form that is given to Jesus after the plight and how to solve it, or becomes salvation that he has accomplished. And a devotional aid that helps individuals the neighborhood of Jesus has become the trust in God when going through difficult 19 entire universe (Phil 2:9-11).13 times. While there is much in this book So an understanding of the Exodus is that deals with oppression, to view the absolutely critical for an understanding of Exodus as simply a political manifesto or an ancient Israelite and Christian world- as a devotional guide is to ignore its larger view and essential for understanding and context. That larger context shows that in probing the theology of the Bible as it many ways Israel needs far more than just unfolds historically. Without this Exodus a political and economic salvation or spiri- grammar it becomes virtually impossible tual guidance. (3) A third error supposes to understand the language of the Bible.14 that the book is nothing more than a ficti- In order to understand this syntax more tious statement of the past, that the events completely and become more fluent in the narrated in it are simply literary creations, language of the Scripture, a closer look at or retrojections of later events in Israel’s 20 this text is in order—a text in which the life. The claim that an ancient society covenant name of God is first revealed. whose entire worldview was shaped by such stories would intentionally have 6 fabricated them sounds very much like tiplied prolifically and filled the country a retrojection of later western ideas into of Egypt echoes a number of important the biblical record. I cannot consider the texts in Genesis: (1) God’s charge to the evidence for such a position, but suffice human race in Genesis 1 to be fruitful and it to say that theology and history do not multiply and fill the earth (Gen 1:26-28). (2) have to be at odds with each other. The God’s promise to Abram of a numerous Exodus is theological historiography but progeny that would eventually bless the this does not mean that it is not history. world, reversing the curse and restoring For an economic and political history of the world to its pristine glory (Gen 12:1- ancient Israel, the name of the Pharaoh of 3; 13:15-16; 15:4-5). The first promise to the Exodus would be important and the Abram is strategically placed (Gen 12:1-3), names of two Hebrew mid-wives would beginning a new national history of Israel be unimportant, but for the biblical his- (Gen 12-50) after the primal universal his- torian the reverse is the case.21 This does tory (Gen 1-11), which chronicles a world not mean that one is historically true and under curse and judgment because of the other is not; it just indicates a different human rebellion and autonomy. Thus, perspective. From a theological point of it is clear that somehow Abram and his view, everything looks different. seed carry in their genes the secret of universal blessing. The fate of the universe The First Paragraph—The Story of is wrapped up with the faith obedience of Exodus in the Context of the Story this budding octogenarian and his virtual of Scripture septuagenarian wife, who leave Ur on the Although the book of Exodus has its dusty Mesopotamian roads on a journey own literary integrity, it will not let the to only God knows where (Gen 12:4-5). reader or hearer forget that it is part of an Thus, as Exodus opens, we are intro- ongoing larger story. Its first paragraph duced to a story that is part of a larger begins with the conjunction “and,” which story, which is indeed the story of the connects it with the previous book of Gen- world. A family of seventy individuals esis.22 The content of the first paragraph of that have gone down to Egypt and who Exodus (1:1-7) recalls leading themes and have multiplied prolifically have a mis- vocabulary of the larger biblical story. The sion to the world. They are part of a new mention of the seventy members of Jacob’s creation, a creation that is going to bring family in Egypt recalls their descent in the about universal blessing to a world in dire previous Joseph story (Gen 46:8ff) and the need. But there are two other texts in the seventy nations of the world in the great larger story that are extremely important table of nations of Genesis 10. The fact that and provide needed background to the Jacob’s children all came from his “thigh,” Exodus story. Immediately after the curse recalls the broken and blessed Jacob,23 on the world is introduced in Genesis, a who was renamed Israel at Penuel, the one promise is made of a woman’s seed that who fought God and lived to tell about it will crush the head of the seed of the (Exod 1:5; Gen 32). He was crippled but Serpent, and essentially restore human- blessed: out of that crippled thigh had ity and the world to its lost glory (Gen come a large family. The conclusion of the 3:15). This text assumes a struggle to the paragraph in which the family has mul- death between two opposing forces. Thus, 7 it is no accident that there is a constant by chapter 15 in which Israel has passed focus on descendants in the narrative of through the tempest and reached the Genesis, with patriarchal wives having other side in the sunlight of a new day—a barren wombs. Miraculously these barren day of deliverance. The narrative prose sig- wombs get blessed, which indicates that nals this climax by being transformed into God is at work in the patriarchal families, poetry to celebrate the divine deliverance overcoming one “inconceivable” obstacle (15:1-18). The Song at the Sea is Israel’s new after another with his divine intent to song of celebration and it is a salvation bless the world. But it is implied that there song concluding with the people dwelling will be many more obstacles to overcome. with God on his holy mountain (15:17). Imbedded in Abram’s blessing is the point The next division leads to this mountain that there will be those who will seek to of God, Sinai, where God makes a new destroy him and that some day his seed covenant with the nation with universal will possess the gates of his enemies (Gen implications (15:22-24:18). This covenant 12:2; 22:17). Thus, as Exodus opens with a itself puts the very words of God in unme- world of blessing for the Israelites, there diated form at the very literary heart of the are ominous clouds on the horizon. book of Exodus (20:1-17). These ten words The clouds become more ominous thundering from Sinai precipitate a new when another text in Genesis is consid- storm in which Israel cannot endure the ered. During a covenant making cer- immediate presence of God. The thunder emony, God promises Abram the land and lightning and earthquake evoked by of Canaan but the actual procurement of the divine presence terrify the Israelites. the land will be delayed 400 years (Gen The covenant resolves this difficulty with 15:9-17). During that time his progeny will sacrifice and the appointment of Moses as endure oppression in a foreign land for a a mediator of the divine word. After the long time, after which their oppressors covenant is ratified, this section concludes would be judged and his family would with representatives of the nation com- return to the land of promise. The predic- muning with God on his holy mountain, tion is confirmed by a theophany of fire even experiencing a divine vision during moving through a gauntlet of ritually a festal meal (24:9-10). The final division slaughtered animals, the most powerful (25:1-40:38) establishes the theme of the self-curse imaginable if the promise was divine presence taking up residence with broken. Thus, as one considers the open- the people as their king, as it details the ing paragraph of Exodus, one finds oneself instructions for building a tabernacle in the literary calm before the storm. being given to Moses on the mountain (25-31) and their implementation by the Exodus—The Larger Structure: people (35-40) followed by the descent Deliverance, Covenant, Presence24 of the divine presence from the moun- The rest of the book of Exodus itself tain into the tent. But this long section is can be divided into three major sections. not without its own storm either (32-34). The first section presents the Egyptian The covenant is barely ratified when it is storm breaking in all of its power upon broken by the people. The people may be the nascent nation of Israel. This is found out of Egypt but Egypt remains in their in chapters 1:1-15:21. The storm breaks heart. When God threatens annihila- 8 tion, Moses intercedes successfully and ute to the divine blessing. But oppressive the covenant is renewed. It is because of measures are taken to counteract this Mosaic mediation and divine mercy that blessing and reduce the population by Exodus can close on a note of the divine forcing them to build monumental con- presence descending from the mountain struction projects for the regime. Those and filling the tabernacle and dwelling measures are counter-productive as the with the people. Heaven has “touched divine blessing only increases (1:12). The down” on planet earth, the anticipation regime then resorts to clandestine geno- of a day when complete union will even- cide but when this policy fails because of tually occur. civil disobedience on the part of Hebrew It is during the three storms that some midwives, the sinister genocidal policy of the most profound theology found in comes out in the open: every newborn the entire Bible occurs—the revelation and Hebrew male is to be thrown into the identity of the nature of God through his Nile (1:22). name. First there is the revelation of the In this opening chapter the cosmic divine name in which the name “Yah- struggle between the seed of the Serpent weh” is first revealed during the Egyptian and the seed of the woman becomes storm, then during the storm at Sinai, explicit. The Serpent wishes to destroy, the holiness of that name is discovered oppress, enslave, and prevent divine and its consequences (20:1-18) and finally blessing. This struggle remains hidden in during that third storm provoked by the the world’s story but occasionally comes sin of Israel, the meaning of that name is to light during times of great crisis, such unpacked in unparalleled fashion in the as when the murder of all but one of Old Testament with profound implications the Davidic king’s family by Jezebel’s for the history of Israel and the world (34:5- daughter seems to jeopardize the Davidic 6). The significance of the revelation of the covenant (2 Kgs 11:1), or when the Jews are divine name for biblical theology cannot threatened with extinction in the book be exaggerated, for as Brevard Childs has of Esther, or when Herod’s forces try to remarked, “To know God’s name is to murder the baby Jesus (Matt 2:16-18) or know his purpose for all mankind from when a great dragon tries to kill the Mes- the beginning to the end.”25 sianic newborn of a woman, the woman herself, and the rest of her offspring (Rev- (1) Deliverance (Exodus 1:1-15:21) elation 12). It is clear that that the serpent The Egyptian storm begins after receives a fatal blow from that Messianic the book’s introduction (1:1-7) with the son’s death and resurrection, but it does announcement that there is a new Egyp- not experience its complete demise until tian dynasty that does not remember believers put it under foot and the new the blessing that the Israelites brought to heaven and new earth arrive, when death Egypt (1:8). This new dynasty is afraid that is abolished forever. the burgeoning Israelite population will In the midst of the horrific genocide in become a political and military threat. Egypt, a child is born that is preserved In fact verse 9 is significant for being the from the holocaust. Moses is saved from first place in the Bible that Jacob’s family the water and will eventually save his is regarded as a nation (a people), a trib- people from the water.26 Again women 9 play a part in this cosmic struggle, giving He is told to tell them that the God of birth to the boy (Jochebed), preserving the their fathers has sent for them. This is boy (Miriam), saving the boy (Egyptian not enough for the reluctant emissary, so princess), nursing the boy (Jochebed), and he asks for the divine name and is given raising the boy in an Egyptian court (prin- it: “I am/will be who I am/will be” (3:14; cess). Years later when the young prince hy

The presentation formula “I am Yah- • The Egyptians will know that I am Yahweh when I stretch out weh” begins and ends this pivotal my hand over Egypt and bring speech.29 To hear the name “Yahweh” up the Israelites from their means a new state of affairs for the Isra- midst (7:5). • By this you will know that I elites (2-3). Yahweh is committed to the am Yahweh when I strike the covenant. Then this means that Yahweh is waters of the Nile with the rod going to act to deliver the Israelites from in my hand and they turn to blood! (7:17). Egyptian bondage with great power, and • So that you may know that there live with them in covenant relationship. is no one like Yahweh our God, Finally, this will result in the gift of the the frogs will depart from you and from your houses and from land as a fulfillment of the promise to the your servants and from your fathers. This passage further elucidates people (8:10-11 [MT 8:6-7]). • I will distinguish in that day the the earlier quote: “to know God’s name land of Goshen (from the rest of is to know his purpose for mankind from Egypt) where my people live so beginning to end.” Here it means clearly that there will no locusts there so that you may know that I am the salvation and flourishing of the people Yahweh in the midst of the land of God, who will live in harmony with (8:22 [MT 8:18]). their Creator and Savior. • That you might know that there is no God like me in all the earth Coinciding with a declaration of the ... for I have appointed you [Pha- identity of God to the Israelites is a dec- raoh] to show you my power in laration of the identity of Israel. They are order to declare my name in all the earth (9:14-16). Yahweh’s special people, to whom he is • When I spread out my hands committed to help and save. But they to Yahweh, the thundering will cease that you might know that can also be called Yahweh’s firstborn the earth belongs to Yahweh son (4:22). The idea of a firstborn son is (9:29). a child who has a special relationship • In order that you will declare in the ears of your children and to the father, one who is in a privileged grandchildren how I treated position of authority and intimacy (cf. the Egyptians and I placed my Deut 21:15-17). signs in their midst and you will know that I am Yahweh (10:2). As the narrative develops, Moses con- • In the middle of the night I will fronts Pharaoh with the ultimatum to go out in the middle of Egypt let Yahweh’s people go. Pharaoh retorts, and every first born will die ... so that you may know that Yahweh “Who is Yahweh that I should listen to distinguishes between Egypt him to let Israel go? I do not know Yahweh and Israel (11:4-7). and I certainly will not release Israel” Clearly all these texts serve to clarify (5:2).30 The rest of the plague narratives powerfully the meaning of Yahweh’s are the answer to his question. Pharaoh, 11 name. He is the Creator God, the owner dry ground. The salvation song celebrates of all the earth, who is committed to his Yahweh’s power and his wondrous name. covenant with his distinctive people. Ten times the name is used in this song, The plagues and Pharaoh’s intransigence one of which is the first short form, “Yah,” become a means by which the entire world recorded in Scripture. It is clear why. will learn about Yahweh’s reputation and Yahweh has no equal: He has cast horse his commitment to his people. and rider into the sea (15:1.4); he is a man The plagues culminate in the Passover of war (15:3); his right hand has shattered event, which results in the death of the the enemy (15:6); the blast of his anger con- firstborn throughout Egypt. Israelites are sumed them like chaff (15:7); the waters spared this catastrophe when they smear drew back from his breath and became the blood of a firstborn slaughtered goat like a wall (15:8); the depths congealed in or lamb on the doorposts and lintels of the heart of the sea (15:8). Consequently, their dwellings. This is the second time in Yahweh is incomparable among the gods. the larger storyline that a firstborn son is And thus the first part of Exodus comes spared by the spilling of sacrificial blood to an end. Yahweh has been true to his (cf. Genesis 22). The narrative awaits a name. He has delivered his people and time when such a son will not be so for- promises to bring them and plant them tunate, but whose spilled blood will save in the mountain of his inheritance, where the world, not just a nation. he will live with them as their great king The importance of the Passover event forever! in the text is emphasized. It forms the climax of the plagues. The previous nine (2) Covenant (Exodus 15:22-24:18) catastrophes are divided into a trio of tri- The next few chapters begin on a nega- ads, each increasing in severity. But before tive note as Yahweh leads his people to the climactic Passover event occurs, the the mountain of Sinai, where he first suspense is heightened by a protracted appeared to Moses. The desert journey delay in which the longest chapter in to Mount Sinai is not marked by the Exodus presents the stipulations for the euphoria of the Exodus but by grumbling Passover (12:1-28). As Fox observes, “the and complaining because of lack of water narrator leaves the realm of storytelling (15:22-27; 17:1-7) and food (16). An ambush and enters that of ritual.”32 by Amalekite raiders does not help the When the hammer blows of judgment languishing spirits (17:8-16), but Israel finally fall on Egypt, Israel experiences learns that God can provide in the desert liberation, but the euphoria of the libera- journey just as he had provided at the Sea. tion is short lived. The Egyptians change Yahweh is his name. Just before the peo- their minds about liberating their captives ple’s arrival at the mountain of fire, Moses and pursue them in the desert. And it is is reunited with his family, thus recalling at the Reed Sea that the Egyptian army Moses’ family situation before his call at finally comes to know Yahweh, as Pha- the burning bush. The life of Moses is raoh and his soldiers experience a watery being reenacted on a larger scale.33 grave, while Yahweh’s firstborn son sings At Sinai, the burning bush at the foot a salvation song on the other side of the of the mountain now becomes an entire shore (14:4, 14), having passed through on mountain of smoke as God appears before 12 the people in a fiery storm, announcing world to its pre-Edenic state. Genesis to them that he has delivered them from 12:1-3 is thus “the aetiology of all Israelite aetiologies” showing that Egypt and brought them to himself (19:1- “the ultimate purpose of redemp- 4). Here in this statement is an anticipated tion which God will bring about goal of the covenant that God and his in Israel is that of bridging the gulf between God and the entire human 36 people would be together. For the first race.” time in the biblical story, there is a nation encountering the Creator, who cares Now the story has moved to another passionately for them. The little family level: the family has become a nation, of Abraham and Sarah through whom delivered from incredible opposition universal blessing was promised has and oppression, has had the Creator’s now become a great nation whom God heart disclosed to them in the gift of His directly addresses. This encounter at name, and now stands before Him on Sinai will take up the rest of the book of Mount Sinai. Israel is presented with the Exodus, all of the book of Leviticus and a covenant in the following words: good portion of the book of Numbers. In Now, if you truly obey my voice order to see this in perspective, it should and keep my covenant, you will be be noted that in the larger complex of the to me a special treasure out of all the peoples of the earth, because all Torah which comprises the first five books the earth belongs to me. You will be of the Bible, there are sixty-eight chapters to me a kingdom of priests, a holy before Sinai (Genesis 1 – Exodus 18) and nation (19:5-6). fifty-nine chapters after it (Numbers This text stresses that obedience to the 11 – Deuteronomy 34), while the Sinai covenant will lead to a unique relation to context accounts for fifty-eight chapters Yahweh and a unique relation to the rest (Exodus 19 – Numbers 10)! Or to put it in of the nations. On the one hand Israel chronological terms, the narrative before will become Yahweh’s special treasure, Sinai comprises thousands of years, the having a special valued relationship to narrative after Sinai to the border of Yahweh out of all the peoples of the earth. Canaan comprises forty years, while the This word “special treasure” means a Sinai material comprises approximately personal article of movable property with ten months! an immense value. Thus, David donates a While this encounter is absolutely valuable personal treasure to the temple central to the biblical story,34 it is clearly a (1 Chron 29:3). Such a valuable treasure is further development of the covenant with virtually the prerogative of the wealthy— the patriarchs, who were elected not just kings (Ecc. 2:8). Israel will become such a so that they and their families would be treasure to Yahweh—it will become his blessed with a private relationship with very own (cf. Ps 135:4). God but that this blessing might flow If these verbal analogies may help through them to the whole world.35 one explain what this term means, a At the beginning of Israel’s history, conceptual parallel in the general context then, is the fundamental fact that is particularly useful. When the regula- it has been made for the benefit of the world. Israel’s calling is funda- tions for the high priest are made, who mentally missiological, its purpose would represent the people of Israel, he for existence the restoration of the is required to wear a breastplate upon 13 which are twelve gem stones signifying ness but in his readiness to be with 39 the twelve tribes. He had to wear these and for his people” over his heart as a cherished possession then this means that Yahweh is also when he came before God. In a very real committed to the world, and Israel is his sense these precious gems were his “spe- 40 instrument to reach it! cial treasure.” Israel quickly agrees to the covenant, Thus, Israel will be Yahweh’s personal once here and twice when it is ratified treasure taken out of all the peoples of in chapter 24 (19:8; 24:3, 7). This paves the earth “because all the earth belongs the way for the announcement of the to me.” This explanatory clause empha- covenant obligations, the content of the sizes this contrast between Israel and the promised obedience. When Israel is prop- nations and the right of Yahweh to make erly prepared, the divine voice speaks Israel his treasure since he is the owner from Sinai directly in their hearing, again of the whole world. But the text continues a unique occurrence in the larger story of to explain what Yahweh is up to with his the Bible. choice of Israel. Israel is to be a kingdom This revelation emphasizes again the of priests, a holy nation. This concluding divine name. The divine voice begins part makes clear Israel’s special relation- on the note of the indicative and not ship to the rest of the nations. As a priest the imperative, and it is an indicative of represents the people before God and mercy: “I am Yahweh, your God, who then represents God to the people, Israel brought you out from the land of Egypt, is to do the same. Israel is called to be a the house of bondage” (20:1). As Rendtorff community of priests whose congrega- remarks, “Here God’s self presentation is tion is nothing less than the globe. The expanded by a relative clause in which end of the covenant is not Israel’s own God’s fundamental saving act towards salvation but the inclusion of the nations Israel in leading them out of Egypt is effec- since “all the earth belongs to me.”37 The tively a further definition of the name.”41 expression “holy nation” underscores the Yahweh is fundamentally the God who twofold character of Israel: it is set apart is Israel’s God, who responded to their cry to God, and it is visible as such to the and who delivered them from their dis- rest of the world. This word becomes an mal, desperate plight. It is interesting that important leitmotif of the Sinai covenant. this God who brought Israel out of Egypt is But the point should not be lost. It is a the subject of at least six verbs of action in holy life lived in community that will the Exodus narrative, and these key active display God’s name to the world. Israel verbs have to do with strength exercised will essentially be a “shop window” of to rescue his people from forms of death.42 God to the world.38 In fact if the name of Through the imperatives that follow, there Yahweh signifies is the concern that his people be commit- that the God of biblical revelation “is ted to him with absolute single-hearted not like any other. And his strange- loyalty, since he is their God. There is the ness is in this. He is with his people. He is for his people. His goodness concern that they be committed to this is not in his great transcendental truth and not live in a world of illusion power nor in his majestic remote- and fantasy, nor to identify God with his ness nor in his demanding tough- creation but to honor above all his name— 14 his personal reputation. They are to model to them after this. Moses then receives an God in time by alternating activity and additional revelation oftentimes called rest. Their weekly pattern relives God’s the Book of the Covenant (20:22-23:33), primal pattern at the beginning of time, which is an expression of the way the and thus, there is a concern for imitatio previous “ten words” are to be worked Dei. Moreover, their horizontal relation- out in practice in a particular historical ships among each other would be a further community. If the ten words are the legal expression of this imitatio Dei and, thus, an policy, the book is the procedure.43 In the expression of the divine name. Parents, introduction to this book, there is focus who have mediated the Creator’s gift of on proper worship. Even the most pre- blessing in giving human life, should be cious metals, silver and gold, are banned treated with commensurate respect and from representing the divine presence, reverence. Moreover, children, who have and the place where his name is to be received that gift of life, should have invoked cannot be defiled by an instru- that life protected. Those who co-create ment of violence (sword) or the possibility together should have their deep human of sexual immodesty (nakedness) (20:24- bond guarded; respect for persons is to 26). The altar is to be made from rough, generate respect for their property and unhewn stones, and a ramp must be made also their reputation. Finally, this com- instead of a stairway for the approach of munity is to be a community that does the priest, lest he expose himself. not seek to covet, lust, and possess but, by A complete analysis of the laws of implication, to give, respect, and love. the Book of the Covenant is impossible This may be regarded as Israel’s here but two points are worthy of note. national constitution—her Charter of It is not without significance that the first Rights and Freedoms, or her Declaration laws recorded in chapter 21 are intended of Dependence. When these commands to provide relief from slavery.44 The law are worked out in specific applications in of manumission is important because an agrarian community, a fundamental the revelation of the divine name was insight into the divine is shown. In other intended to transform Israelite society. words, although God has no image in It had once been a band of slaves, but heaven and on earth, he wishes to rep- Yahweh had liberated them, and this resent himself through the model of his liberation and redemption was to be insti- people—they image him—this is how tutionalized within their social structure. God is to be known through the world. The importance of this freedom can be The invisible God is to be made visible seen by the fact that a slave who refuses through the actions by a people that are freedom is to have his ear branded. “The “up close and personal” to him. ear which heard at Sinai: ‘You are my The impact of this revelation absolutely servants’ (Lev. 25:42), but nevertheless shocks Israel, as the people have been ter- preferred subjection to men rather than rified since each “word” resounds with God deserves to be pierced.”45 the force of a thunderclap. They cannot But secondly the motivations added to endure the storm created by the divine many of the social laws reveal the values presence in their midst and ask for relief of their covenant Lord. They are to look by having Moses relay the divine words after the stranger because they were 15 once strangers in Egypt and their God then takes the other half, which he has put looked after them—in other words they in bowls, and reads again the stipulations are to “institutionalize the Exodus” and to the people, who then affirm their obedi- make the Exodus event a key part of their ence. At that point, Moses announces that social welfare strategy.46 Refugees must the blood in the bowls is the blood of the not be oppressed because the Israelites covenant that Yahweh has made with the once had the same status in Egypt (23:9). people, and then he sprinkles it over the Widows and orphans are similarly not to people. The covenant is ratified and key be oppressed because God will hear their representatives of Israel bring everything crying out as he heard the crying out of to a climax by ascending the mountain his people under Egyptian oppression where they sit down and dine at a banquet (22:20-23). A garment used as collateral hosted by Yahweh, without any fear. They for a loan must be returned to the debtor are even granted a divine vision. As the at night since, if it is not, he will cry unto blood of the Passover rite protected them God at night and God will hear his cry from danger, the blood of the covenant rite “for I am gracious” (20:25-26). Criminals gives them access to the divine presence must be punished and the innocent vin- without trepidation. The earlier fear has dicated because this is what God does been replaced by ecstatic vision. (23:7). Bribes must not be given since By this rite the entire nation enters into they pervert justice that is against the a covenant with Yahweh and is conse- character of Yahweh (23:8); the sabbatical crated to priestly service. When a formal year will be kept in order that the poor priesthood is later established in Israel, might eat freely during this time, and the the members of the priesthood are conse- Sabbath must be observed for the relief of crated to their office by the sacrifice of an the hired hands and animals (23:11-12). animal and some of its blood is sprinkled These motivations clearly display the on the altar and then on the priest’s right fundamental intent of these laws and ear, right thumb, and right big toe (29:14ff). their ideals. They might be summarized This allows him to be prepared to serve a as based on the divine character: “I am holy God and to mediate the divine pres- gracious,” which is directly related to the ence to the community, without in any name Yahweh, and by implication should way being harmed. The blood on these result in a transformed society by his own body parts indicates a complete cleansing treasured people. and removal of sin, which allows access Chapter 24 presents the ratification to the divine presence.47 of the covenant in a unique rite. Moses Thus, it would seem that this rite is a delivers the stipulations of the Book of bond that unites Israel and God, as the the Covenant to the people and calls blood is sprinkled on the altar and the them to obedience. Now having heard people. They are now united in blood the content of their promise to obey and because of God’s election of them and having Moses as a mediator, the people their pledge of obedience. Israel is now still wholeheartedly agree to obey the consecrated to its role of priesthood for the stipulations. Sacrifices are offered, and nations. It has accepted its task, and now Moses takes half of the blood and spills can experience full fellowship with God it on the altar, which represents God. He as indicated by the communal meal of the 16 elders with God. The pledge of obedience people down below permanently.49 The and the shedding of blood have made this means by which this will take place is now possible. described: the building of a tabernacle. The “blood of the covenant” is implied The purpose of this structure is impos- by the term “to cut a covenant,” which sible to miss. It occurs at the beginning of reflects the origins of a ritual. It probably the description and near the end: means the resulting blood from “cutting” They will make for me a sanctu- apart the bodies of sacrificial animals, ary and I will dwell among them which is then used to bind the two parties (25:8). in a blood oath. In other words, this is a For there I will meet with you to graphic symbol of self-curse in the event speak with you there. I will meet that the covenant is violated. The stipula- with you Israelites there and [the tabernacle] will be sanctified by my tions will be kept—or else!48 glory. I will sanctify the tent of meet- Thus, the second section of the book of ing, the altar and Aaron and his sons Exodus comes to an end on another note for my priesthood. I will dwell in the midst of the Israelites and become of euphoria and elation. Israel has been their God. They will know that I delivered from oppression to be led to am Yahweh their God who brought the mountain of God where they might up from the land of Egypt to make my dwelling in their midst. I am live with him in harmony and shalom Yahweh their God (29:42b-46). under his divine rule. But Israel has now been led to a mountain and has entered As Rendtorff points out, “This is an into a covenant, with a special role to astonishing statement. According to this the nations. The life of obedience to the it is practically the goal of Israel’s being divine rule will display the divine name led out of Egypt that God should dwell in to the nations and mediate the divine the midst of them.”50 The name Yahweh blessing. Unparalleled access to the divine might be now glossed “Immanuel.” presence is given as a sign of ultimate The next six chapters meticulously covenant blessing. Yahweh has been true describe how this will happen as Moses to his name. is given instructions for the building of the tabernacle. The author seems to linger (3) Presence (Exodus 25:1-40:38) lovingly over the description of the taber- These chapters may seem tedious to nacle apparatus, beginning with the sym- read or hear, but they describe in detail bols of the immediate presence of God one of the main goals of the covenant—the first, the ark, and proceeding outwards union of the covenant partners: “they will to the outside of the tabernacle and then be my people, and I will be their God.” the installation of the priesthood, culmi- The nation as a whole is to experience nating with Sabbath legislation. This is union and not just its representatives on done in seven discrete commands, which top of the mountain, and this will be their has not escaped the observation of some distinguishing mark among the nations of scholars. As the world was made in six the world. There is going to be no more days culminating with a seventh day of ascending and descending of the moun- rest, thus the tabernacle is a mini-universe tain to experience the divine presence, but made with six commands and a seventh God is going to take up residence with the stressing the obligation of the Sabbath (Ex. 17 25:1; 30:11, 17, 22, 34; 31:1, 12). 51 Garden of ters them. This vividly depicts the nature Eden imagery is used to denote some of of the crisis—the shattering of the stone the paraphernalia of the tabernacle. Thus, into a myriad of fragments symbolizes the what is at stake in Israel’s tabernacle is a shattering of the covenant. Judgment and model of a new world with God at the covenant renewal follow, but when Moses center, living with his people. ascends the mountain again it is only a When the instructions are completed, 52 partial renewal. Moses has to intercede Moses is handed the two tablets of stone again when Yahweh withholds his pres- representing the heart of the covenant, ence from the people—the people can go to bring to the Israelites and to begin into the land without God, who will send the work of building the tabernacle and his angel with them. Moses pleads with experiencing the divine presence. At this God to change his mind, and the reason moment, on the verge of realizing the again has to do with the nations: Israel is divine intention of the Exodus, Moses not to be like the rest of the nations but hears the unthinkable—the people have its distinctive, its raison d’être, is the divine grown tired of waiting for him receiving presence among the nations of the world. the instructions on the mountain and have What good is a patient without a doctor, a broken the first two commandments. It is spouse without a partner, a priest without as if the tablets have just been freshly chis- God? This is its mark of distinction among eled with the obligations when they have the peoples of the world (33:16). And, as been broken. Or to switch the metaphor, Christopher Wright observes, “And only by if Yahweh and Israel had been married Israel being distinct from the nations was there at Sinai, Israel had committed adultery any purpose in being Israel at all or any hope on the wedding night!53 This is Israel’s for the nations themselves eventually.”55 original sin, and it is, thus, a crisis of bib- Again this crisis is resolved, and Moses lical proportions, almost reminiscent of now “pushes his luck” as he wishes to the ancient flood story where God wiped have a glimpse of the divine glory—the out the population of the earth while essence of the divine character, the heart saving Noah and his family.54 Indeed of the divine name. it seems that God is willing to make of By this time Moses is a lot bolder than Moses a new Noah and to start all over when he first appeared at the burning with him. But Moses will have none of it. bush. There he was afraid to look upon He intercedes for his people on the basis God. Since he has gotten to know some- of the covenant and God’s international thing of the name of God, Yahweh (“I reputation—his name. It is God’s honor— am who I am”), who liberated his people his name—that is at stake among the from Egypt, who made the covenant with nations with Israel’s fate. Consequently, them at Sinai, and with whom he has Moses intercedes successfully, and the successfully interceded for his people, he people are spared. It is this concern for wants to press on to see this God. But all the name of Yahweh that will drive the he is able to get is a view of the “back” narrative in the next two chapters. of God and not a full frontal view, since When Moses descends the mountain, that would result in death. But this view he is carrying the freshly cut tablets of that he receives is absolutely incredible stone. When he sees the idolatry, he shat- and Yahweh’s declaration to him with its 18 verbal repetition is intended as a further oppression. Now they begin the New Year disclosure of the meaning of the divine with the most important reality of all: the name (I am/will be who I am/will be). divine presence. The divine cloud and fire Thus, Moses is told, “I will have mercy on leave the top at Sinai and now descend, whom I will have mercy, and I will be gra- completely filling the new sanctuary, so cious to whom I will be gracious” (33:19). much so that even the great Moses can- While this certainly stresses the divine not enter. Now the relationship begins, freedom, it is the notes of mercy and grace grounded in covenant and divine con- that are highlighted! These are the first descension. The great question remains: two attributes that occur when the divine how can this continue? The answer is to name Yahweh is further disclosed:56 be found in the nature of covenant and in the incredible revelation of the divine Yahweh, Yahweh, God of mercy and grace, patient, full of covenant love name found in chapter 34:5-6. Israel is and faithfulness, who keeps cov- not only bound to this God but is to be a enant love for thousands, who for- witness to the nations of this God. God gives iniquity, rebellion and sin, who will not acquit the guilty and who has moved into their neighborhood, and visits the sins of the fathers upon it will never be the same. their children down to the third and fourth generation (34:5-6). The Ultimate Exodus And if this is just the back of God— The rest of the Old Testament confirms what must the front be like! That is a lin- that truth. The definition of Yahweh’s gering question not completely answered name is that finally God will have his in the text. But when Moses hears the rev- way, despite human disobedience and elation, he again pleads forgiveness, 57 and intractability. And what is that way? the commands are renewed signifying the When the tabernacle is destroyed because complete renewal of the covenant. This of Israelite sin, a temple is built (1 Sam 3-4; time when Moses descends the mountain, 1 Kgs 6). When the temple is destroyed, his face is shining. He is the image of God, he decides to become “flesh and blood not the cheap idols that the Israelites made. and move into the neighborhood” (John And he becomes the means by which the 1:14), and he builds a temple made of flesh people hear the word of God. The crisis and blood from every tribe and people, is now resolved and the tabernacle can inhabited by the Divine Spirit, a temple now be built (35-40). In a spirit of incred- which will someday comprise the entire ible change the people demonstrate their earth (1 Cor 3:16; Eph 2:21).58 And if Moses forgiveness, willingly supplying more saw the back of God on Sinai, he gets a full than enough of the materials required to frontal view on another mountain with build the tabernacle (36:4). When the tent his prophetic accomplice, Elijah (Luke is finished, the New Year begins and the 9:28-36). There they see the face of Jesus new relationship with Yahweh dwelling shining in all of its glory, the glory of the in the people’s midst. Exactly one year only begotten of the Father, full of grace before, Israel was in bondage in Egypt, and truth. And what is Jesus discussing and was liberated from that oppression with these prophets? His exodus (Luke two weeks later. And it was not long after 9:31)!59 He goes down to “Egypt” and that they were liberated from spiritual suffers oppression, completely submit- 19 ting to the penalty of sin and death and, ment. The old biblical theology move- thus, paving the way for the Exodus of ment may have erred in this direction all peoples into the glorious liberty of but the point still remains valid. There the children of God! This firstborn son’s are fundamental differences between blood is not spared but becomes the blood Israel and the nations, which make Israel of the covenant sprinkled on the nations seem like an alien at times. See, e.g., Peter not as self-curse, but as a balm of cleans- Gentry’s article in this edition of SBJT ing, renewal, and forgiveness, binding in which he observes that the first four them to him forever. Therefore, God has commandments are “absolutely unique” highly exalted him and given him that in the ancient world. For older classic name which is above every name (Phil biblical theology studies see, e.g., George 2:9-11)—that name which to know is to Ernest Wright, The Old Testament against know God’s purpose for the world from Its Environment (London: SCM, 1960). For beginning to end!60 a modern popularization see Thomas Cahill, The Gifts of the Jews: How a Tribe Endnote) of Desert Nomads Changed the Way Every- 1Brevard S. Childs, The Book of Exodus: A one Thinks and Feels (New York: Anchor Critical Theological Commentary (Philadel- Books/Nan A Talese, 1999). phia: Westminster, 1974), 119. 9Cf. Lev 26:11: “I’ll set up my residence 2R. Watts, “Exodus,” in New Dictionary of in your neighborhood; I won’t avoid or Biblical Theology (ed. D. Alexander and B. shun you; I’ll stroll through your streets. Rosner; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, I’ll be your God; you’ll be my people. I 2000), 478. am God, your personal God who res- 3Rolf Rendtorff, The Canonical Hebrew cued you from Egypt so that you would Bible: A Theology of the Old Testament no longer be slaves to the Egyptians. I (trans. David E. Orton; Leiden: Deo ripped off the harness of your slavery Publishing, 2006), 47. so that you can move about freely” (The 4Note the repeated use of the word “to go Message). down” in these chapters: 37:25; 39:1 (2x); 10Ps 78:60: “the tent he established among 42:2-3, 38; 43:4, 5, 7, 11. humanity!” Note also: “[The tabernacle] 5For the order and hermeneutical sig- constitutes a change in the way God is nificance of the Hebrew order of the present among them—ongoing rather biblical books see Stephen G. Dempster, than occasional; close not distant; on Dominion and Dynasty: A Biblical Theol- the move, not fixed.... No longer are ogy of the Hebrew Bible (New Studies in the people—or their mediator asked to Biblical Theology 15; Downers Grove, IL: come up to God; God ‘comes down’ to InterVarsity, 2003). them. No more trips up the mountain 6See D. Daube, The Exodus Pattern in the for Moses! God begins a ‘descent’ that Bible (London: Faber and Faber, 1963). John 1:14 claims comes to a climax in 7On these passages and others see Watts, the Incarnation” (Bruce C. Birch et al., “Exodus,” 484. A Theological Introduction To The Old 8Sometimes this claim is made in absolute Testament [2d ed.; Nashville: Abingdon, terms as if Israel had no point of contact 2005]), 133-35. with its cultural and religious environ- 11Childs, Exodus, 119. 20 12Note both the continuity and con- 18For further reading see Enrique their defiance of tyranny and their trast in the expression, “You heard Dussel, “Exodus as a Paradigm in upholding of moral principles” that it was said.... But I say unto you” Liberation Theology,” Concilium 189, (Nahum M. Sarna, Exploring Exodus: (5:21-22, 27-28, 33-34, 38-39, 43-44). no. 1 (1987): 83-92; Josiah Young, The Origins of Biblical Israel [New 13Cf. Stephen G. Dempster, “LORD,” “Exodus as a Paradigm for Black York: Schocken, 1996], 25). in Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus Theology,” Concilium 189, no. 1 22See the function of the Hebrew (ed. Craig A. Evans; New York: (1987): 93-99; Diane Bergant, “Exo- conjunction waw, particularly when Routledge, 2007), 375-80. dus as a Paradigm in Feminist The- it appears at the beginning of bibli- 14For further examples see conve- ology,” Concilium 189, no. 1 (1987): cal books. Stephen G. Dempster, niently Peter Enns, “Exodus/New 100-06. “Linguistic Features of Hebrew Exodus,” in Dictionary for Theological 19On the problems with a simple Narrative: A Discourse Analysis Interpretation of the Bible (ed. Kevin devotional reading in general see of Narrative from the Classical J. Vanhoozer; Grand Rapids: Baker, N. T. Wright, The Last Word: Scripture Period” (Ph.D. diss., University of 2005), 216-18. and the Authority of God—Getting Toronto, 1985). 15See, e.g., Bernard W. Anderson, Beyond the Bible Wars (San Francisco: 23For a profound understanding of Understanding the Old Testament (4th HarperSanFrancisco, 2006), 32-34. the Jacob story, as the record of ed.; Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-hall, 20Philip R. Davies, In Search of Ancient someone who emerged “broken Inc., 1986). See also the sampling of Israel (Journal for the Study of Old and blessed” in a struggle with Old Testament theologies in Elmer Testament Supplement Series 148; God, which ended in “a magnificent A. Martens, Ben C. Ollenburger, and Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1995); defeat” see, Frederick Buechner, The Gerhard Hasel, eds., The Flowering Thomas L. Thompson, Early History Magnificent Defeat (San Francisco: of Old Testament Theology: A Reader of the Israelite People: From the Writ- HarperOne, 1985), 10-18. in Twentieth-Century Old Testament ten & Archaeological Sources (Leiden: 24I owe this thematic structure to Theology, 1930-1990, (Winona Lake: Brill, 2000). G. Michael Hagan, “Theology of Eisenbrauns, 1991). 21“What is remarkable is that the Exodus,” in Evangelical Dictionary of 16James Barr, “The Meaning of names of these lowly women are Biblical Theology (ed. Walter Elwell; Mythology in Relation to the Old recorded whereas, by contrast, the Grand Rapids: Baker, 1996), 226-29. Testament,” Vetus Testamentum 9 all-powerful reigning monarch is Hagan, however, divides the text (1959): 1-10. consistently veiled in anonymity. differently. 17One author that repeatedly points In this way the biblical narrator 25Childs, Exodus, 119. out the importance of this truth is expresses his scale of values. All 26For the entire story see 2:1-10. For John Sailhamer. See, e.g., his work on the power of the mighty pharaoh, Moses’ experience being recapitu- the Pentateuch: John H. Sailhamer, the outward magnificence of his lated in the experience of the people The Pentateuch as Narrative, (Grand realm, the dazzling splendor of his of Israel see Everett Fox, The Five Rapids: Zondervan, 1995). Note also court, his colossal monuments—all Books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Levit- the powerful way this is presented are illusory, ephemeral, and in the icus, Numbers, Deuteronomy (1st ed.; in Christopher Wright’s superb ultimate reckoning, insignificant, New York: Schocken, 2000), 253. new book. He describes the Bible and they must crumble into dust 27The vexed question of how this can as “the universal story that gives a because they rest on foundations of be so, since the name Yahweh has place in the sun to all the little sto- empty moral content. Seven times been used frequently in Genesis, ries”: Christopher J. H. Wright, The in this brief episode the term ‘mid- has driven scholars to various solu- Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s wife’ is repeated, an index of the tions. The most common one has Grand Narrative (Downers Grove, IL: importance that Scripture places been the so-called source theory of InterVarsity, 2006), 47. upon the actions of the women in the Pentateuch in which Exod 6:3 21 represents the P narrative in which covenant within the context of the 212. Wright points out a chiastic this is the first time the name is Abrahamic covenant” (Terence E. relationship in the structure with used. Thus, this is true for P but Fretheim, Exodus [Louisville, KY: the focus on the nations at the cen- not for J (cf. Gen 4:26). However, Westminster John Knox, 1991], 209 ter of the chiasm. See Wright, The most modern scholars strive for an [emphasis in original]). Mission of God, 255. The text is prob- integrated reading of the text and 36Dempster, Dominion and Dynasty, ably more naturally understood suggest that this is the first time the 73. The quotation within the quote as an explanatory clause attached real meaning of the name has been is that of Gerhard von Rad, The to the end of verse 5. For a list of disclosed to the Israelites. For an Problem of the Hexateuch and Other possible readings see the recent, in depth treatment of the problem Essays (Edinburgh: Oliver and superb study by John A. Davies, A see R. W. L. Moberly, The Old Testa- Boyd, 1966), 65. For a complete mis- Royal Priesthood: Literary and Tex- ment of the Old Testament: Patriarchal understanding of election as “the tual Perspectives on an Image of Israel Narratives and Mosaic Yahwism (Min- ultimate anti-humanistic idea,” see in Exodus 19:6 (New York: T. & T. neapolis: Fortress, 1992) 5-78. Jeremy Cott, “The Biblical Problem Clark, 2005), 54-60. Davies himself 28For a profound theology of the of Election,” Journal of Ecumenical does not believe that the mission Old Testament that expands on Studies 21 (1984): 224. For a response to the nations is emphasized in the themes found in 5:22-6:8, see to this view, which is virtually a the immediate context. Priesthood Elmer A. Martens, God’s Design: A concession, see John J. Collins, The simply implies access to the divine Focus on Old Testament Theology (3d Bible after Babel: Historical Criticism presence, a fact that is confirmed ed.; N. Richland Hills, TX: D. & F. in a Postmodern Age (Grand Rapids: in 24:9-11. While this is no doubt Scott, 1997). Eerdmans, 2005), 53-74. true, the larger narrative context, 29For the classic study on this formula, 37Blessing and salvation are not which implies a divine mission to see Walther Zimmerli, I Am Yahweh just primarily to Israel but through the world for Israel (Gen 12:1-3) as (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Israel (cf. Ps 67). This statement was well as the general understanding Knox, 1982) 1-28. inspired by N. T. Wright in a public of priests as representatives, would 30Translations are the author’s, unless lecture when he remarked, “Salva- seem to imply mission. As the otherwise indicated. tion is not to the church but through priests within Israel represented 31On the phrase “the education of Pha- the church.” Israel, so Israel as a collective priest- raoh” and the following section I am 38“The whole history of Israel ... is hood represented the nations. As greatly indebted to Christopher J. intended to be the shop window the priest would bless the people H. Wright, The Mission of God, 93-94. for the knowledge of God in all and place the divine name upon Wright describes the following texts the earth” (Wright, The Mission of them, so Israel was to bless the and others as “the curriculum of God, 127). nations and invest them with the Pharaoh’s education.” 39Brueggeman as cited in Charles H. divine name (Psalm 67). 32Fox, The Five Books of Moses, 312. H. Scobie, The Ways of Our God: An 41Rendtorff, The Canonical Hebrew This would be like inserting Paul’s Approach to Biblical Theology (Grand Bible, 596 (emphasis added). instructions for the Eucharist (1 Cor Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 110. 42Walter Brueggemann, Theology 11:17-34) into the Last Supper narra- 40Some scholars would construe the Of The Old Testament: Testimony, tive in the Gospels. last part of Exod 19:5 with verse Dispute, Advocacy (Minneapolis: 33See n. 26 above. 6: “Because all the earth is mine, Fortress, 2005) 173-76. 34See in particular the insightful so you shall be to me a kingdom 43George Mendenhall, “Ancient Ori- essay by Peter Gentry in this edi- of priests and a holy nation.” This ental and Biblical Law,” The Biblical tion of SBJT. stresses Israel’s universal mission Archaeologist 17, no. 2 (1954): 26-46. 35“The covenant at Sinai is a specific even more. See Fretheim, Exodus, 44Mendenhall, “Biblical Law.” 22 45Tosephta, Baba Kamma VII, 5. Cited 17; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, in Childs, Exodus, 469. 2004). 46“[R]eference to the Exodus suggests 52The following description is based that the theological intention of the on Exodus 32-34. Ten Commandments is to institu- 53R. W. L. Moberly, “Exodus, Book of,” tionalize the Exodus: to establish in Dictionary for Theological Inter- perspectives, procedures, policies pretation (ed. Kevin J. Vanhoozer; and institutions that will generate Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), 214. Exodus-like social relationships.... 54R. W. L. Moberly, At the Mountain [These are] policies to create a soci- of God: Story and Theology in Exodus ety that practices Yahweh’s justice 32-34 (Journal for the Study of the and not pharaoh’s injustice, and Old Testament Supplement Series to establish neighborly well-being 22; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, instead of coercion, fear and exploi- 1983). tation.” (Brueggemann, Theology Of 55Wright, The Mission of God, 335 The Old Testament, 184). (emphasis in original). 47A similar rite occurs in the cleans- 56And, thus, these first two quali- ing of a leper (Lev 14:14, 25). When ties in Exod 34:5 are in chiastic a leper is deemed clean by the relationship with the two qualities priest, the blood from a sacrifice is mentioned in 33:19. daubed on his ear, thumb, and toe, 57Thus showing that he does not take thus indicating complete cleansing forgiveness for granted. The last from the impurity of the disease. part of the description of Yahweh’s The leper can now enter the com- attributes shows that this should munity once again and be returned never happen. Grace can never to the full privileges of a member of imply license! Grace is always the community, including of course costly. The revelation of the New fellowship and worship. Testament shows in fact how costly 48E. Kutsch, “krt to cut off,” in Theo- it can be. logical Lexicon of the Old Testament 58See further Beale, The Temple and the (ed. Ernst Jenni and Claus West- Church’s Mission, 201-68. ermann; trans. Mark E. Biddle; 3 59Note that the Greek word used for vols.; Hendrickson: Peabody, MA), departure is e ;xo d o n. 2:635 -37. 60Childs, Exodus, 119. On the sig- 49Birch, Theological Introduction, 133- nificance of the title LORD and its 35. relation to the name Yahweh, see 50Rendtorff, Canonical Hebrew Bible, Dempster, “LORD,” 375-80. 65. 51For a complete development of these thoughts see the comprehensive work by G. K. Beale, The Temple and the Church’s Mission: A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God, New Studies in Biblical Theology 23 Exodus 34, the Middoth and the Doctrine of God: The Importance of Biblical Theology to Evangelical Systematic Theology Graham A. Cole

Graham A. Cole is Professor of Introduction Just as old or bleary eyed men and Biblical and Systematic Theology at We were created to worship the living those with weak vision, if you thrust Trinity Evangelical Divinity School. Prior before them a most beautiful vol- God. According to Jesus, the Father seeks ume, even if they recognize it to be to joining the TEDS faculty, Dr. Cole such worship (John 4:23). There is no some sort of writing, yet can scarcely construe two words, but with the was for ten years principal of Ridley higher calling. Indeed, it is a firm biblical aid of spectacles will begin to read College, University of Melbourne, Aus- principle that we become in character like distinctly; so Scripture, gathering up tralia, where he lectured in philosophy, the object of our worship. However, in a the otherwise confused knowledge systematic theology, ethics, and apolo- of God in our minds, having dis- fallen world, this calling can be distorted. persed our dullness, clearly shows getics. He has contributed numerous The key is the nature of the God or gods us the true God. This, therefore, is a articles to books and periodicals. Dr. we adore. If we worship the living God special gift, where God, to instruct Cole is the author of He Who Gives the church, not merely uses mute of biblical revelation then we will image teachers but also opens his own Life: The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit him. If we worship idols we will image most hallowed lips. Not only does (Crossway, 2007) and Engaging with them: “Those who make them become he teach the elect to look upon a god, but also shows himself as the God the Holy Spirit: Real Questions, Practical 2 like them; so do all who trust in them” upon whom they are to look. Answers (Crossway, 2008). (Ps 115:8). A. W. Tozer wrote in his work on the attributes of God, In Old Testament times, that coming into focus in general terms is nowhere more What comes into our minds when we think about God is the most evident than in the theophany on Sinai important thing about us.... The his- as described in the book of Exodus. In tory of mankind will probably show particular, it is Exodus 34, which espe- that no people has ever risen above its religion, and man’s spiritual his- cially brings the living God into sharper tory will positively demonstrate that relief—albeit not in such a way as to leave no religion has ever been greater 3 1 mystery behind. After all, Moses will than its idea of God. only be able to see God’s back. The face of Tozer saw the importance of a right char- God must not be seen (Exod 33:23). acterization of God and he knew also that Judaism has long recognized Exo- the Scriptures are the key, because the dus 34—in particular the revelation of Scriptures are nothing less than God’s the divine name in Exod 34:6-7 and its self-revelation. presentation of the so called “Thirteen To use John Calvin’s classic image, the Attributes”—as the nearest thing to a Scriptures are like glasses that bring God systematic statement of the being and 4 into focus. Calvin argued, attributes of God in the Hebrew Bible. According to Benno Jacob, “They have 24 been a leitmotif of the Jewish penitential Paul Helm rightly maintains, “Calvin’s prayers since that time and form the foun- comments in the Institutes on this pas- dation of the countless s’li-hot composed sage constitute a fundamental locus of his 8 through centuries. The repentant people exposition of the divine nature.” of Israel have used these thoughts to plead My brief then is to explore a pivotal to HIM with complete contrition, ardor, part of the theophany on Sinai—namely, and zeal.”5 How exactly thirteen attributes Exod 34:6-7—and its implications for con- or middôth (“measures”) are derived con- structing an evangelical doctrine of God.9 vincingly from Exod 34:6-7 requires quite To do so, I will first examine what it is to a feat of exegetical imagination.6 develop our doctrine of God evangeli- A great theologian of the Reformation cally; next, consider Exod 34:5-8 in par- period who recognized the importance ticular in context; then relate the passage of the middôth was John Calvin. In his to the discussions of the doctrine of God Institutes of the Christian Religion he argues in some standard evangelical systematic that “the attributes of God according to theologies (Erickson and Grudem) and to Scripture agree with those known in his the discipline of Biblical Theology.10 Pen- creatures”—in other words, communi- ultimate, I will argue for the importance cable attributes—and chooses Exod 34:6-7 of the discipline of Biblical Theology and to do so. He writes, finally offer a summation. One final introductory note: for the Indeed, in certain passages clearer descriptions are set forth for us, purposes of this exploration from this wherein his true appearance is point on I will use the term middôth to exhibited, to be seen as in an image. refer to the set of descriptors of God found For when Moses described the image, he obviously meant to tell in Exod 34:6-7. briefly whatever was right for men to know about him. “Jehovah,” he says, “Jehovah, a merciful and Developing The Doctrine of God gracious God, patient and of much Evangelically compassion, and true, who keepest In my first year of theological college, I mercy for thousands, who takest away iniquity and transgression remember meeting an evangelical friend … in whose presence the innocent who was studying at another place. To will not be innocent, who visitest be ordained in his denomination he had the iniquity of the fathers upon the children and the children’s chil- no choice but to do so. His seminary was dren.” Here let us observe that his liberal, mine evangelical. He lamented eternity and his self-existence are that he had just completed a semester announced by that wonderful name twice repeated. Thereupon his pow- course on the doctrine of God. The Bible ers are mentioned, by which he is was not opened once, but Paul Tillich’s shown to us not as he is in himself, first volume of systematic theology but as he is toward us: so that this recognition of him consists more in was opened constantly. His experience living experience than in vain and contrasted starkly with my own. In my highflown speculation. Now we hear the same powers enumerated college, Scripture was foundational and there that we have noted as shin- normative. ing in heaven and earth: kindness, For the evangelical, his or her doctrine goodness, mercy, justice, judgment, and truth. For power and might are of Scripture flows out of submission to the 7 contained under the title Elohim. lordship of Christ. Christology and bibli- 25 ology are inextricably linked. How can the do operate in doing theology—tradition, disciple have a different view of Scripture reason, and experience—but they are to that of the Master? Jesus’ own view of subservient to Scripture as normed norms Scripture is clearly portrayed in his debate (norma normata). This is the heart of the with the Sadducees over the resurrection Reformers’ view of sola Scriptura—not (Matt 22:23-33). They tested him with a that Scripture is the only norm operat- conundrum about a woman who lost hus- ing, but in any clash between authorities band after husband. Whose wife would Scripture is the final court of appeal.12 If she be in the resurrection? Jesus’ response a doctrine is in any way textless it ought is definitive. The Sadducees had erred to be unconvincing. formally and materially. Formally, they What, then, does Exodus 34 have to say were showing their ignorance of Scripture to us normatively about God? in doing theology, and, materially, there was a specific Scripture in the canon they God Proclaims His Name: embraced that undermined the premise Exodus 34:5-8 of their argument. They denied the resur- Let’s begin with the background to the rection, but the text from Exod 3:6 which passage. By the time the reader reaches Jesus quotes—“I am (egō eimi) the God of Exodus 34 much has already been encoun- Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God tered in the narrative. God has heard the of Jacob”—presupposes life after death in cries of his oppressed people and rescued relation to God (Matt 22:32). Jesus argues them from Pharaoh through his covenant from this text that “He is not the God of agent Moses (Exodus 1-15). His grumbling the dead, but of the living” (Matt 22:32). people have made their way to Sinai. On Instructively, in contrast to the pluralism the way the Lord has met their survival of our day, the Jesus of the canonical Gos- needs. He has provided water, manna, pels thought that there could be truth or and quail (Exodus 15-17). Moreover, the error in theology. Lord has gone victoriously to war again If the incarnate Master lives by every for them against the Amelakites (Exodus word that proceeds out of the mouth of 17). Jethro’s visit has led to a redistribution God, so too ought the disciple. Conse- of Moses’s workload as judge (Exodus 18). quently an evangelical way of doing the- At Sinai the people have been awed by the ology is predicated upon a high view of dramatic theophany (Exodus 19). The Ten Scripture. By “evangelical” in this context Commandments have been announced I mean, therefore, the epistemic claim that to Israel (Exodus 20). After the revelation the doctrine of God ought to be based on of this apodictic law has come that of this high view of the Scriptures as the casuistic law (Exodus 21-23). The covenant infallible (will not mislead) and inerrant has been confirmed (Exodus 24). Moses (teaches no error) Word of God—albeit has gone up the mountain into the cloud in human words (more anon.).11 And, forty days and nights during which time with this claim, there is a further one the details of the tabernacle have been that Scripture as special revelation is revealed to him (Exodus 25-31). How- normative for Christian belief, values, and ever, during this time Israel has become practices. Scripture constitutes the norm impatient with Moses’ absence. They have of norms (norma normans). Other norms prevailed upon Aaron to provide tangible 26 gods to worship, and so, while Moses was is filled by what he does (Ex. 3:14), and on the mountain receiving the Torah on Israel experiences God’s identity through the tablets of stone from God, Israel below revelation and not by clever discovery.”14 was making and worshipping an idol Now having journeyed to Sinai, Moses (Exodus 32). R. W. L. Moberly comments, wanted to know more. As Maimonides “Israel’s impatient making of the golden suggests, “The phrasing ‘Shew me now calf is presented as, in effect, a breaking thy ways and I shall know thee’ indicates of the first of the two commandments, that God is known by His attributes: if and while Israel is still at the mountain of one knows the WAYS one knows Him.”15 God; it is rather like committing adultery Moses has asked the Lord to show him his on one’s wedding night.”13 Angered by glory (Exod 33:18). The divine response is their folly, the Lord has declared that he instructive, would start afresh with only Moses and And he said, “I will make all my his family. But Moses has interceded on goodness pass before you and will Israel’s behalf with considerable chutz- proclaim before you my name ‘The pah. The Lord then has judged rebellious Lord.’ And I will be gracious to whom I will be gracious, and will Israel with a plague (Exodus 32). However, show mercy on whom I will show 16 he also has answered Moses’ plea that he mercy” (Exod 33:19-20). persevere with Israel (Exodus 32). Moses wanted glory. He wanted to see Just before our key passage, we find in the majesty of God. Instead God gave Exodus 33 that Moses has met with God 17 him goodness. God’s glory lies in his outside the camp in the tent of meeting. goodness, not his might, and that good- The Lord had in effect withdrawn his ness is seen expressed in sovereign grace presence from his people and declared and mercy. that he would not go with Israel to the We now turn to our key passage.18 land flowing with milk and honey. Moses, At divine behest, Moses chisels out two again with considerable chutzpah, has stone tablets. YHWH will write afresh reminded YHWH that Israel is his people. the Ten Commandments on them once The Lord has promised that his presence Moses returns to the top of the mountain. would go with them (Exod 33:17), but What happens next is one of the singular only after Moses has argued for it (Exod revelatory moments in the canonical 33:15-16). At first the Lord promised only presentation. to go with Moses and give Moses rest (Exod 33:14). The Lord descended in the cloud Moses has wanted to know more and stood with him there, and pro- claimed the name of the Lord. The deeply the God who had first revealed Lord passed before him and pro- his name to him at the burning bush claimed, “The Lord, the Lord, a God (cf. Exodus 3 and 33:13). YHWH identi- merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and fied himself there as “I am Who I am” faithfulness, keeping steadfast love or “I will be what I will be” (Exod 3:14). for thousands, forgiving iniquity According to Brevard Childs, God is and transgression and sin, but who will by no means clear the guilty, saying that the subsequent events of visiting the iniquity of the fathers history will pour content into the name. on the children and the children’s children, to the third and the fourth He maintains, “The content of his name generation” (Exod 34:5-7). 27 The only appropriate response to such a sis on God’s deep appreciation revelation of the divine nature is the one and understanding of the mis- ery and suffering of the creation 19 Moses adopts: “And Moses quickly bowed including man.” For example, his head toward the earth and worshiped” YHWH accedes to Moses’ plea (Exod 34:8). This is the protocol one adopts (Exod 32:12b-14). • The Lord is gracious (ḥannûn). in the presence of overwhelming great- For example, earlier in the Torah ness, indeed goodness. his graciousness is exhibited in the gift of family and prosper- Significantly Moses does more than ity that he gave to Jacob (Gen simply acknowledge the Lord in worship. 33:5, 11). He is quick to turn the self-revelation of • The Lord is a slow to anger. He is patient towards even the God into the platform for prayer to God. grumbling. Laney captures the He wants further reassurance that the idea well: “It is as if He takes a Lord will truly go with Israel. Prayer is long deep breath as He deals with sin and holds His anger 20 no leap in the dark but a response to the in abeyance.” For example, God who has declared what he is truly the divine patience with Israel like. Israel has sinned and had proven to on its grumbling way to Sinai (Exod 15:22-17:7) be a stiff necked people (Exod 33:3). And • The Lord abounds in steadfast without the divine presence, Israel is at love (ḥéseḏ) and faithfulness (ĕmeṯ). His love is persistent risk as it journeys to the land of promise. because it is grounded in his The Lord had just declared himself to be a covenant loyalty. It is no passing gracious and forgiving God, and so Moses fancy. The Lord also abounds in faithfulness. His Word is to prays: “If now I have found favor in your be relied upon. For example, he sight, O Lord, please let the Lord go in the honors his promise to Abraham midst of us, for it is a stiff-necked people, and remembers—that is to say, acts on—his covenant obliga- and pardon our iniquity and our sin, tions (Exod 2:23-25; 32:12b- 21 and take us for your inheritance” (Exod 14). 34:9). Moses in effect, echoes the middôth • The Lord is forgiving. He is pre- pared to forgive iniquity, trans- at numerous points in idea and language: gression, and sin. This cluster, “favor,” “pardon,” “iniquity,” and “sin.” which appears elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible, covers the three This is a feature of the biblical practice of core sins of humanity outside prayer. What God reveals about his might of Eden (e.g., see Ps 51:1-2; Dan 22 and character, whether in words, or by 9:24). • The Lord by no means clears the deeds of creation, or deeds of redemption guilty. God’s forgiving character 23 are turned into the grounds for praise or is not to be presumed upon. petition by the supplicant. Unrepentant sin will not go unpunished. Walter Kaiser The divine name has been proclaimed. comments, “But his grace is bal- Moses has responded fittingly, as he anced, for ‘he does not leave the should. The question remains, however, guilty unpunished.’ The other side of our merciful and loving as to precisely what YHWH has declared God is his justice and righteous- ness. Woe to them who reject about his own nature. A brief adumbra- 24 God’s grace!” tion will need to suffice: • The Lord visits the iniquity of one generation on the next. Sin • The Lord is merciful (“compas- has consequences. To go against sionate,” NIV). Pierre Berthoud the moral grain of the universe offers this nuanced comment: has repercussions. As Wayne “The term raḥûm lays the empha- 28 Grudem suggests in his note since Erickson argues that constancy on the passage, “This statement shows itself in these terms: “Thus, God is shows the horrible nature of sin in the way it has effects far ever faithful to his covenant with Abra- beyond the individual sinner, ham, for example.” And again, “What we also harming those around the are dealing with here [in this section] is sinner and harming future gen- 25 erations as well.” For example, the dependability of God. He will be the think of the troubles in David’s same tomorrow as he is today. He will act house after his sin with Bath- as he has promised.”30 This sounds more sheba, which included the death of the baby and arguably a like a moral attribute than a natural one. factor in Ahithophel’s revolt Immutability would have been a better against David. Ahithophel was Bathsheba’s grandfather and the descriptor. baby’s great-grandfather (cf. 2 Next, Erickson in a separate chapter Sam 12:14-18 and 2 Sam 16-17). deals with the attributes of goodness (akin to God’s moral attributes). These Exodus 34:6-7 and Systematic include moral purity, integrity and love.31 Theology A subset of God’s love is God’s grace. In Both Millard J. Erickson’s Christian this part of the discussion is one of his Theology and Wayne Grudem’s Systematic two references to Exodus 34 in the entire Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doc- work.32 It figures in a comparison with trine are widely used texts by evangelicals Paul’s claim in Eph 1:5-8 concerning God’s and rightly so.26 How do these respected grace. Both Exod 34:6 and Eph 1:5-8 speak theologians discuss the doctrine of God of the grace of God. Therefore, that ancient and what role, if any, do the middôth of heretic Marcion, for example, was wrong Exod 34:6-7 play in their presentations? to pitch one testament against the other. Erickson devotes part three of his work On the very next page, in discussing God’s to the topic of “What God Is Like.”27 In this persistence, Erickson again refers to Exod part he canvases the attributes of God. He 34:6, as a reference to the divine love: God makes the excellent point from the start is slow to anger.33 The middôth per se are that “[t}he doctrine of God is the central not in view. point of the rest of theology. One’s view Like Erickson, in his discussion of the of God might even be thought of as sup- doctrine of God, Grudem divides the attri- plying the whole framework within which butes of God into two classes. He rightly one’s theology is constructed and life is observes, “When we come to talk about lived.”28 He offers a modification—at least the character of God, we realize that we in terminology—of one of the traditional cannot say everything the Bible teaches ways of dividing the attributes of God. us about God’s character at once. We need Instead of discussing the natural and some way to decide which aspect of God’s moral attributes of God he delineates the character to discuss first, which aspect to “attributes of greatness” and the “attri- discuss second, and so forth.”34 Unlike butes of goodness.” Erickson, Grudem works with the widely First, Erickson discusses the attributes accepted dichotomy of incommunicable of greatness (akin to God’s natural attri- and communicable attributes. butes). These include spirituality, person- Grudem first deals with the incom- ality, life, infinity and constancy.29 The last municable attributes. These are attributes of these is somewhat question begging 29 that indicate how God is different from us. of the Bible’s overarching narrative 39 These include independence, unchange- and Christocentric focus. ableness, eternity, omnipresence, and In the light of Rosner’s definition, how unity. 35 There is one curious feature of is Exod 34:6-7 to be placed in “the Bible’s his discussion. He argues, “Not one of the overarching narrative”? incommunicable attributes of God is com- Canonically speaking, our passage pletely without some likeness in the char- is located within the framework of the acter of human beings.”36 Independence promise to Abraham and the covenant (aseity), however, is surely an attribute that God made with the patriarch (Gen that is uniquely God’s own by definition. 12:1-3; 15:1-21). It is on the basis of this God’s existence depends on nothing covenant that God acts to rescue Israel outside of God. Thus, for example, the from Egyptian bondage (Exod 2:23-24). Christian doctrine of creation ex nihilo is Furthermore, he identifies himself to an act of generosity not necessity. Moses as the God of Abraham, the God of In two further chapters, Grudem Isaac, and the God of Jacob (Exod 3:6). The expounds the communicable attributes of Mosaic covenant in fact nestles within the God. These indicate how God is like us in more fundamental Abrahamic one. The his being, in mental and moral attributes, Abrahamic covenant is unconditional, in will and excellence. They include attri- whereas the Mosaic one is conditional. butes describing God’s being (spiritual- The Abrahamic covenant is royal grant- ity and invisibility), mental attributes like, whereas the Mosaic one is suzerainty (knowledge, wisdom, and truthfulness), treaty like.40 moral attributes (goodness, love, mercy, With regard to Exod 34:6-7, each of the holiness, peace, righteousness, jealousy, middôth either has an earlier Old Testa- and wrath), attributes of purpose (will, ment story behind it—either found in freedom, and omnipotence), and sum- Genesis or Exodus—or is illustrated by mary attributes (perfection, blessedness, a later Old Testament story or passage.41 beauty, and glory).37 In chapter 12 Grudem Laney expresses the point admirably: has his only reference to the middôth of Exod 34:6-7: the Scripture memory pas- The importance of Exodus 34:6-7 as sage.38 Otherwise the middôth per se plays a foundation for biblical theology is evidenced by the fact that this no role in his doctrine of God. statement is repeated many times in the Old Testament (Num. 14:18; Neh. 9:17; Pss. 103:8, 17; 145:8; Jer. Exodus 34:6-7 and Biblical 32:18-19; Joel 2:13; Jon. 4:2). Echoes Theology of this self-revelation also appear In the New Dictionary of Biblical Theol- in Deuteronomy 5:9-10; 1 Kings 3:6; Lamentations 3:32; Daniel 9:4; ogy, Brian S. Rosner’s provides a first rate and Nahum 1:3. The biblical writ- definition of Biblical Theology: ers clearly regarded Exodus 34:6-7 as a foundational statement about 42 To sum up, biblical theology may be God. defined as theological interpretation of Scripture in and for the church. It He also rightly observes, “Strangely, proceeds with historical and literary sensitivity and seeks to analyze and this great passage has received little synthesize the Bible’s teaching about attention from systematic theologians God and his relations to the world and I might add and neither has the way on its own terms, maintaining sight 30 it ramifies through the rest of the Old Has Jonah, as a prophet much later than Testament canon.”43 Moses, expanded the list in the light of Space limitations forbid an extended God’s dealings with Israel post Sinai? Joel examination of each of the anticipations likewise extends the list (Joel 2:13).44 or repetitions of the middôth or its echoes. Thus far we have explored how Exod However, one later canonical restatement 34:6-7 informs the Old Testament. How- of the middôth will usefully serve as a ever, the exploration cannot end there. more extended case in point: namely, As Rosner avers, Biblical Theology has the book of Jonah. Jonah is particularly a “Christocentric focus.” And so to the interesting because, like Joel, there is an luminous figure of Christ we must turn. important addition to the list. By “the luminous figure of Christ” I don’t Whenever I lecture on the doctrine of mean as critically reconstructed or decon- God and refer to Jonah‘s knowledge of structed by a certain kind of scholarship, the middôth, I ask the class how many of but to the Christ as canonically presented them have heard a sermon on the book or to the “Jesus of Testimony” to use that explains Jonah’s flight to Tarshish as Richard Bauckham’s helpful phrase, and motivated by fear of the Ninevites. Typi- to “the theophanic character of the history cally a goodly number have. The applica- of Jesus.”45 tion is about our need to heed the call of The Gospel of John reveals that in the God and not be afraid of the opposition. new era theophany gives way to Chris- But exegesis shows that the meaning lies tophany. The God who cannot be seen elsewhere. Jonah’s problem was that he is definitively “exegeted” by the Word knew all too well the revealed character become flesh, Jesus Christ, the Son (cf. of God. He knew the middôth as the fol- John 1:18; 5:37; and 14:5-9). But Christo- lowing passage shows: phany does not leave the middôth behind, but rather embodies them. The Prologue When God saw what they did, how they turned from their evil way, God of John is a good example. As Andreas relented of the disaster that he had J. Köstenberger correctly contends, “The said he would do to them, and he reference in 1:14 to Jesus taking up resi- did not do it. But it displeased Jonah exceedingly, and he was angry. And dence among God’s people resulting in he prayed to the Lord and said, “O the revelation of God’s glory … also harks Lord, is not this what I said when I back to OT references to the manifestation was yet in my country? That is why I made haste to flee to Tarshish; of the presence and glory (kābōd) of God, for I knew that you are a gracious be it theophanies, the tabernacles, or the God and merciful, slow to anger and 46 abounding in steadfast love, and relent- temple.” The first OT Scripture he cites ing from disaster. Therefore now, O is from the Sinai theophany Exod 33:22, Lord, please take my life from me, namely, Moses request to see YHWH’s for it is better for me to die than to live.” And the Lord said, “Do you do glory. And he surely is right to argue that well to be angry?” (Jonah 3:10-4:4, John 1:14 and 17 which speak of Jesus as emphasis added). “full of grace and truth” “in all probability harks back to the phrase ‘loving-kindness The echoes of the middôth are plain: [hesed] and truth [ĕmet]’ in Exod. 34:6.”47 “gracious,” “merciful,” “slow to anger,” and Again Köstenberger is our guide: “In “abounding in steadfast love.” The interest- its original context this joint expression ing addition is “and relenting of disaster.” 31 refers to God’s covenant faithfulness to Most importantly Biblical Theology His people Israel. John’s message found can help the systematician in articulating ultimate expression in the sending of the doctrine of God in such a way as to God’s one-of-a-kind Son (1:14,18).”48 get the biblical accents right. In this way, Geerhardus Vos’s observation gets some Why Systematic Theology Needs real purchase: “Dogmatics is the crown Biblical Theology which grows out of all the work that As we have seen in the presentations Biblical Theology can accomplish.”49 For both of Erickson and Grudem, the mid- example, you would never know, from dôth per se do not figure and yet as we reading whether Erickson, Grudem, or have seen, the middôth is integral to the others, how important the middôth are canonical portrayal of God’s character for knowing God as God has chosen to (hashem) both Old Testament and New. make his nature known. The revelation of How, then, would Biblical Theology be the name (hashem) of course is more than of help to the systematic theologian? As the offering of a convenient designation. previously argued, methodologically, a Rather in the canon the divine name refers biblical theology predicated on a high to the very nature of God. As Charles view of Scripture works with the entire H. H. Scobie argues, ‘’God’s name is an canon (tota Scriptura) by placing texts in expression of his essential nature.”50 The God their contexts in their literary units in of biblical revelation wants to proclaim their books in the canon in the light of the his moral attributes in the first instance. flow of redemptive history. Thus, Biblical Erickson is on sound ground to work with Theology is methodologically prior to this category. However, like Grudem, he Systematic Theology. It helps the system- places the moral attributes—in Grudem’s atician both avoid simplistic proof texting case the communicable attributes—sec- (dicta probantia) and remain sensitive to the ond in presentation: goodness comes after narrative drive of Scripture. greatness. Not so on Sinai. The revelation To be fair, the structures of most sys- of the divine graciousness and mercy on tematic theologies do preserve the over- Sinai is of a piece with the Genesis account arching narrative of Scripture, as do the where blessing is first, cursing is second classic creeds (Apostles, Nicene, and Atha- (cf. Gen 2:3; 3:14-19), and, as we saw in nasian). Like Scripture and like the creeds, John’s Prologue, with the incarnation, they move from the Maker of Heaven and grace comes through Jesus Christ (John Earth to the world to come. However, that 1:14-17). Moreover, in this same Gospel we narrative structure can be hard to detect see that Christ came, in the first instance, because of the need for systematic theolo- not to condemn the world but to save gies rightly to interact with discussions of it, even though he is the eschatological the past (e.g., Augustine versus Pelagius judge, and those who remain in darkness on sin) and issues of the present (e.g., the will ultimately be held accountable (cf. claim by some feminist theologians that John 3:17; 12:47; 5:24-27). the cross represents divine child abuse) However, it is not only a matter of and by discussing prolegomena matters rightly ordering the systematic discus- (e.g., sources for theology, theological sion. There is the question of weighting method, and so forth). the discussion. Perhaps a theological 32 primer like I. H. Marshall’s Pocket Guide despite an inadequate bibliology. His To Christian Beliefs shows a suggestive way unfinishedChurch Dogmatics contains not forward—albeit undeveloped, since only only 15,000 biblical references but around a primer. His chapter on the nature of God 2,000 small print exegetical discourses as provides an example. When discussing well.52 Herbert Hartwell comments, “[I]n God as Trinity he cites a large passage of Barth’s view . . . the task of theology is the Scripture, rather than a single verse (Eph expository presentation of that revelation 1:3-14).51 Strangely, though, the Ephesians on the basis of a theological exegesis of the passage plays no real role in what follows. content of the Bible.”53 What would a systematic theology look Richard Lints is an evangelical theo- like that worked not with individual proof logian who is sensitive to the need for texts only but with the great landmark Biblical Theology to shape a systematic passages of Scripture like Exodus 34 that theology. In his The Fabric of Theology: are integral to the way God has elected to A Prolegomena to Evangelical Theology, he self reveal? On this approach, for example, devotes much of the last part of the work the discussion of the incarnation might be to the subject.54 In this part he considers anchored in a lengthy discussion of John the theological nature of the Bible, the 1:1-18, carefully understood as a prologue move from the biblical text to a theo- to the theology of John as a whole and logical framework, and the move from then considered in the sweep of the canon that framework to a theological vision. with a sensitivity to the fact that such a He rightly argues that “The dominant passage does not belong to former times themes of the biblical text ought to be the when God spoke to the forefathers by the dominant themes of the theological frame- prophets but in these last days when he work” and that “the simple insight that has spoken through his Son as Hebrews the Scriptures have a ‘story-like’ character makes plain (Heb 1:1-2). Such a method will be important.”55 In fact, the premise better exhibits the analogy of Scripture he adopts for the book is “that systematic (analogia scripturae or in some traditions theology must be structurally dependent analogia fidei), whereby Scripture is com- on biblical theology and hence would pared with Scripture, Scripture interprets need to undergo a major change from its Scripture, and plain Scripture interprets traditional categories of presentation.”56 more obscure or difficult portions of Scripture. The classic alternative would Conclusion simply use brackets with Scriptural proof The middôth of Exodus 34 are integral to texts (dicta probantia) listed in them to but- the knowledge of God and not incidental tress the points being made. For example, to the canonical plotline. This is who God in the incarnation, the Second Person of is, which his prior and subsequent acts the Godhead assumed human nature illustrate, and which Biblical Theology as without abandoning deity (John 1:14 and a method displays. Doing is predicated so forth). The traditional proof texting on being. This is his name proclaimed. method needs to be complemented by a We saw how it is echoed in every part of Biblical Theology that provides the land- the Hebrew Bible and has its instantiation mark biblical passages as well. Karl Barth in Jesus himself. It is the basis for biblical is methodologically helpful on this point, prayer. It explains why God spared repen- 33 tant Ninevah much to Jonah’s disappoint- 1135-1204. For a contemporary Jewish ment. In contradistinction, we also saw view see Jeffrey H. Tigay, “Exodus,” in that two standard evangelical systematic The Jewish Study Bible (Oxford: Oxford theologies—those of Erickson and Gru- University, 2004), 189. dem—present the nature of God in such 5Benno Jacob, The Second Book of the Bible: a way as to make the middôth incidental. Exodus (trans. Walter Jacob in associa- This lack of due emphasis raises acutely tion with Yaakov Elman; Hoboken, New the question of how systematic theology Jersey: KTAV, 1992), 985 (emphasis in ought to use Scripture to construct a doc- original). trine of God. In doing theology, alongside 6See, for example, “Selichot – Brief the classic proof texting method—which Explanation of the Thirteen Attributes is still needed for brevity’s sake—a place of Mercy” ([accessed 3 March 2008]. at the table needs to be given to a way of Online: http://www.ou.org/chagim/ reading Scripture that locates a text in its elul/selichotattrib.htm), which main- context in its literary unit in its book in the tains that the first mention of the Name canon in the light of the flow of redemp- (Yahweh) is the attribute of mercy shown tive history. This way of reading Scripture before a person sins, whilst the second is at the heart of Biblical Theology as a mention of the Name (hashem) refers to discipline. As Richard Lints suggests, another attribute of mercy, one shown “Biblical theology and systematic theol- to the sinner after sin. ogy are mutually enriching, they do not 7Calvin, Institutes, 1:10:2. Paul Helm drew compete.”57 I would only add “and exege- my attention to Calvin on this point in sis must lie at the heart of both.” his slightly revised John Murray Lecture delivered at the Highland Theological Endnotes College, entitled “John Calvin—What’s 1A. W. Tozer, The Knowledge of the Holy the Big Idea?” [accessed 28 April 2008]. (London: James Clarke, 1965), 9. Online: http://paulhelmsdeep.blogspot. 2John Calvin The Institutes of the Christian com. Religion (The Comprehensive John Calvin 8Ibid. Collection; Rio, WI: Ages Software, 2002), 9Brevard S. Childs comments, “[T]he 1:6:1 (CD-Rom version). God of the Old Testament has a name 3Geerhardus Vos, (Redemptive History And by which he lets himself be known. The Biblical Interpretation: The Shorter Writings decisive passage is Ex. 34:5-6” (Biblical of Geerhardus Vos [ed. Richard Gaffin Jr.; Theology of the Old and New Testaments: Phillipsburg, New Jersey: P&R, 2001], Theological Reflection on the Christian Bible 431) describes Exod 34:6-7 as one of [Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993], 354). “four classic statements, where the Torah 10As a convention I will adopt Biblical rises to the height of a description of the Theology with capitals for the discipline, character of God.” The others he cites are that is a particular reading strategy for Exod 20:5-6; Num 14:8; and Deut 7:9-10. engaging Scripture. Many refer to any 4For example, see Moses Maimonides, way of doing theology that is grounded The Guide Of the Perplexed (trans. Chaim in a high view of Scripture as biblical Rabin; Indianapolis: Hackett Publish- theology. To avoid possible confusion, ing, 1995), 71-77. Maimonides’s dates are if I refer to any of the latter I will use 34 lower case. the English Standard Version unless 22With regard to the multiplicity 11I am aware that there are evan- otherwise stated. of terms, at least fifty, denoting gelicals who do not affirm a view 17J. Carl Laney has misread John “sin” in the Old Testament, Henri of Scripture as high as this and I. Durham on this point. Laney Blocher describes transgression, that conservative representatives maintains, “Durham suggests that sin, and iniquity as “[t]hree of the of other traditions would likewise ‘goodness (bWj) here may imply most important” (“Sin,” in New embrace Scripture as the Word of the “beauty” of the Lord and so it Dictionary of Biblical Theology [ed. T. God—albeit with a longer canon anticipated a theophany’” (“God’s D. Alexander and Brian S. Rosner; (e.g., Roman Catholic and Ortho- Self-Revelation In Exodus 34:6-8,” Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, dox). Bibliotheca Sacra 158 [2001]: 39-40). 2000], 782). 12See my “Thinking Theologically,” However, Durham is expounding 23This point is well made by R. W. Reformed Theological Review 48, no. someone else’s view which he goes L. Moberly, “How May We Speak 2 (1989); and my “Sola Scriptura: on to critique: “[W]hat he gives to Of God? A Reconsideration Of The Some Historical and Contemporary Moses is quite specifically not the Nature Of Biblical Theology,” Tyn- Perspectives,” Churchman 104, no. sight of his beauty, his glory, his dale Bulletin 53, no. 2 (2002): 200. 1 (1990). Presence—that, indeed, he point- 24Walter Kaiser Jr., “Exodus,” The 13R. W. L. Moberly, “Exodus, Book of,” edly denies. What he gives rather is Expositor’s Bible Commentary (Grand in Dictionary for Theological Interpre- a description, and at that, a descrip- Rapids: Zondervan, 1990). tation of the Bible (ed. Kevin J. Van- tion not of how he looks but how 25Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theol- hoozer; Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), he is” (J. I. Durham, Exodus [Word ogy: An Introduction to Biblical Doc- 214. Moberly also draws interesting Biblical Commentary; Dallas: Word: trine (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, parallels between Exodus 32-34 and Dallas, 2002], CD-Rom version 1994), 209. Genesis 6-9, especially between the [emphases in original]). 26The tone of my comments on figures of faithful Noah and faithful 18For an illuminating study of the Erickson and Grudem ought not Moses (215). passage see R. W. L. Moberly, At to be exaggerated. Both works are 14Childs, Biblical Theology, 355. The Mountain Of God: Story and immensely useful, and I recom- 15Maimonides, The Guide, 72 (emphasis Theology in Exodus 32-34 (Sheffield: mend both to my own students. in original). This verse (Exod 33:13) JSOT, 1983). 27Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theol- contains an important epistemic 19Pierre Berhoud, “The Compas- ogy, (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993), principle. To know a person one sion of God: Exodus 34:5-9 in the chapters 12 and 13 are the relevant needs to be exposed to their ways: light of Exodus 32-34,” in Engaging ones. This is the unabridged, one that is to say, the characteristic the Doctrine of God: Contemporary volume edition. behaviors of a person. This usually Protestant Perspectives (ed. Bruce L. 28Ibid., 263. takes some time or exposure to sto- McCormack; Grand Rapids: Baker, 29Ibid., 267-81. ries that narrate those behaviors. It 2008), 163. 30Ibid., 278-79. is not enough merely to know that 20Laney, “God’s Self-Revelation In 31In discussing God’s integrity, Erick- God exists. One needs to know the Exodus 34:6-8,” 46. son has a subsection on God’s moral disposition of the God who 21Divine remembering is not referring faithfulness which shows itself in exists. Herein lies the genius of the to a divine memory lapse but is idi- the fact that ‘’God keeps all his “storied” nature of biblical revela- omatic for God acting. He remem- promises” (ibid., 291). As we have tion. See my article “God, Doctrine bered Noah, he remembered Israel, seen, however, he makes a similar of,” in Dictionary for Theological and Jesus promises to remember the claim under the head of God’s con- Interpretation of the Bible, 259-263. thief on the cross (cf. Gen 8:1; Exod stancy. Which is it then? Is promise 16All biblical quotations are from 2:24; and Luke 23:42). keeping an expression of the attri- 35 bute of greatness or an attribute of 48Ibid. Theology, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, goodness? 49Geerhardus Vos, Redemptive His- 1993), chapters 7-9. 32Ibid., 295. tory, 24. 55Ibid., 271 and 274, respectively. 33Ibid., 296. 50Charles H. H. Scobie, The Ways Of 56Ibid., 271 n. 17. I have attempted 34Grudem, Systematic Theology, 156. Our God: An Approach to Biblical to make a start on such a project 35Ibid., 160-80. Theology, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, in a work on the Holy Spirit that 36Ibid., 157. 2003), 108 (emphasis in original). utilizes not just systematic theology 37Ibid., chapters 12 and 13. Moses Maimonides took a different and biblical commentaries but also 38Ibid., 209. view. As Maimonides commentator biblical theologies: He Who Gives 39B. S. Rosner, “Biblical Theology,” Julius Guttman rightly observes, Life: The Doctrine Of The Holy Spirit New Dictionary of Biblical Theology, “According to Maimonides these (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2007). On 10. [the Middoth] do in reality not apply method, also see my article “God, 40See the excellent discussion of the to the essence of God but to His doctrine of,” 259-63. differences between royal grant works, which indicate by attribut- 57Richard Lints, “Thinking System- covenants and suzerainty treaties ing to God that quality which in atically about Theology,” Modern in Michael S. Horton, God Of Prom- man would produce corresponding Reformation (January/February, ise: Introducing Covenant Theology activities. The thirteen Dispositions 2003), 28. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006), 41-43. which were revealed to Moses 41For the exegesis of Exod 34:6-8, I am are then to be interpreted in this indebted to J. Carl Laney’s helpful sense” (Maimonides, The Guide, article (“God’s Self-Revelation In 210). Maimonides position is deeply Exodus 34:6-8”). Laney indepen- influenced by Greek philosophy at dently covers some of the same this point and leaves one in deep- ground as this present article, est agnosticism as to what God is especially with regard to Grudem really like. and Erickson, and I warmly com- 51I. Howard Marshall, A Pocket Guide mend it. To Christian Beliefs, (3d ed.; London: 42Ibid., 36. InterVarsity, 1990), 39-42. 43Ibid. 52These statistics are found in Bernard 44Jeremiah 18:7-10 provides the prin- Ramm, After Fundamentalism: The ciple behind divine relenting and Future of Evangelical Theology (San best explains the divine consistency Francisco: Harper and Row, 1983), in not judging Ninevah as had origi- 94-95. Some of the more significant nally been promised. exegetical portions can be found 45Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the collected in Karl Barth: Preaching Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewit- Through the Christian Year (ed. John ness Testimony, (Grand Rapids: Eerd- McTavish and Harold Wells; trans. mans, 2006), chapter 18, esp. 500. G. W. Bromiley and T. F. Torrance; 46Andreas J. Köstenberger, “John,” in Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1978). Commentary on the New Testament 53Herbert Hartwell, The Theology of Use of the Old Testament (ed. G. K. Karl Barth: An Introduction (London: Beale and D. A. Carson; Grand Rap- Gerald Duckworth, 1964), 15. ids, Michigan: Baker, 2007), 422. 54Richard Lints, The Fabric of Theol- 47Ibid. ogy: A Prolegomena to Evangelical 36 New in the Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament JUDE AND 2 PETER Gene L. Green 9780801026720 • 432 pp. • $39.99c • Available November 2008 “Green has written a solidly conservative evangelical commentary on Jude and 2 Peter that is informed by ancient rhetorical practice and sociological observation. It contains a wealth of exegetical detail and judicious observations, which means that this work will have to be consulted by future scholars researching Jude and 2 Peter and will immediately profi t pastors and Bible teachers exploring and applying these works in various contemporary settings. It is well worth the effort expended to work through the abun- dance of information that it presents.”—Peter H. Davids, St. Stephen’s University MARK Robert H. Stein 9780801026829 • 864 pp. • $49.99c • Available November 2008 “Robert H. Stein has composed an excellent commentary on Mark 1:1–16:8. He explains well the purpose and structure of the Gospel, discusses in detail its problematic verses, judiciously selects views of other commentators, and explains why he thinks the Gospel ends at 16:8. Hence Stein’s commentary will be a precious vade mecum for pastors and preachers, students of the New Testament, and teachers in biblical studies.”—Joseph A. Fitzmyer, SJ, Catholic University of America 1–3 JOHN Robert W. Yarbrough 9780801026874 • 464 pp. • $39.99c • Available November 2008 “The latest addition to the BECNT series by Robert Yarbrough is not narrowly exegetical but is intended to help preachers and general readers apprehend the message of 1–3 John for today. It offers a meticulously detailed study of the Greek text (including special attention to textual variants) that will pro- vide students with ample information on every aspect of the argument of the letters. This commentary well maintains the standards that we have come to expect from this series.”—I. Howard Marshall, University of Aberdeen

Presenting an Introduction to Theological Interpretation for the Classroom INTRODUCING THEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE RECOVERING A CHRISTIAN PRACTICE Daniel J. Treier 9780801031786 • 224 pp. • $17.99p “Treier is one of the brightest scholars working at the intersection of Scripture, hermeneutics, and theology in the evangelical academy today. Here he offers a masterful survey of the landscape and shows how evangeli- cals can join with Catholic scholars and others in moving the discussion forward.”—Timothy George, Beeson Divinity School “Many voices today clamor for the recovery of theological interpretation, from many corners and for diverse reasons. For those concerned with the signifi cance of the church for reading Scripture, and the signifi cance of Scripture for the church, this is a renaissance most welcome. So many different voices, though, can leave us confused—not only on the fi ner points of the discussion, but even about its most basic question, What is theological interpretation? We need a map, and this is precisely what Treier has provided: a map that will be as useful to those already engaged in the conversation as it is crucial for those trying to gain their fi rst bearings.”u—Joel B. Green, Fuller Theological Seminary Available at your local bookstore, www.bakeracademic.com, or by calling 1-800-877-2665 Subscribe to Baker Academic’s electronic newsletter (E-Notes) at www.bakeracademic.com 37 The Covenant at Sinai1 Peter J. Gentry

Peter J. Gentry is Professor of Old Introduction framing all ana­lysis of the covenant at Testament Interpretation and Director of Central to the Book of Exodus—and Sinai as bookends.2 In between, attention the Hexapla Institute at The Southern indeed to the entire Pentateuch—is the will be given to the literary structure of Baptist Theological Seminary. He has covenant made between Yahweh and Exodus 19-24, and afterwards exegesis served on the faculty of Toronto Baptist Israel at Sinai comprised in chapters 19-24. will be focused on the divine purpose Seminary and Bible College and also The eighteen chapters preceding describe of the covenant in Exod 19:5-6, the first taught at the University of Toronto, Heri- the release of Israel from bond­age and four of the Ten Com­mandments, and the tage Theological Seminary, and Tyndale slavery in Egypt and the journey through ceremony of covenant ratification in Exod Seminary. Dr. Gentry is the author of the wilderness to Sinai. Chap­ters 25-40 are 24:1-11. many articles and book reviews and devoted to the construction of a place of is currently preparing a critical text of worship as the appropri­ate recogni­tion of Exodus 19-24 within the Larger Proverbs and Ecclesiates for the Göt- the divine kingship established through Story of Scripture tingen Septuagint. the covenant. The biblical narrative begins with A much bigger claim, however, can be a creator God who is the maker of our made for Exodus 19-24. The “Book of the world and indeed, the entire universe. We Covenant,” as Moses himself entitles this humans are the crowning achieve­ment of unit (Exod 24:7), along with the Book of his creative work. There is a difference, Deuteron­omy as an addition or supple­ moreover, between humans and animals, ment (28:69 MT, 29:01 EVV), forms the in fact, between us and all other creatures: heart of the old covenant. And it is in the we alone have been made as the image of inter­pre­ta­tion of the con­tent and rela­tion this creator God and given special tasks of this covenant to the new covenant to perform on behalf of the Creator. that is the basis of all the ma­jor divi­sions According to Gen 1:26-28, the divine among Christians—i.e., all denomina- image defines human life, both ontologi- tional dif­ferences derive ulti­mately from cally and functionally, in terms of a cov- different under­standings of the relation of enant relationship with the creator God the covenant at Sinai to ourselves today. on the one hand, and with the creation This brief exposition of Exodus 19-24 on the other. The former may be captured bases accurate exposition of this text on by the term sonship and is implied by (1) closer attention to the larger literary Gen 5:1-3: structure, (2) exegesis based on the cul­ By juxtaposing the divine creation of tural, historical, and linguistic setting of Adam in the image of God and the the text, and (3) consideration of the larger subsequent human creation of Seth in the image of Adam, the transmis- story of scripture (metanarrative) and sion of the image of God through explicit indications of how this text fits this genealogical line is implied, as within this larger story. Where and how well as the link between sonship and the image of God. As Seth is a Exodus 19-24 fits into the larger story of son of Adam, so Adam is a son of Scripture will be briefly detailed at both God. Language is being stretched beginning and end of the present study— here as a literal son of God is cer- tainly not in view, but nonetheless 38 the writer is using an analogy to nations are lost and scattered over the face 3 make a point. of the earth. So, God made another new start, this The latter relationship, i.e., between time with Abraham. Abraham and his humans and the creation, may be reflected family, called Israel, is another Adam, in the terms kingship and servanthood. who will be God’s true humanity. God As Randall Garr has shown, it is interest­ makes great promises to Abraham in ing to note that in the Ninth Century chapter 12. These promises are enshrined Aramaic Tell Fakhariyeh Inscription, eventually in a covenant made with him ṣalmā’ (“image”) refers to the king’s and his descendants in chapters 15 and 17. majestic power and rule in relation to Space permits here only a brief consider- his subjects, while demûthā’ (“like­ness”) ation of how God’s promises to Abraham refers to the king’s petitionary role and carry forward the focus on kingdom relation to the deity.4 Thus, the ancient through covenant. Near Eastern data con­firm, correspond The call of Abram in Genesis 12:1-3 to, and illustrate precisely the terms used consists of two commands (go in 12:1 and in the biblical text. Furthermore, as Gen be a blessing in 12:2). Each command is fol- 2:4-25 shows, the Adamic son is like a lowed by three promises. The first prom­ priest in a garden sanctu­ary. He must first ise is “I will make you into a great nation”, learn the ways of God in order to exercise and the last promise is “all the clans / the rule of God as God himself would.5 families of the earth will be blessed in The biblical narrative, then, is focused at you” (12:1, 3). We need to pay attention to the start on establishing the rule of God the terms used here to describe both the through covenant relationship: kingdom people of God and the other peoples of through covenant. the world. God promises to make Abram However, the first humans rebelled into a great nation; this is the word gôy in against the creator God. As a result, Hebrew. The other people groups of the there is chaos, discord, and death in the world are called clans or families; here the creation at every level. The destructive Hebrew term is mišpāḥâ. path chosen by the first humans led to First consider the term gôy or nation. a downward spiral of corruption and It is highly unusual for this term to be violence until divine intervention was applied to the people of God. There is required. God judged the human race by in the language of the Old Testament a a flood and made a new beginning with completely consistent usage: the word ‘am Noah and his family. Noah is presented is almost always re­served for Israel. It is in the narrative as a new Adam. As soon a kinship term which expresses effectively as the dry land ap­pears out of the chaos of the close­ness of the family/mar­riage the floodwaters, Noah is placed there and relationship between God and Israel commanded to be fruit­ful and multiply established by the covenant made at Sinai (Gen 9:1); i.e., he is given Adam’s commis- (Exodus 24). On the other hand, the word sion or man­date. The correspondence to gôy is the standard term for the commu­ Genesis 1 is striking. Eventually, however, nities or other societies in the world the family of Noah end up in the same excluding Israel. So consistent is this use, chaos and corruption as the family of the that when we see something different, we first Adam. With the Tower of Babel, the 39 need to ask why. For example, a few cases The word in Hellenistic Greek which are found where the term gôy is applied best conveys this meaning is the term to Israel in a pejorative sense. Some­times polis, normally translated “city.” In our Israel is called “nation” and not “people” modern world we tend to think of cities because the author may wish to com­mu­ as great centers of dense popu­lation in nicate that because of her wickedness she contrast to rural areas which by definition is behaving as if she were not the people are sparsely populated. In the first cen- of God. Her actions and attitudes indicate tury, however, in contrast to our culture, she is like those communi­ties who have the term “city” conveyed the idea of an no special status as the chosen people of organized community with governmental God (e.g., Judg 2:20). headship and appropriate political and Why, then, in Genesis 12 does God social structure—what we nor­mally con­ speak of Abram becoming a great gôy or vey by the English word state. Thus, the nation? The basic meaning of gôy is an promises of God to Abraham really did organized community of people hav­ing entail the city of God as the author to the gov­ernmental, political, and social structure. Hebrews puts it, accurately explaining This contrasts with the fact that the other for his readers the meaning of Genesis nations are derogatorily termed mišpāḥâ in 12. Abraham was to go to a country God Genesis 12. This word refers to an amor­ would indicate to him and reside there— phous kin group larger than an extended even if as an alien and a stranger: he was family and smal­ler than a tribe. await­ing “the city that has foundations, The background of Genesis 12 is chap- whose architect and builder is God” (Heb ters 10 and 11. There we have the history 11:10). of Babel (Genesis 11), where we see a Thus, Abraham, and Israel, have complete con­fidence and naïve optimism inherited an Adamic role.6 Yahweh refers about human achievement and effort. to the nation as his son in Exod 4:22-23. Man is at the centre of his world, and he The divine purpose in the covenant can achieve anything. This philosophy es­tablished between God and Israel at comes under divine judgment in Genesis Sinai is unfolded in Exod 19:3-6. As a king­ 11 and results in the nations being lost dom of priests they will func­tion to make and scattered over the face of the earth the ways of God known to the nations and (Gen 11:9 and chapter 10). By contrast, also bring the nations into a right relation- Genesis 12 presents us with a political ship to God. Israel will display to the rest structure brought into being by the word of the world within its covenant commu- of God, with God at the center and God nity the kind of rela­tionships, first to God as the governmental head and rule of that and then to one another and to the physi- community. In other words, we have the cal world, that God in­tended originally Kingdom of God brought into being by for all of humanity. In fact, through Abra- covenant (between God and Abram). The ham’s family, God pur­poses and plans author’s choice of terms emphasizes that to bring blessing to all the nations of the the family of Abram is a real kingdom world. In this way, through the family of with eternal power and significance, while Abraham, through Israel, his last Adam, the so-called kingdoms of this world have he will bring about a reso­lu­tion of the no lasting power or significance. sin and death caused by the first Adam. 40 Since Israel is located geo­graphically on divine promises to Abraham and to the the one and only communications link nation as a whole, and through them to between the great super­powers of the the entire world. ancient world (Egypt and Mesopotamia), in this posi­tion she will show the nations Excursus: Labelling Covenants how to have a right relationship to God, This article is entitled “the Covenant at how to treat each other in a truly human Sinai,” but what is the biblical terminol- way, and how to be faithful stewards of ogy? From the point of view of the New the earth’s resources. This is the meaning Testament—i.e., Latinized English for of Israel’s sonship. “new covenant”—it is called the “old cov- The promises of God to Abraham enant” in 2 Cor 3:14 (and compare v. 15). focused on two things: descen­dants and Hebrews 8 and 9 also use the term “first” land. When we come to the books of for this covenant. In the Old Testa­ment, Exodus through Deuteronomy, which however, it is commonly called the Torah con­stitute the Mosaic Covenant or Cov- (Law) or the Law of Moses (Exod 24:12). enant with Israel, we have the fulfillment In Scripture, covenants are normally of these promises. First, God has greatly named according to the human part­ner. increased the descendants of Abraham The cove­nant in Genesis 6-9 is between so that they are innumerable, like the God and Noah. This is expanded to sand upon the seashore or the stars of the include his family and, through them, night sky. Second, he has given the land all of humanity. It is fair to call this “the of Canaan to them. covenant with Noah.” The covenant in God’s plan and purpose, however, Genesis 15 and 17 is called the “covenant have not changed. He wants to bless the with Abram” in Gen 15:18. Since it is descendants of Abraham and, through passed directly on to Isaac and Jacob, it them, all the nations. In fact, his plan is is called the covenant with Isaac and also to re­store his broken and ruined creation the covenant with Jacob in Lev 26:42. Later through Israel. As they come out of Egypt we find the term “the covenant with the and before they enter the land, God makes fathers” (Deut 4:31) referring to Abraham, an agreement with Israel. The pur­pose of Isaac, and Jacob. We can conveniently and this agreement or covenant is to enable legitimately call it the “covenant with them to enjoy the blessings he wants Abram/Abraham.” The covenant made to give them and be the blessing to the at Sinai is simply called “the book of the other nations. This covenant will show covenant” in Exod 24:7. In Exod 34:27 this them how to be his true humanity. It will same covenant is with Moses and with direct, guide, and lead them to have a Israel. Hence some scholars have called right relationship with God and a right it the Mosaic Covenant. It could just as relationship with everyone else in the well be called the Israelite Covenant or covenant community. It will also teach Covenant with Israel. In any case, it is them how to have a right relationship to never called the Sinai Covenant in Scrip­ all the creation, to be good stewards of ture, and it is more in accordance with the the earth’s resources. We might say, then, pattern of Scripture to name it according that the Mosaic Covenant is given at this to the human partner. Later, when God time to administer the fulfillment of the makes a covenant with David, it is called 41 just that, his “Covenant with David” (2 Mark 10:19; Luke 18:20; Rom 13:9; 7:7, 8; 1 Chr 13:5, 21:7, Ps 89:3, Jer 33:21). Finally Tim 1:9, 10), and that is why the preferred God makes what is called a “New Cove­ term today is the Ten Commandments. nant” in Jer 31:31. So, in regard to the structure of the text, first we have “the Words,” then the “Judg- The Literary Structure of ments” in chapters 21-23. Exodus 19–24 However, it is not only the headings One of the reasons why both popular but also the contents that clearly distin- and scholarly discussions of the rela­tion guish the two sections. The Ten Words between the Old Testament and the New are presented as absolute commands or have resulted in a variety of theological prohibitions, usually in the second person disputes is directly due to a failure to singular. They are general injunctions not consider properly the literary shape of related to a specific social situation. They this text. Instead what is foisted upon the could be described as prescriptive law text is a framework or structure it does not since no fines or punishments are speci- clearly indicate or possess. fied. As an example, “You (singular) shall not steal!” The construction lô’ + imperfect Outline of Exodus 19-40 (1) The Background 19 in Hebrew is durative and non-specific. (2) The Ten Words 20 You shall not steal today, not tomorrow, (3) The Judgments 21-23 not this week, not this month, not this (4) The Ceremony of Covenant Ratification 24 year—as a general rule, never. By contrast, (5) Worship—the Recognition the Judgments are presented as case laws. of Divine Kingship 25-40 These are court decisions functioning The broad outline and shape of the text as precedents. They are normally in the is indicated by headings and the use of format of conditional sentences. Here specific terms. At the heart of the text are the fundamental principles embodied in two sections: (1) the “Ten Words” in chap- the Ten Words are applied in particular ter 20 and (2) the “Judgments” (or “Laws” to a specific social context. They could / “Ordinances”) in chapters 21-23. These be described as descriptive law since are the actual headings in the text. Exodus they impose fines and punishments. As 20:1 introduces the mat­ter simply: “And an example, Exod 21:28-32 addresses the case where a bull gores a human and God spoke all these words.” While Chris- tians common­ly refer to this section as the looks at whether this was the animal’s “Ten Commandments,” the commands habit or not. So chapter 20 and chapters which form the basis of the covenant are 21-23 constitute specific sections of the simply referred to as the “Ten Words” in covenant simply labelled “the words” and Exod 34:28 and Deut 4:13, 10:4. The precise “the Judgments.” expression, “the Ten Commandments” Commandments: The Ten Words occurs nowhere in the Old Testament, (Exod 20:1; 34:28; Deut 4:13) • Absolute commands usually although in a general way the Ten Words second person singular prohi- are included when reference is made to bition the commands of Yahweh. They are fre­ • General injunctions not related to a specific social situation quently re­ferred to as commandments in • Prescriptive law­—no fines or the New Testament (Matthew 5; 19:18, 19; punishments mentioned

42 Ordinances (“Judgments” – KJV; The shortening of long titles is typical “Laws” – NIV) in this culture. Much later, the Hebrew • Case decisions, case laws, judi- cial precedents canon, whose full title is “the Law and the • The fundamental principles Prophets and the Writings” may be simply embodied in the Ten Com- shortened to “the Law.” For example, Paul mandments are applied in particular to a specific social states that he is quoting from “the Law” context and then cites a passage from Isaiah (1 • Descriptive law imposing fines and punishments (usu- Cor 14:21). So “Law” must be short for ally in the form of “if… then” “Law and Prophets.” Alter­natively, since statements or conditional “the Judgments” are simply unfolding sentences) “the ten words” in practical situations, These two distinct sections to the the expression “the words” in 24:3 and 4 covenant are clearly referred to in chap­ may refer to the whole (words and Judg- ter 24, where the covenant ratification ments) by specifying just “the words.” So ceremony is described. Carefully note the two parts or sections of the covenant the particular terms used in vv. 1-8 of are written down by Moses. And this is chapter 24 as follows. Exodus 24:1, accord- called “the book of the covenant” in 24:7. ing to the clause pattern and the topic, Chapters 19 and 24 form the bookends connects and directly fol­lows 20:21 and to this “book of the covenant.” At the 22. In vv. 21-26 of chapter 20 and vv. 1-2 beginning, chapter 19 provides the setting of chapter 24 Yahweh speaks to Moses in space and time, the divine pur­pose of from the cloud on Mt. Sinai and gives the covenant, and the preparation of the instructions concerning altars and who people for the revelation of Yah­weh at Mt. will ascend the mountain for the covenant Sinai. At the end, chapter 24 describes ratification meal. In 24:3 Moses comes and the ceremony of covenant rati­fication. gives a report to the people: “And Moses Following this chapters 25-40 describe came and reported to the people all the the construction of a place of worship words and all the Judgments, and all the showing the pro­per response to the divine people responded with one voice, ‘All the kingship established among the people by words which Yahweh has spoken we will means of the covenant. do.’” Note that Moses reported “all the The shape and structure of Exodus words” and “all the Judgments.” These 19-24, then, is clearly marked in the text. two terms clearly refer to the Ten Words Chapters 20-23 constitute “the Book of in chapter 20:2-17 and the Judgments in the Covenant” consisting of “the Words” chapters 21-23. When the people say, “All (chapter 20) and “the Judgments” (chap- the words which Yahweh has spoken ters 21-23). Chapters 19 and 24 frame the we will do,” the term “the words” is an Book of the Covenant as bookends, with abbreviated form of the expression “all the chapter 19 providing the back­ground and words and all the Judgments” occur­ring setting and chapter 24 describing the cer- earlier in the verse. Similarly, in the next emony of covenant ratifi­cation. verse, 24:4, we read, “And Moses wrote As has been noted for some time, the all the words of Yahweh.” Here, again, structure of this text is parallel in broad “the words of Yahweh” is a short way of outline to the form and structure of saying, “the words and the Judgments.” international treaties in the ancient Near 43 Eastern culture of the fifteenth - thir- the Ten Words, and a consideration of the teenth centuries B.C. Parallels be­tween ceremony of covenant ratification and its the Book of Deuteronomy and the Hittite significance before the implications for suzerain-vassal treaties are more striking Christian theology are spelled out. than between the Book of the Covenant in Exodus and the Hittite Treaties, but Selected Exegesis of the Covenant the parallels are noteworthy nonethe- at Sinai less. International treaties followed a The Divine Purpose of the Covenant specific form: (1) Preamble (author iden- (Exod 19:5-6) tification), (2) History of Past Relationship As already stated, chapter 19 pro- Between the Parties, (3) Basic Stipulation, vides the background to the Book of the (4) Detailed Stipulations, (5) Document Covenant and acts as a bookend on the Clause, (6) Witnesses, (7) Blessings and opening side of the covenant document. Curses. A chart portrays how “the Book Israel arrives at Mount Sinai in her trav- of the Covenant” broadly conforms to els through the desert to the Promised this pattern: Land. Central to the chapter is the flurry of movement by Moses going up and Structure of the Covenant in Exodus (1) Preamble 20:1 down the mountain. Three sequences of (2) Historical Prologue 20:2 up and down dominate the section: (1) (3) Stipulations 19:3 (up) and 19:7 (down), (2) 19:8 (up) and (a) Basic 20:3-17 19:14 (down), and (3) 19:20 (up) and 19:25 (b) Detailed 21-23 (down). These three sequences form the (4) Document Clause 24 boundaries of three sections within the Unlike Deuteronomy, the “Bless- chapter delimiting (1) the divine purpose ings and Curses” section is absent here. of the covenant, (2) the preparation of the Nonethe­less, the commands are enshrined people to meet Yahweh and receive his 8 in what would have been clearly recog- revelation and Torah, and (3) the actual nized at the time as a covenant or treaty epiphany of God on the mountain. The form. The implications of this form for literary structure of the chapter, then, is proper theo­logical understanding will be as follows: developed later. This much is clear: the Literary Structure of Exodus 19 cove­nant is formulated as a suzerain-vas- (1) The Setting in Time sal treaty in order to define God as Father and Space 19:1-2 (2) The Divine Purpose in the and King, and Israel as obedient son in a Covenant 19:3-8 relationship of loyal love, obedience, and (3) The Human Preparation trust. This is confirmed by the fact that for the Covenant 19:9-15 (4) The Revelation of Yahweh the epiphany on Mount Sinai is heralded at Sinai 19:16-25 by the blowing of a trumpet (Exod 19:16, 19, 20:18), a clear signal in Israel for the The constant ascending and descend- acces­sion and coming of a king (2 Sam ing provides a vivid portrayal of the dis- 15:10; 1 Kgs 1:34, 39, 41; 2 Kgs 9:13).7 Space tance between the people and God and per­mits now only a brief analysis of the the need for a mediator. It then empha- divine purpose of the covenant as given sises the miracle of a covenant relation- in Exodus 19, a summary treatment of ship of love, loyalty, and trust between 44 parties such as these.9 in slavery in Egypt and the signs and wonders per­formed by Yahweh both in Then Moses went up to God, and the LORD called to him from the moun- the ten plagues and the cros­sing of the tain and said, “This is what you are Red Sea that delivered and freed them to say to the house of Jacob and what from slavery. It also speaks of the way in you are to tell the people of Israel: ‘You yourselves have seen what I which God had directed them through the did to Egypt, and how I carried you mazes and mirages of the desert using a on eagles’ wings and brought you to pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night. myself. Now if you obey me fully and keep my covenant, then out of This form of leadership also protected all nations you will be my treasured them from ex­treme heat by day and cold possession, for the whole earth is mine. You will be for me a kingdom by night. Every day bread rained from of priests and a holy nation.’ These heaven for their nourishment and water are the words you are to speak to the gushed from the rock to satis­fy their Israelites.” So Moses went back and summoned the elders of the people thirst. Our culture today can picture this and set before them all the words from the movie world in the miraculous the LORD had commanded him rescue of Gan­dalf by the eagles in the Lord to speak. The people all responded together, “We will do everything the of the Rings. God had protected the people LORD has said.” So Moses brought and provided for them during the difficult their answer back to the LORD desert journey, bearing them on eagles’ (Exod 19:3-8, NIV). wings, so to speak, and had so arranged After the place and time in history is their itinerary as to bring them to himself, specified, vv. 3-8 detail the pur­pose of the that is, to the place already prepared as a covenant from God’s point of view. What meeting place between God and men, to we have in these verses is a proposal of the Sinai, the mountain of God (Exod 3:1). covenant in a nutshell: (1) verse 4 describes Verses 5-6 are constructed in the form the past history of relationship between of a conditional sentence: “if you do this ... the two covenant partners, (2) vv. 5-6 pro- then you will be ... and you will be....” The pose a relationship of complete loyalty and protasis or “if clause” specifies absolute obedience of Israel as a vassal to Yahweh as obedience to the covenant stipulations. the great king and promise certain bless- The apodosis or “then clause” de­fines the ings, and (3) in vv. 7-8 the people agree to result in terms of relationship to Yahweh: the pro­posal. Thus, even in this covenant they will belong to him in two ways (1) as proposal in vv. 3-8 the form and structure a king’s treasure, and (2) as a kingdom of cor­responds to the formula of ancient Near priests and a holy nation. Eastern covenants and treaties. Before explaining the meaning of the Verse 4 is a marvellous encapsula- terms defining the divine goal in the cov- tion of the past relationship between the enant relationship, the relation of vv. 5-6 people and Yahweh using the imagery of to v. 4 must be stressed. Perhaps a diagram being carried out of trouble on the wings may be used to picture this: of an eagle: “You yourselves have seen God’s Grace what I did to Egypt, and how I carried \ you on eagles’ wings and brought you Israel’s Obedience Demanded to myself.” This brief statement summa- / Become My People rizes the abject condition of the people 45 Verse 4 shows that the motivation for find at capital cities such as Hattusa concluding and keeping a covenant with (Boğazkale, Turkey) and Ugarit (Syria) the Yahweh is sovereign grace. The creator rich treasure-vaults of the kings. It is dif- God has chosen to display favor and ficult for us to imagine since we have no kindness to Israel and has acted in his- monarchy such as the monarchs of Europe tory to redeem them and make them his in the nineteenth century. Perhaps some- people. A lot of misunderstanding has thing comparable today would be the been caused by comparing the old cove­ Crown Jewels in London. A causal clause11 nant to the new in terms of “law” and explains that the whole world belongs to “grace.” This text is clear: the old covenant Yahweh. In one sense, the king is owner is based upon grace and grace motivates or possessor of the entire country, but in the keeping of the covenant just as we find addition to this, he may also have a per- in the new covenant. God had protected sonal treasure. The whole world is like a the people and provided for them during ring on God’s hand, and his chosen people the difficult desert journey, bearing them are the jewel in that ring. on eagles’ wings, so to speak, and had so arranged their itinerary as to bring them Kingdom of Priests to himself, that is, to Sinai, the mountain Although some expositions consider of God. This teaches, then, that the basis the meaning of “kingdom of priests” and for the covenant from the point of view “holy nation” separately, in a real sense of the human partner was confidence they should be taken together. The text and trust in Yahweh as estab­lished by the clearly divides the goal of the covenant events of the Exodus and gratitude to Yah- relationship into two statements. The weh. What is unlike the new covenant is first is supported by an explanation or that covenant keeping depends on Israel’s reason. A second statement combines the promise to obey. phrases “kingdom of priests” and “holy Verses 5 and 6, then, describe the pur- nation” either as a hendiadys or at least as pose, from God’s point of view, for which an expression similar to Hebrew poetry the covenant was given to the people and where a pair of parallel lines is employed the nature of the relationship between to consider a topic from two slightly vari- God and Israel that will result from ratify- ant but similar viewpoints to create a full- ing the covenant proposed by Yahweh. orbed perspective on some proposition. These phrases will be explained here, each Personal Treasure in turn, but with the meaning of the other The first purpose of the covenant is phrase kept in mind. that these chosen, redeemed people might First, consider the phrase “kingdom become God’s own possession and private of priests” found in this text. The full treasure. The word in Hebrew that is sentence is “You will belong to me as a translated “possession” is the same word kingdom of priests” (tihyû lî mamleket used in 1 Chron 29:3 for King David’s own kōhanîm). The lamed preposition in the private cache or vault of gold and sil­ver, phrase lî clearly indicates possession.12 his personal store of all things precious The Hebrew word “kingdom” may refer and valuable.10 If we were to travel back in to the domain or realm which is ruled, or time to the ancient Near East, we would to the exercise of kingly rule and sover- 46 eignty.13 The phrase “kingdom of priests,” Dempster analyzes the phrase “kingdom therefore, could mean a domain of priests of priests” in a similar way: whom God rules or, alternatively, the The final phrase designates Israel exercise of royal office by those who are as a particular type of kingdom. in fact priests. It is difficult to decide Instead of being a kingdom of a since the lamed preposition suggests the particular king, it will be a king- dom marked by priesthood; that is former reading while the term “priests” service of God on be­half of people modifying “kingdom” suggests the latter. and vice versa. It will be “a kingdom run not by poli­ticians depending The function of a priest is to bring others upon strength and connivance but into the presence of God. Perhaps both by priests de­pending upon faith in meanings are intended so that both the Yahweh, a servant nation instead of a ruling nation.” Israel will thus relationship between God and Israel and redefine the meaning of dominion— the relationship between Israel and the service. This will be its distinctive task, its distinguishing characteris- world is indicated. The ambiguity serves 15 tic among the world of nations. the theme “kingdom through covenant.” We see, then, that Israel, the last Adam, Holy Nation will belong to God as a people under his The parallel phrase to “kingdom of rule and will exercise royal rule by spend- priests” is “holy nation” (gôy qādôš in ing time in the worship of God so neces- Hebrew). As already mentioned, this sary for the task of ruling for God and phrase is not necessarily identical in under God, and by bringing the nations mean­ing to “kingdom of priests” but both into the divine presence. They would phrases function as a pair, like parallel be a people completely devoted to the lines in Hebrew poetry to paint a three- service of God. The rite of circumcision dimensional picture in one’s mind. as practiced in Israel is an excellent illus- The term gôy or nation is the paral- tration of this. Probably the background lel term to kingdom. It is an economic, for understanding circumcision is Egypt, political, and social structure in which a where only the aristocracy, the highest final governmental headship operates. It order of priests and the noblest warriors therefore clearly reminds us of Gen 12:2 as along with the Pharoah and his family explained earlier. This is the City of God, were circumcised, because only they the Kingdom of God. In fulfillment of the were completely devoted to the service promises to Abraham, Israel, by virtue of 14 of the gods. In Deut 10:16 the com­mand the Mosaic Covenant, will provide under to Israel, “circumcise your hearts,” is an the direct rule of God a model of God’s exposition of the earlier command “to rule over human life which is the divine fear the Lo r d your God, to walk in all his aim for the en­tire world. ways, to love him, to serve the Lo r d your “Nation” is modified by the adjective God with all your heart and with all your “holy.” What is a “holy” nation? Unfor­ soul, and to observe the Lo r d ’s commands tunately, the term holy is one that is not and decrees that I am giving you today for very well understood by the church today. your own good” (NASB). Thus, circumci- Definitions commonly given are “pure” or sion is an apt expression for the idea: be “set apart.” Such definitions are errone­ completely devoted to Yahweh. ous because the meaning is determined In Dominion and Dynasty, Stephen by etymology rather than usage, and the 47 etymology is completely speculative. The must acknowledge that this ground idea that “holy” means “set apart” can be belongs to God and enter into an attitude traced to the influence of Baudissin who of consecration. Thus, rather than mark- proposed in 1878 that the root of “holy” ing an item as set apart, “holy” ground is in Hebrew, i.e., qdš, is derived from qd- “to ground prepared, consecrated, or devoted cut.”16 Extensive research recently done to the meeting of God and man. by a French evangelical scholar, Claude- A holy nation, then, is one prepared Bernard Costecalde, has cast better light and consecrated for fellowship with on the meaning of this term since his God and one completely devoted to him. analysis was based on the way the word is Instructions in the Pentateuch are often used rather than on hypothetical origins.17 supported by the statement from Yahweh, Costecalde’s study examined all occur- “for I am holy.” Such statements show that rences in the Old Testament and in ancient complete devotion to God on the part of Near Eastern literature of the same time Israel would show it­self in two ways: (1) (e.g., Akkadian and Uga­ritic). Not sur- identifying with his ethics and morality, prisingly, he discovered that the biblical and (2) sharing his con­cern for the broken meaning was similar to that in the lan- in the community. The commands and guages of the cultures surrounding Israel. instructions in Leviticus 19 and 20 are The basic meaning is not “separated,” but bounded by the claim that Yahweh is holy rather “consecrated to” or “devoted to.” (19:2; 20:26) and include concern against This is also the basic meaning of a [gioj, mistreating the alien and the poor, the the counterpart in Greek.18 blind and the deaf. In the Judgments of Noteworthy is the passage in Exodus the Book of the Covenant, some instruc- 3 where Moses encounters Yahweh in the tions relate to the oppres­sion of orphans burning bush and is asked to remove his and widows (Exod 22:23). God was con- sandals because he is standing on “holy cerned about the rights of the slave (e.g., ground.” This is the first instance in the Exod 21:2-11) and the disenfranchised Old Testament of the root qdš in either an in society. Over the past thirty years, adjectival or noun form. In the narrative, we have heard the strident voice of the Moses is commanded to stay away from feminist, of the anti-nuclear protest, and the bush, from the place from which God of the gay-rights movement. But God speaks, and not from the holy ground. hears the voice of those who are broken There is nothing inaccessible or set apart in body, in economy, and in spirit. If we about the holy ground. Moreover, his are in covenant relationship with Him, fright and shock come from a revela- we must, like Him, hear the voice that is tion of God, and not from the holiness too weak to cry out. of the place. The “holy ground” (Exod God also jealously protects what is 3:5) encompasses a larger space than just devoted to Him. His anger flares when the bush from which God speaks and is his holiness is violated, as in the case of equivalent to “the mountain of God” in Uzzah (2 Sam 6:7), who ex­tended his hand 3:1. The act of removing one’s sandals, like to touch the Ark of the Covenant. As also the act of the nearest relative in Ruth 4:7, is in Psalm 2, when the kings and princes of a cere­mony or rite of de-possession well- the earth gather to touch the Anointed of known in the culture of that time. Moses the Lord, he flares out in anger to protect 48 his King. As in the case of Paul in the (the first line), there is a chiastic New Testament, who in persecuting the structure of four phrases, in which the two central lines portray God’s church was reaching up to heaven as it universal ownership of the world were and to shake his re­bellious fist at and its nations, while the two outer Jesus, the Anointed One (= the Christ), lines express his particular role for Israel. This structure also makes and slap him in the face, and it resulted clear that the double phrase “priestly in his calling himself the chief of sinners kingdom and holy nation” stands in apposition to “personal posses- (1 Tim 1:15). sion.”… The status is to be a special Explanation of the terms “personal treasured possession. The role is to be a priestly and holy community in treasure,” “kingdom of priests,” and 20 the midst of the nations. “holy nation,” then, shows the goal and purpose for Israel. Although the language The literary structure as explained by is dif­ferent from that of Gen 1:26-28 and Wright re-enforces the exposition here of Gen 12:1-3, we can clearly see that the Israel’s covenant relationship with God covenant at Sinai achieves and adminis- and with the world that takes up the son- ters in the Iron Age, through the nation ship and kingship of the divine image in as a whole, the purposes of the promises Genesis 1. given to Abraham. God is establishing The new covenant succeeds where the his kingdom through covenant. The old covenant failed. The purposes of the covenant entails relationship with God Mosaic Covenant are now being fulfilled on the one hand and relationship with in the church. The Apostle Peter calls the the world on the other hand. Israel will church God’s “special treasure,” a “king- model to the world what it means to have dom of priests,” and a “holy nation” (1 a relationship with God, what it means Pet 2:9-10). God has forged both Jews and to treat each other in a genuinely human non-Jews into his new [Adam] hu­man­ity way, and how to be good stewards of the according to Eph 2:15. earth’s resources. As priests, they will mediate the blessings of God to the world The Ten Words (Exodus 20) and be used to bring the rest of the world A brief explanation of the Ten Words to know God. will make plain the claim made re­peatedly Christopher J. H. Wright observes that that the Mosaic Covenant entails a right Exod 19:5-6 has a chiastic structure as relationship to God and social justice follows: in human relationships. Some general Now then, if you really obey my observations on the Ten Words are fun- voice and keep my covenant, damental to a proper understanding of A you will be for me a special this Covenant. personal possession B among all the peoples; The Ten Words form the heart of the B’ for indeed to me belongs covenant between God and Israel at the whole earth Sinai. The Book of the Covenant, as we A’ but you, you will be for me a priestly kingdom and a holy have seen, consists of the Ten Words and 19 nation. the Judgments. The former constitute the basic and fundamental requirements Wright states, of the covenant, the latter are detailed After the initial conditional clause stipulations based on the Ten Words 49 which apply them in practical ways to each other. specific social situations, and draw out Note in particular that a reason or and nuance their meaning in various rationale is given for keeping the first four contingencies and circumstances. commands introduced by kî = “because” Attention has already been drawn to or “for” (20:5, 6, 11). One reason is sup- the fact that the earliest tradition in the plied after commands one and two, and biblical text refers to them as the “Ten one each after the third and fourth com­ Words” (Exod 34:28; Deut 4:13; 10:4) and mands. This is a hint, structurally, to con- not, e.g., as the “Ten Com­mandments” sider the first four commands in pairs. as we now know them. There is, in fact, No reason or rational is given for keep- a particular reason for this and for why ing the last six commands. These entail there are precisely ten instructions. A the basic and inalienable rights of every connection is being made between the human and have been recognized by the covenant at Sinai and the creation. In the customs and laws of every society.21 These creation narrative, God creates the uni- “laws” can be paralleled in law codes from verse by simply speaking, by his word. other societies in the ancient Near East: In the Hebrew Text, the verb wayyō’mer, Law Codes of the Ancient Near East “and he [= God] said” occurs ten times. The Laws of Ur-Nammu 2050 B.C. In a very real way, the entire creation The Laws of Lipit-Ishtar 1850 B.C. depends or hangs upon the word of God. The Laws of Eshnunna c. 1800 B.C. The Code of Hammurapi c. 1700 B.C. Here, the Book of the Covenant is what The Middle Assyrian Laws c. 1100 B.C. forges Israel into a nation. It is her national The Old Hittite Laws 1280 B.C. constitution, so to speak. And it is also Although the Ten Words expresses Ten Words that brings about the birth of these laws negatively, they could also be the nation. Like the creation, Israel as a expressed positively in terms in the inalien- nation hangs upon the Ten Words for her able rights of every human person: very being. Although the biblical text tells us that • Thou shalt not murder = the there are Ten Words, Jewish, Catholic right of every person to their own life and Protestant traditions have differed • Thou shalt not commit adultery in enumerating them. This is due in large = the right of every person to measure to the fact that the repetition of their own home • Thou shalt not steal = the right the Ten Words in Deuteronomy 5 entail of every person to their own some slight variations in the text, doubt- property less due to further reflection on the part • Thou shalt not bear false wit- ness = the right of every person of Moses, and yields, therefore, a different to their own reputation construal of the whole. The focus here is on Exod 20:3-17 where a clear structure in No society can endure that does not the text divides the Ten Words into four respect the basic inalienable rights of commands defining Israel’s relationship every human person. Since the last six to Yahweh and six commands dealing commands can be paralleled in the law with human interpersonal relationships codes of other societies in the ancient within the covenant community. They Near East and were well known to the define a genuinely human way to treat Israelites, no rationale for keeping them 50 need be supplied in the text. The first four strated exegetical insight to observe that commands, however, as Andrew and this was a summary statement of the Stamm have argued, are unparalleled various instructions in this section of in the ancient Near East.22 Certainly the Leviticus and indeed of the last portion of command to worship only one God, the the Ten Words that they elaborate. Later com­mand not to construct or worship on, the prophets and poets used two pairs idols, and the command to observe the of words as summaries of the Torah. One Sabbath are absolutely unique. In fact, the is the pair “loving­kindness and truth” seventh day in Mesopotamia was consid- and another is “justice and righteous- ered unlucky. These commands constitute ness.” Each pair of words is a hendiadys— a new revelation, and God graciously sup­ communicating a single idea through two plies a rationale for keeping them so that words. The first pair speaks of faithful Israel may grasp an adequate motiva­tion loyal love and the second speaks of social for following a practice that was hitherto justice. These are at­tempts to boil down unprecedented. the covenant stipulations into a single The question must also be raised as sound bite. They are important because to why the commands are given as pro- they show that the instructions represent hibitions and why they are formulated faith­ful love as well as social justice in in the Second Person Singular. Why not human inter-relationships. express them positively as inalienable Space permits in this brief treatment of rights? Why not indicate by a second the Mosaic Covenant a short expla­nation person plural that they are addressed of each of the first four of the Ten Words to all? The reason for this is simple. God as these have been more trouble­some for wants each and every individual person Christians to understand than the last six. to think first of the inalienable rights of the other person and not first about their First Command: No Other Gods own inalienable rights. This explains both Before Me the negative formulation and the second Some scholars and traditions have con- person singular. strued the first of the Ten Words as verses Right from the start and all throughout 2 and 3. Yet the fact that the covenant is the history of Israel, attempts were made broadly structured according to a Hittite to boil down, digest, and summarize the treaty demonstrates plainly that v. 2, in instructions of the covenant—both the which Yahweh states, “I am the Lo r d your many Judgments that elaborate the Ten God who brought you out from the Land Words in practical situations as well as of Egypt, from the house of slaves,” is, in the Ten Words themselves. For example, fact, the historical prologue of the treaty Leviticus 18-20 contains a collection so that the first command is just v. 3: “You of instructions that develop further in shall have no other gods before me.” In particular the last six of the Ten Words. both Roman Catholic and Lutheran inter- It is interesting to note that at the mid- pretive traditions, the command in v. 3 and end-points of chapter 19 we find the and the command in v. 4 (“You shall not in­struction “You shall love your neigh- make for yourself an idol”) are counted bour as yourself” (vv. 18, 34).23 Jesus and as one command while the command other rabbis of the first century demon- against coveting is separated into two: 51 “you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife” “They sacrificed to demons, which e and “you shall not covet your neighbor’s are not God [lō’-’ lōhîm, “no-God”].” These declara­tive sentences serve as house.” As Bruce Waltke notes, “according foundations for theological beliefs to the latter construction, the first com- and doctrines. mandment con­demns false worship and On the other hand, religious commands deal with subjective the tenth commandment distinguishes reality. The truth is, regardless of wife from prop­erty.”24 the existence of other gods, human beings create and worship what is The interpretation of the Reformers “no-God” (1 Cor. 8:4-8). As stated and the creeds following in this tradi­ above, Calvin noted that the human tion construe the text to mean we should heart is a perpetual idol factory. Thus, rather than tacitly assuming not have any other gods before the Lord, the existence of other gods, the com- i.e., in preference to the Lord. Thus the mandment assumes the depravity of prohibition is understood in terms of the human race to create and wor- ship their own gods. The religious priorities. According to the Westminster command reflects the reality of the Confession, God must be the highest pri- human situation but does not serve as a theological statement. Other ority in our attitudes, thoughts, words, 25 passages teach monotheism. and ways. Others have inter­preted the prohibition philosophically and argued This distinction is extremely helpful, that the main point is to estab­lish absolute but, nonetheless, assumes the exegesis monotheism and rule out the existence of in terms of priorities is correct. Yet this other deities. exegesis is difficult to maintain. As John The command, however, does appear Walton notes, to acknowledge the existence of other the focus on God as the highest pri- gods. In courses taught in the history ority is as far back as the LXX, which of religion at universities in the west­ern translated the Hebrew ‘l pny (“before world, the suggestion is frequently made me”) with the Greek preposition plēn, “ex­cept.” However, if Hebrew that at an earlier stage of the history of meant to say “except” there were Israel, the people were henotheists—that several ways to do this (e.g., ’ak or is, they be­lieved in the existence of many raq). Similarly, if the Hebrew had intended to express priority, it could gods but consciously chose to worship have used language such as that 26 only one. At a later point in the develop- found in Deut 4:12 or Isa 45:21. ment of Israel’s religion, henotheism gave way to monotheism, i.e., the belief that In an exhaustive study of the use of the ‘l pny- there is only one god. preposition (“before”) plus per- Bruce Waltke alleviates this problem sonal object in the Hebrew Bible, Walton by distinguishing between religious com- shows that the meaning is consistently mand and theological statements: spatial. The linguistic data, then, demand that a spatial sense be considered as the For theological statements of main option. whether other gods exist, we turn to Deuteronomy 4:39: “Acknowledge In the past, students of the text have and take to heart this day that the avoided this interpretation because they Lo r d is God in heaven above and on could not understand how it could make the earth below. There is no other.” Furthermore, Deuteronomy 32:17-21 any sense. Data from the ancient Near identifies idol wor­ship as bowing Eastern culture now illuminate how a spa- down to demons. Verse 17 reads, tial sense is eminently suitable. In the cul- 52 ture of the ancient Near East at this time, actively engaged in the actual the gods operated within a pan­theon, a work necessary to maintain the universe. The next lower divine assembly. John Walton argues that level of deities performed this the first commandment is dis­tinguishing function. Serving under the Yahweh from this common understand- authority of those who actu- ally owned the universe, the ing of deity in the ancient world and his active gods were expected to analysis is worth citing in full: perform in a way that would enable the cosmos to operate [W]hen the first commandment smoothly. Each of the gods at prohibits other gods in the pres­ this level of the pantheon had ence of Yahweh, it is ruling out the a specific sphere of authority concept that He operates within over which to exert his or her a pantheon, a divine assembly, or control. Ideally, all the gods with a consort. J. Bottéro com­pares were to per­form their duties this system to that of a king at the in a way that would keep the head of the state with his family and universe functioning perfectly functionaries around him operating in the manner desired by 27 in a structured hierarchy. the highest authority. Yet the Having this image as background gods, like human beings, are suggests that the Israelites were not portrayed as having weak- to imagine any other gods in the nesses and rivalries that kept the cosmos from operating presence of Yahweh. Scholars could 28 have arrived at this meaning by smoothly. simple lexical study, but without the benefit of the ancient Near Eastern Accordingly, by a comparative inter- material, the results of the lexical pretation of the first com­mandment study made no sense to interpreters. the Israelites were not to construe Consequently, they devised alter- Yahweh as operating within a native explanations, even though commu­nity of gods. Nor were they when the prepo­sitional combina- to imagine Him function­ing as the tion that occurs in the He­brew text head of a pantheon surrounded takes a personal object the meaning by a divine assembly, or having a is consistently spatial. Using com­ consort. In short, He works alone. parative cultural information, we The concept of a pantheon/divine have recovered a neglected sense of assembly assumed a distribution of the text that was there all the time. power among many divine beings. In view of the information pro- The first commandment declared vided from outside the Bible, this simply and unequivocally that Yah- spatial sense gains credibility. In the weh’s authority was absolute. Divine ancient Near East the gods operated power was not distributed among within pantheons and decisions other deities or limited by the will were made in the divine assembly. of the assembly. Furthermore, the principal deities The point of the prohibition of the typically had consorts. For the gods worship of any other gods “besides” life was a com­mu­nity experience. Yahweh was to ensure that Israel’s The destinies of the gods were perception of divinity was to be dis- decreed in assembly, as were the tinct from the peoples around them. destinies of kings, cities, temples This text is readily misunderstood and people. The business of the gods if the interpreter is not aware of the was carried out in the presence of notions being rejected. According to other gods. Lowell Handy helpfully this revised interpretation, the pur- summarizes this system as a hier- pose of the first commandment was archy of authoritative deities and not simply to promote monolatry; active deities. it served the monotheistic agenda another way. Although this text The highest authority in the does not explicitly deny the exis- pantheon was responsible tence of other gods, it does remove for ordering and maintain­ing them from the presence of Yahweh. earth and cosmos but was not 53 If Yahweh does not share power, idols to anything to which we devote our authority, or jurisdiction with them, energy, money, and worth as deity.31 they are not gods in any meaningful 29 sense of the word. Thus, the first Such misunderstandings of the second commandment does not insist on command are due to a couple of factors. the non-existence of other gods; only First is ignorance of the ancient Near that they are powerless. In so doing it disenfranchises them, not merely Eastern ideas concerning the nature and by declaring that they should not be role of idols. Walton classifies ancient worshiped; it leaves them with no 30 Near Eastern thinking about idols into status worthy of worship. three categories. In the progressive revealing and One category is the manufacture of unfolding of God in history and Scripture, images. In the ancient Near Eastern the com­pleted canon shows that God has mindset, only the god could approve and revealed himself completely and fully in initiate the manufacturing process. At the Jesus Christ. Jesus said, “All authority end of the process, special ceremonies and in heaven and on earth has been given rituals, in particular the mouth-opening to me.” Our lives, our service and work, ritual, allowed the god to inhabit the our worship must recognize his authority image and permitted the image to drink, alone. This disenfranchises all gods and eat food, and smell incense.32 idols worshipped in our culture. There is A second category concerns the use no one else for whom I am living my life of the image. Walton notes that “in the than for Jesus Christ. ancient world all formal and public wor- ship revolved around the image.”33 Thus Second Command: No Images / Idols the image involved mediation. It mediated The second of the Ten Words is as fol- revelation from the deity to the people lows: “You shall not make for your­self an and also mediated worship by the people image and form which is in the heaven of the deity as they brought clothes, drink, above and which is in the earth below and and food to honour it. which is in the waters under the earth.” As A third category has to do with ancient John Walton notes, popular prohibition of Near Eastern perceptions concern­ing the images has been influenced significantly function and nature of images. According by four factors: (1) Jewish interpretation, to Walton, (2) controversies over icons in the Eastern as a result of the induction ritual the Orthodox tradition, (3) statues of saints material image was animated by the in the Roman Catholic tradition, and (4) divine essence. There­fore, from now on it did not simply represent the debate over what con­stitutes art from a deity, but also manifested its pres- Christian perspective. In classical Jewish ence. However, this does not mean and Muslim tradi­tions, the second com- that the image had thereby been dei- fied. The deity was the reality that 34 mand led to a prohibition of the represen- was embodied in the image. tation of any living creature. Christian interpretation up to the nineteenth cen- Misunderstanding of the second tury was dominated by the idea that since command is due not only to ignorance God was invisible and transcendent he of the ancient Near Eastern culture and could not be contained in an image. Oth- worldview, but also to faulty analysis ers have spiritualized the text reducing of the grammar of this text. Let us con- 54 sider closely the exact text of the second rendering by “or” is contrary to the syn­tax of the Ten Words in both Exodus and here. It seems that interpretive traditions Deuteronomy. Below the Hebrew text is have molded Deut 5:8 to suit their under- provided as well as the translations of the standing of Exod 20:4. KJV and NIV. Given the analogy of Scripture, since the grammar of the text in Deut 5:8 is Exod 20:4: hn"WmT.-lk'w> ls,P, ^l.-hf,[]t; aOl clearer, a better approach is to use the KJV: Thou shalt not make unto thee clearer text to interpret the unclear in any graven image, or any likeness Exod 20:4. The construction in Exod 20:4 of any thing. NIV: You shall not make for yourself could be understood as a hendiadys, a an idol in the form of anything. common figure of speech in Hebrew liter- ature where one idea is communicated by Deut 5:8: hn"WmT.-lK' ls,p, ^l.-hf,[]t;-aOl two nouns or verbs joined by “and.” The KJV: Thou shalt not make thee any first notable example in the Bible is Gen graven image, or any likeness of any thing. 3:16. The Hebrew text has “I will greatly NIV: You shall not make for yourself increase your pain and your pregnancy.” an idol in the form of anything. This does not mean an increase of pain on the one hand and pregnancy on the other. The translation of the KJV represents early The next sentence goes on to explain, “In Jewish rabbinic understanding, no doubt pain you will bring forth children.” So mediated through the Latin Vulgate of the earlier expression must mean “pain Jerome. This is the way orthodox Jews in pregnancy”—an example of a hen­ today understand the text and also the diadys. In Exod 20:4 “a carved image and way in which Muslims have con­sistently any form” must, therefore, in the light of understood the text. If we believe in the Deut 5:8 mean “a carved image/idol in analogy of Scripture, however, where we any form.” This is the approach taken by interpret the unclear by the clear, this can- the NIV and is one that accurately follows not be the correct meaning of this text. the grammar of the Hebrew language and The original text in Hebrew actually uses the clear meaning of one text to assist conjoins the objects of the verb with waw, the interpretation of the other rather than a copulative coordinating conjunction im­pose the faulty interpretation of Exodus that always means “and.” A series of on the clear text in Deuteronomy. alternative clauses may be joined by waw, Accurate exegesis of the second com- but this does not mean that waw has the mand, then, shows that this text has noth- same value as “or” in English.35 Hebrew ing to do with art or the representation of does have a conjunction “or,” i.e., ’ô and aspects of the created order with images. it could have been used here to designate Rather, the command has to do with the alternative possibility. The text in images used as mediators of the presence Exod 20:4 is difficult, but the early rab- or revelation of deity from god to human binic understanding does not follow the or mediation of the worship of people to norms of grammar in Hebrew. Note that the deity. As Walton observes, “the pro- the parallel text in Deuteronomy does not hibition of images excluded in particular have the conjunction waw, but employs that sort of worship that understood cul- instead a con­struct phrase: “a carved tic rituals to meet the needs of the deity image / idol of any form.” Certainly the through the image.”36 55 standing, the results from the study of the Third Command: Do Not Misuse the linguistic data must be set within the con- Name of God text of the ancient Near Eastern culture. Popular misunderstanding also exists As Walton points out, this depends upon concerning the third of the Ten Words: a careful definition of magic, the world “You shall not lift up the name of Yahweh in which the false or proper use of names your God worthlessly [laššāw’].” Once occurs.38 In the ancient Near East and also again, better knowledge of both cultural in the Greco-Roman world there was no setting and linguistic data can improve demarcating line between religion and our understanding of this text. magic. Later, influence from the medieval First, the basic import of this instruc- church and the Enlight­enment resulted in tion is not related to the use of God’s distinguishing the two. In the past, how- name idly in blasphemy, minced oaths, or ever, interpreters have not appreciated profanity. This is certainly inappropri­ate how names were used in the framework and res­pect and reverence for the divine of magic and power. name is enjoined in Deut 28:58. G. Frantz-Szabó offers a comprehensive Second, the traditional view has and helpful definition of magic in the con- focused on false oaths, as Bruce Waltke text of invoking supernatural powers: notes: [Magic] is a reasoned system of [T]he operative word is šāw’ (KJV, techniques for influencing the gods “in vain”; cf. Lev. 24:15).... Šāw’ is and other supernatural powers that used in biblical Hebrew in several can be taught and learned. … Magic ways: to denote to be false or deceit- is a praxis, indeed a science, that ful with respect to speaking (Deut. through established and for the most 5:20 in reference to being a false part empirical means seeks to alter witness against a neighbour; Exod or maintain earthly circumstances, 23:1 in reference to a false report or even call them forth anew. Magic or rumor); with respect to being not only manipulates occult forces false in worship (Isa. 1:13, which but also endeavors to master the higher supernatural power with discusses a false tribute to God 39 where the people hold to a form of which religion is concerned. worship, but their heart is not there); and with respect to being false in The name of God represents and sums prophecy (Ezek. 13:3-7, which refers up his entire character and person. To use to false prophets who claim to have seen a vision, but there is no reality that name brings his person and his power to what they have seen). Herbert into a particular situation. When we use Huffmon argues from both biblical his name for something that is contrary and ex­tra­biblical evidence that the commandment prohibits false or to who he is, contrary to his charac­ter, frivolous swearing. “The focus is on we lift it up to a lie. Walton observes that not making God an accomplice, as it “the name is equivalent to the iden­tity of were to one’s falseness, whether of 37 intent or of performance.” the deity, and the divine identity can be commandeered for illicit use. The prob- Thus, according to analysis of the lin- lem of identity theft is widely recognized guistic data, the command has to do today.”40 In Ps 139:19ff. David disassociates with lifting up the name of God falsely himself in the strongest of terms from fel- or worthlessly. But this does not provide low Israelites who want him to join them a full picture. in a scheme to murder someone and are Third, in order to get a valid under- 56 doing this using the name of Yahweh. ferences between the biblical command Misusing the name of God occurs among to observe the Sabbath and the cultural Christians today when someone says, context of the ancient Near East. We need “the Lord led me to do such and such a to attend carefully to the linguistic data in thing,” when we know from Scripture the relevant texts. In Exod 20:8-11, the Isra- that this is not according to the revealed elites are commanded to remember the will of God. Sabbath Day to consecrate it. In the Old Testament, the notion of remembering is Fourth Command: Keep the Sabbath not merely mental recall, it entails acts in The fourth of the Ten Words is a posi- space and time based on keeping some- tive injunction to observe the Sab­bath. The thing at the front of one’s mind. Israel is to importance of this injunction is indicated consecrate the Sabbath; it is a commemo- by its length—it is the longest of the Ten rative event that belongs to Yahweh and is Words. For several decades in the twen- to be devoted to Him. Both humans—free tieth century, scholars attempted to find or slaves, citizens or resident aliens—and precursors to the Israelite Sabbath in the animals are to cease from the business nations surrounding them. This effort and labour ordinarily under­taken to pro- was entirely unsuccessful. The Hebrew vide for our own life and sustenance. It is šabbāt is not connected to the Babylonian an act of faith acknowledg­ing Yahweh as šabbatu, which is the fifteenth day of the the creator and giver of life and as the one month. Moreover the seventh, fourteenth, who rules our lives. twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days of The biblical viewpoint is fundamen- certain months in the Babylonian calendar tally different from the ancient Near were considered unlucky. Nonetheless, Eastern perspectives, in spite of many the concept of divine rest is well attested parallels on the surface. Walton states, in ancient Near Eastern texts and the [I]n the Old Testament people work cultural context can cast great light on for their own benefit and provision, interpretation of the fourth command. rather than to meet the needs of God Six aspects of the notion of divine rest or to do his work for Him. When commanded to share the rest of God in the ancient Near East drawn mainly on the Sabbath, it is not to participate from the great epics such as the Babylo- in it per se, but to recognize His work of bringing and maintaining nian Enuma Elish are deline­ated by Wal- order. God’s rest symbolizes His ton.41 These can be briefly summarised control over the cosmos, which His as follows: (1) in the ancient epics, the people recognize whenever they yield to Him the day they could have 42 divine rest was disturbed by rebellion; used to provide for themselves. (2) divine rest was achieved after con­flict; (3) divine rest was achieved after acts of On the other hand, the parallel between creation establishing order; (4) di­vine rest the ancient Near Eastern building of was achieved in the temple; (5) divine rest temples for divine rest and the biblical was characterized by ongoing rule and creation narrative culminating in divine stability; and (6) divine rest was achieved rest is valid. The framework of the account by the gods by creating people to do their of creation in the Bible strongly sug­gests work. that the cosmos is constructed as a sanc- There are both similarities and dif- tuary / temple in which God may take 57 up His rest. work of Christ. We cannot do anything Discussion of this command brings us to add to the work of Jesus Christ. We are right into the middle of the problem of the simply to enjoy it. relationship be­tween the old covenant In Deut 5:15, a different reason is given and the new, a matter which can­not be for the Sabbath. The peo­ple of Israel must adequately discussed here. Nonetheless, remember that they were slaves in Egypt a few comments on the Sabbath are in and God brought them out of slavery, so order. they should give their slaves a chance to First, we must note that the Sabbath rest as they do on the Sabbath. Paul, in Col was the sign between Yahweh and Israel 1:12-14, speaks as do many authors of the of the old covenant, as is clearly stated New Testament of the work of the Lord in Exod 31:12-18. Covenants often have a Jesus as a new Exodus. Egypt is a picture physical sign associated with them. The or symbol of the world; Pharaoh is a sym- rainbow was given as a physical sign of bol of Satan, and their slavery is a symbol God’s promise in his covenant with Noah. of our enslavement to our passion and Circumcision was com­manded as a physi- pride from which Christ has redeemed cal sign in the body of every male in Israel us in his death on the cross. Jesus is the as a sign of God’s covenant with Abraham. new Joshua who will lead those people Similarly, the Sabbath is stipulated as a con­nected to him by the new covenant to permanent sign between Yahweh and enter and enjoy God’s Sabbath rest. Israel that the creator God who created the world in six days and then rested has Summary consecrated them to himself. The first four commands in the Ten Second, as we compare the old cov- Words can be construed as two pairs. John enant and the new covenant, the self­ Walton’s summary is helpful in grasping identity of the people of the Lord in the their function and intent:43 old covenant was that of children, while Commandments 1 and 2 the self-identity of the people of the Lord Yahweh’s mode of operating in the in the new covenant is that of mature two realms (divine and human): adults (Gal 3:24, 25). The external forms • Commandment 1 concerns how Yahweh was not to be and shadows of the old covenant have perceived as operating in the been done away now that the reality has divine realm—no distribution of authority to other divinities. come in Christ (Col 2:16, 17). • Commandment 2 concerns how Now of what does the Sabbath speak? Yahweh was not to be perceived Let us notice at once that in the two texts as operating in the human realm—no iconographic media- in the Old Testament where we have tor of his presence, revelation, or the Ten Words, the reason given for the worship offered to him. Sabbath in one text is different from the Commandments 3 and 4 reason given in the other text. In Exodus, Yahweh’s exercise of power: the reason is given in 20:11. God’s work • Commandment 3 concerns of creation was complete, it was finished; how Yah­weh’s power / author- ity was not to be per­ceived— they could add nothing to it. They were people were to recognize it by invited to enter his rest and enjoy his re­fraining from attempts to control it. work. Hebrews applies this notion to the 58 • Commandment 4 concerns how in this instance is not sustained by the evi- Yah­weh’s power/authority was dence from the text. Fellowship offerings to be perceived —people were to recognize it by refraining from can be for an expression of thanksgiving attempts to control their own or offered as the result of a vow according lives on the Sabbath. to Lev 7:12-18. The latter is appropriate since covenant making entails vows. The The Ceremony of Covenant offering in Exodus 24 is not specified as Ratification (Exod 24:1-11) a sin or reparation sacrifice, nor is the Two episodes dominate Exodus 24. verb “sprinkled” used as is normal for The ceremony of covenant ratification offerings for sin. The blood is applied to is described in vv. 1-11. In vv. 12-18, the altar representing Yahweh as well as Moses ascends Mount Sinai to receive to the people and certainly he does not in­structions on how Israel is to worship need to be cleansed from sin. In­stead, the God. ceremony indicates the meaning. Half of The ceremony of covenant ratification the blood is put on Yahweh and half of is significant for our understanding of the the blood is put on the people. In be­tween Sinai Covenant. First, Moses reports to these two symbolic acts is the reading of the people the Ten Words and the Judg- the Book of the Covenant and the vow of ments who, as in Exod 19:7-8, agree to the the people to keep its stipulations. The covenant. Then Moses commits the Words symbolism is that the one blood joins and Judgments to writing in a document the two parties.45 What is most similar to referred to in v. 8 as “the Book of the Cov- the ceremony of Exodus 24 is a wedding. enant.” Early in the morning he builds an Two people who are not related by blood altar and erects twelve pillars. Presum- are by virtue of the covenant of marriage ably the altar represents Yahweh, for we now closer than any other kin relation. It are clearly told that the twelve stone stelae is by virtue of the covenant at Sinai that represent the people, i.e., the twelve tribes Yahweh becomes the gō’ēl, i.e., the nearest of Israel. Moses has assistants from the relative, and that Israel becomes not just a twelve tribes offer burnt offerings and nation, but a “people,” i.e., a kinship term fellowship/peace offer­ings. Moses col- specifying relation­ship to the Lord. lects the blood from the bulls sacrificed This interpretation is confirmed by the and pours half on the altar. Next he reads fact that a party representing the people the Book of the Covenant, and the people ascends the mountain and eats a meal. vow to obey and practice the covenant Examples of eating a communal meal stipulations. Then he scatters/tosses the to conclude a covenant are numerous.46 other half of the blood on the people. In This ancient Near Eastern and bib­lical reality he may have actually sprinkled practice is the basis for banquets at wed- the blood on the pillars that represented dings today. the people. Concerning the blood tossed on the The Covenant at Sinai within the people, Bruce Waltke states, “The latter is Larger Story: The Significance of called the ‘blood of the covenant’ because the Form it effects the covenant relationship by The form of the covenant as given cleansing the recipients from sin.”44 This in Exodus and Deuteronomy is impor­ interpretation may appear plausible, but 59 tant for a proper under­standing of the (Matt 5:17) and that Hebrews declares is Mosaic Covenant and foundational for now made ob­solete by the new covenant correlating the old covenant with the (Heb 8:13). What we can say to represent new. The form and literary structure in accurately the teaching of Scripture is both Exodus and Deuteronomy shows the that the righteousness of God codified, following points: enshrined, and encapsulated in the old (1) The Ten Commandments are foun- covenant has not changed and that this dational to the Ordinances and con­versely, same right­eousness is now codi­fied and the Ordinances or Case Laws apply and enshrined in the new.48 extend the Ten Commandments in a prac- (3) When one compares Exodus and tical way to all areas of life. Nonetheless, Deuteronomy with contemporary docu­ one cannot take the Ten Com­mand­ments ments from the ancient Near East in as “eternal” and the Ordinances as “tem- both content and form two features are poral” for both sections together con­ without parallel: (a) In content the biblical stitute the agreement or covenant made documents are identical to ancient Near between God and Israel. Eastern law codes, but do not have the (2) It is common to categorize and clas- form of a law code. (b) In form the biblical sify the laws as (a) moral, (b) civil, and (c) documents are identical to ancient Near ceremonial, but this classification is for- Eastern cove­nants or international trea- eign to the material and imposed upon it ties, but not in content. This is extremely from the outside rather than arising from instructive. God desires to rule in the the material and being clearly marked by midst of his people as king. He wants to the lit­erary structure of the text. In fact, direct, guide, and instruct their lives and the ceremonial, civil, and moral laws are lifestyle. Yet he wants to do this in the con- all mixed together, not only in the Judg- text of a relationship of love, loyalty, and ments or ordinances, but in the Ten Words trust. This is com­pletely dif­ferent from as well (the Sabbath may be properly clas- Greek and Roman law codes or ancient sified as ceremonial). Those who claim Near Eastern law codes. They represent an the distinction between ceremonial, civil, impersonal code of conduct binding on all and moral law do so because they want to citizens and enforced by penalties from a affirm that the ceremonial (and in some controlling authority. We should always cases, civil) laws no longer apply but the remember that Torah, by contrast, means moral laws are eternal. Unfortunately, personal “in­struction” from God as Father John Frame in his new and magisterial and King of his people rather than just work on The Doctrine of the Christian Life “law” so that a term like “covenantal and Bruce Waltke in his equally magiste- instruc­tion” might be more use­ful. rial An Old Testament Theology perpetu- Our view of the old covenant is ate this tradition.47 This is an inaccurate enhanced not only by accurate exegesis representation of Scripture at this point. which properly attends to the cultural Exodus 24 clearly indi­cates that the Book context and language of the text, but also of the Cove­nant consists of the Ten Words allows the text to inform us of its own and the Judgments, and this is the Cove- literary structure and considers the place nant (both Ten Words and Judgments) that of the text in the larger story. The bibli- Jesus declares he has completely fulfilled cal theological framework is especially 60 important because there we come to see for Adam. the Ten Commandments not merely as 7H. Ringgren, “rp'Av šôpar,” in Theological fundamental requirements determining Dictionary of the Old Testament (15 vols.; divine-human and human-human rela- ed. G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer tionships as moral principles, but we Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry; Grand come to view them as the foundation of Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 14:541-42. true social justice and the basis of what it 8The Hebrew word torâ simply means means to be a son or daughter of God, an “direction” or “instruction.” Adamic figure, i.e., truly and genuinely 9There is a contrast here between the human. covenant at Sinai and the covenant at Creation. In Eden, the man dwells on the EndnoteS mountain and walks with God without 1I am grateful to the following for con- a mediator. I am indebted to John Meade structive criticism and proofing of my for this insight. work: Barbara Gentry, John Meade, and 10Hebrew segullâ occurs only in Exod 19:5; Jason Parry. Deut 7:6; 14:2; 26:18; 1 Chron 29:3; Mal 2The Covenant in Genesis 1-2 and the 3:17; Ps 135:4; and Eccl 2:8. All occur- Covenant with Noah in Genesis 6-9 have rences refer back to Exod 19:5; except 1 been discussed in greater detail in Peter Chron 29:3 and Eccl 2:8 which are valu- J. Gentry, “Kingdom Through Covenant: able to show the concrete, ordinary use Humanity as the Divine Image,” The of the word. Southern Baptist Journal of Theology, 12, 11Some would employ the term “explana- no. 1 (2008): 16-42. tory” or “evidential” as the use is not 3S. Dempster, Do­min­ion and Dynasty: strictly causal. See A. Aejmelaeus, A Biblical Theology of the Hebrew Bible “Function and Interpretation of yk in Bib- (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2003), lical Hebrew,” Journal of Biblical Literature 58-59. 105, no. 2 (1986): 193-209. 4W. Randall Garr, “‘Image’ and ‘Likeness’ 12See the majesterial treatment by E. Jenni, in the Inscription from Tell Fakhariyeh,” Die hebräischen Prä­positionen, Band 3: Die Israel Exploration Journal 50, nos. 3-4 Präposition Lamed (Stuttgart: Kolhammer, (2003): 227-34. 2000), 23-25, 54-57, 77. 5See Gordon J. Wenham, “Sanctuary 13See F. Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. Briggs, Symbolism in the Garden of Eden eds., A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Story,” in “I Studied Inscriptions from Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1907; before the Flood” (ed. R. S. Hess and D. T. repr., 1953). Tsumura; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 14See John Meade, “The Meaning of Cir- 1994), 399-404; William J. Dumbrell, The cumcision in Israel: A Proposal for a Search for Order: Biblical Eschatology in Transfer of Rite from Egypt to Israel,” Focus (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994), 24-25; Adorare Mente 1 (Spring 2008): 14-29. and M. Hutter, “Adam als Gärtner und Online: http://adoraremente.sbts.edu. König (Gen. 2:8, 15),” Biblische Zeitschrift 15Dempster, Dominion and Dynasty, 101-02. 30 (1985): 258-62. The quotation is taken from J. I. Durham, 6Exod 15:17 shows that Canaan becomes Exodus (Word Biblical Commentary; for Israel what the garden sanctuary was Waco, TX: Word, 1987), 263. 61 16W. W. Baudissin, “Der Begriff der (ed. E. Blum, C. Macholz, and E. W. view of Christopher Wright, who Heiligkeit im Alten Testament“ in Stegemann; Neukirchen: Neukirch- says, “The fundamental thrust of Studien zu semitischen Religionsge- ner Verlag, 1990), 111-15. the verse is not Yahweh’s sole deity, schichte (by W. W. Baudissin; Teil 2; 24Bruce K. Waltke, An Old Testament but Yahweh’s sole sovereignty over Leipzig: Grunow, 1878), 1-142. Theology (Grand Rapids: Zonder- Israel” (Deuteronomy [Peabody, MA: 17Claude-Bernard Costecalde, Aux van, 2007), 411. The exposition Hendrickson, 1996], 68). origines du sacré biblique (Paris: here shows clearly the difference 31Ibid., 309-313. Letouzey et Ané, 1986). Unfortu- between “having no other gods 32Ibid. nately, for North America, this before Yahweh” and “not mak- 33Walton, “Interpreting the Bible as work is in French and, therefore, ing an idolatrous image” whereas an Ancient Near Eastern Docu- not widely known in the evangeli- “coveting a neighbor’s wife” and ment,” 311. cal world. “coveting a neigh­bor’s house” are 34Ibid., 312. 18See H. G. Liddell, R. Scott, and not as distinct notions. Therefore 35Brown, Driver, and Briggs, A Hebrew H. S. Jones, A Greek-English Lexicon the Jewish and Reformed division and English Lexicon of the Old Testa- (9th ed. with revised supple­ment; is followed here. ment. Oxford: Oxford University, 1996), 25Ibid., 415-16. 36Walton, “Interpreting the Bible as who give as the fundamental mean- 26John Walton, “Interpreting the Bible an Ancient Near Eastern Docu- ing, “devoted to the gods.” as an Ancient Near Eastern Docu- ment,” 313. 19Translation by Christopher J. H. ment,” in Israel: An­cient Kingdom or 37Waltke, Old Testament Theology, Wright in The Mission of God: Unlock- Late Invention? Archaeology, Ancient 419. ing the Bible’s Grand Narrative (Down- Civilizations, and the Bible (ed. Daniel 38Ibid., 316. ers Grove: InterVarsity, 2006), 255. I. Block: Nashville: Broadman & 39G. Frantz-Szabó, “Hittite Witchcraft 20Ibid., 255-56 (emphasis in origi- Holman, 2008), 306. and Divination,” in Civilizations of nal). 27J. Bottéro, “Intelligence and the the Ancient Near East (ed. Jack M. 21See C. S. Lewis, The Abolition of Man Technical Function of Power: Enki/ Sasson; New York: Charles Scrib- (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1943). Ea,” in Mesopotamia: Writing, Reason- ner’s Sons, 1995), 2007. 22Johann J. Stamm and Maurice E. ing and the Gods (Chicago: University 40John Walton, “Interpreting the Bible Andrew, The Ten Commandments in of Chicago, 1992), 232-50; the citation as an Ancient Near Eastern Docu- Recent Research (Studies in Biblical is found on p. 233. ment,” 318. Theology; Second Series 2; Naper- 28Lowell Handy, Among the Host of 41Ibid., 319-22. ville, IL: Alec R. Allenson, 1967). Heaven (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 42Ibid., 322. I have not carefully researched 1994), 97. 43Ibid., 323. whether or not the command con- 29The significance of this notion may 44Bruce K. Waltke, An Old Testament cerning misuse of the divine name be extended if we attach to it the Theology, 435. is found in other ancient Near East- idea that in the ancient Near East 45Walther Eichrodt, Theology of the Old ern societies. something was not considered to Testament (2 vols.; trans. J. A. Baker; 23The command means “to provide exist if it had not been assigned a Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961), assistance” or “be useful” to one’s name, a place, or a function. See 1:43, 156-157. neighbor. See A. Malamat, “‘You discussion in J. Walton, Ancient Near 46Examples of a communal meal as a Shall Love Your Neighbour as Eastern Thought and the Old Testament covenant ratification: Gen 31:44, 54; Yourself’: A Case of Misinterpreta- (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006), 87-97. 2 Sam 3:12-13, 20. The accession of tion,” in Die Hebräische Bibel und ihre 30Walton, “Interpreting the Bible as a king involved a covenant (2 Sam zweifache Nachgeschichte: Festschrift an Ancient Near Eastern Docu- 3:21; 5:3 = 1 Chr 11:3; Jer 34:8-18) and für Rolf Rendtorff zum 65. Geburtstag ment,” 306-309. This is close to the communal meal as ratification (1 62 Sam 11:15; 1 Kgs 1:9, 25; 3:15). 47John M. Frame, The Doctrine of the Christian Life (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 2008), 213-17. Frame states, “the distinction [moral, ceremonial and civil law in the Westminster Con­fession] is a good one, in a rough-and-ready way” (213). Later he admits that “the laws of the Pentateuch are not clearly labeled as moral, civil, or ceremonial” (214). In the end, he struggles to provide clear criteria to show what is and what is not applicable for Christians today from the old covenant. Also see Waltke, Old Testament Theology, 434, 436. 48Waltke does say that the Ten Words are an expression of the character and heart of God (see Old Testament Theology, 413), but his approach does not provide a biblical criterion for determining how the old covenant applies to us today. As a code, includ- ing the Ten Words, it does not apply. The righteousness enshrined in this code, however, is the same that is now enshrined for us in the new covenant.

63 Israel in Slavery and Slavery in Israel D. Jeffrey Mooney

D. Jeffrey Mooney is Assistant Pro- C. J. H. Wright notes that most epics of also refer to the follower/ servant of a par- fessor of Christian Studies at California national origin were elaborate ethnic ticular god.7 Throughout Exodus, Moses Baptist University in Riverside, California. myths meant to inspire worship of the predominately uses the term db[ for slave He also serves as Senior Pastor at nation’s ancestral past. By contrast, talk. When db[ means “slave,”8 Moses First Baptist Church Norco in Norco, Israel openly recorded that they emerged distinguishes it from rykif, “servant”9 and California. Dr. Mooney received his Ph.D. from state-imposed slavery that became at times sets it in correspondence with 1 from The Southern Baptist Theological increasingly difficult and inhumane. the feminine form hma, meaning “female Seminary Consequently, their post-liberation legis- servant.”10 As with other common terms in lation seems consistent with the reality of the biblical text, context determines which being former slaves. This truth produced a reference Moses was making. The context certain tension within Israel. On the one of db[ in Exodus grants the reader clarity hand, they accepted the status quo reality as to the two distinct meanings that the of slavery. On the other hand, their legisla- single root holds in the same book. 2 tion produced a covenant-subversiveness db[ appears in two major pericopes that emphasized the ideal of personal within Exodus, chapters 1-12 and the freedom. A canonical reading reveals that Covenant Regulations in 20:22-23:33. the biblical writers considered slavery a When using db[ within the first twelve historical reality that sets the canonical chapters of Exodus, there is little doubt stage for God’s revelation of Himself that Moses is referring to enslavement, through His sustaining, redeeming, and not servanthood of the Hebrews (1:8-21). shaping Israel both as a nation and as a In Exod 1:13-14 Moses states that the community of faith. Further, a deepened Egyptians made the sons of Israel “work awareness of slavery in Exodus yields a as slaves” (ESV). However, the Masoretic better understanding of Israel’s liberation Text conveys a more difficult portrait of and legislation, which are both central to the Israelite’s lot. db[ denotes the vari- the history of redemption. ous and harsh “labors” that Egypt had imposed onto Israel (1:14). The form again Coming to Terms with Slavery in appears in Exod 6:5, preceded by the Exodus preposition m. translated as “bondage” or The primary Hebrew root used most “enslavement.” This occurrence emerges often to denote slavery is db[.3 The verb in the context of the promise to the fathers. db[ occurs 317 times in the Old Testa- The reference to the promise emphasizes ment and typically means “to serve.”4 The not only their prisoner status, “bond- 11 nominal form of the root appears over age,” but their landlessness. Exodus twice as often as the verbal form (over 800 9:20-21 references the Egyptian’s personal times).5 Like the verbal form, more often slaves, which, by contrast, highlights the than not, the term indicates a “servant.”6 “prisoner of war” type slave that Israel However, the substantive may also mean has become. Moreover, note that in this “slave, subject, official, or vassal.” It can passage the Egyptians treat the Israelites 64 as livestock—as goes the livestock so goes qualified. If he wants to retain his wife the slave. In the regulations for the Pass- whom he acquired while in slavery he over (Exod 12:44), the term is clearly bal- must stay.13 The text notes that the slave anced against the “hired servant” (rykif). may stay out of love for his wife and The term is attached to the term “man” master. Childs asserts that this occurrence rendering “slave-man.” This occurrence of “love” should not be romanticized.14 is the only appearance of this particular However, that argument only makes sense construction. if the master would have been the only Within the Covenant Regulations (Exod one mentioned. The slave wife appears 20:22-23:33), there is a marked change in alongside the owner, however, and thus the usage of the term db[. In chapters provides a definite filial tone to the pos- 1-12 the term is synonymous with afflic- sibly emancipated slave’s decision.15 tion, backbreaking work, and property As mentioned above, the biblical status. In the Covenant Regulations, the writers use the corresponding terms db[ term appears in Israelite legislation with and hma. The normal rendering of hma is a new hue. The term refers to people of “female slave.” The term conveys not only unequal status but equal personhood. It is the slave’s gender but her concubine sta- institutionalized in a different sense than tus with respect to her master (Gen 21:10, that of Egypt, whether the Old Kingdom 12, 13; Lev 25:6). While not being able to slave, attached to the land and homes of go free as the male slaves—which would their owner forever or the eighteenth- not have been ideal for her in the first dynasty prisoner of war slave paradigm place—she is afforded rights within the the Israelites experienced. This term now larger familial structure. There are three signifies individuals whose dignity is to scenarios that threaten her status as an be guarded and whose release must be hma. First, she may not please her master eventually secured. In regard to the past who has designated her to this status for point, the law of manumission begins in himself (21:8). In this case, she must be Exodus 21. The phrase yrb[ db[ occurs ransomed by her family/people. Second, only here in this passage. The debate the hma may be designated for the owner’s that surrounds the term yrb[ is beyond son (21:9). In this case, she is to be treated the scope of the current project. There as a daughter, with all rights and privi- seems to be enough evidence to take the leges afforded her. Third, the owner may term as a pejorative ethnic derivation take another wife (21:10). In this final case, that applies to “outsiders” in general and she still maintains full marital rights. Israelites in particular. Of the thirty occur- Concerning the possible bodily injuries rences of the term, it is applied to Israel that a slave might incur, both terms, db[ to contrast them with the Egyptians (Gen and hma appear in Exod 21:20-32. The loss 39:14; 41:12; 43:32; Exod 1:15; 2:1, 6; 3:18) of dignity and the removal of oppression or with the Philistines (1 Sam 4:6; 13:3; appear front and center here. In 21:26, 14:11, etc.). Exodus 21:1 seems to indicate db[ balances the occurrence of the term that the term became coterminous with in 21:20. The latter context displays the “Israelite.”12 The Hebrew slave is freed status quo concept of inferior status. The by his owner after six years of servitude. former occurrence examined alongside However, the nature of freedom seems 21:32 helps convey the tension within 65 Israelite legislature of the slave as inferior setting, and many have also affirmed that in social status but equal in personage and the nature of the biblical story demands extends dignity toward all slaves for any at least some actual event in Israel’s past. bodily injury. Childs notes that a slave is For example, Sir Allan Gardiner, one of the not freed because of property damage but leading Egyptologists of the last century because he is an oppressed human being.16 as well as a rigid historical critic of the bib- If a male or female slave is gored by an lical testimony, asserted the following: ox and does not die, the ox still dies just [That] Israel was in Egypt under one as in the case of the free man or woman form [of oppression] or another no and the minor male or female (21:29-31). historian could possibly doubt; a The gravity of the punishment is different legend of such tenacity representing the early fortunes of a peoples under due to the social status of the slave over so unfavorable an aspect could not against the free person. This element is have arisen save as a reflection, however much distorted, of real consistent with the Ancient Near East 17 occurrences. (ANE) policy of slaves as socially inferior to the free. However, the concept of per- The epigraphic data found in Egyptian sonhood also appears here in contrast to inscriptions and annals details a signifi- similar legislation just below. In 21:33-36, cant influx of Semitic peoples between the the writer deals with similar scenarios, but eighteenth dynasty and the accession of 18 with animals. Thus, the ox that falls prey Ramses II. Significantly more than find- to the goring ox costs his owner money, ing Semitic names as far south as Thebes not blood, even of the goring ox. Thus, (in Deir el-Medineh) during the Empire 19 the db[ is not as cattle (cf. the Egyptian Period, the portrait of the age aligns perspective above). The slave is treated closely with the picture of Israelite slavery 20 as a person both in the arrangement of found in Exodus. Brickmaking seems to the legislation and the treatment within be a verified act of slave labor that included the legislation. unattainable quotas set by a two-tiered Thus, in Exodus, with respect to chap- Egyptian administration including the ters 1-12, the db[ denoted the institution- mention of “stick-wielding” taskmasters ally afflicted individual that worked on ready to “encourage” the apathetic. There state managed building projects. Concern- is also evidence of Semitic peoples clearly ing the db[ in the Covenant Regulations, involved with state-sponsored building he is an individual who lacks the status of projects and worker requests for time off the free man but not the dignity of person- for worship of one’s personal deity. I will hood as the free man. The above findings address each of these in turn. gain clarity under a historical and canoni- The third millennium witnessed no cal analysis of slavery in Exodus. support of state-enforced labor in Egypt. A land-bound serfdom existed in Egypt Israel in Slavery: A Historical during this time.21 Foreigners were Analysis typically immigrants, slave tribute from Concerning the oppression of the local rulers, prisoners of war, or slaves Hebrew people, even some of the most purchased through merchants. They critical scholars have recognized how characteristically functioned in the service well the biblical narrative fits the Egyptian of households or in temple employment. 66 This scene changed during the New centuries in particular portrays a similar Kingdom. This sudden turn in occupa- landscape. Kitchen notes that very detailed tion parallels Egypt’s new policy of work records demonstrate that an indi- wider border control during this period vidual or entire crew could be absent for of time.22 For 350 years, Egypt waged several days for worship. While the rea- military campaigns in Canaan and Syria sons provided in the registers vary, they that resulted in large numbers of Semites include the phrase that a man might be being transported from their countries able “to make an offering to his god.”31 to Egypt.23 The most notable example of Straw-based brickmaking, a two-tiered this appears in the tomb chapel of the Egyptians administration, a “prisoner of vizier Rekhmire (ca.1450), where one may war” type slavery for Semitic peoples, observe foreign slaves making bricks for and requests for cultic holidays seem to state-sponsored building projects24 under have existed in both Egyptian history and the watching eyes of their rod-bearing Israel’s Scriptures. Thus, one may argue overseers.25 Kitchen cites numerous that the Egyptian historical landscape accounts of quotas being set for the work- reflected the same social and historical ers and recorded afterwards,26 including backdrop as Moses presents, which, in a letter from a rather annoyed Egyptian turn, provides the reader with an accu- official stating that “There are no [men] rate historical portrait of Israel’s period here to make bricks, and no straw in the of slavery. district either.”27 In the second millennium slave labor Israel in Slavery: A Canonical was pervasively state labor. Not only Analysis does one find evidence of this in the tomb David Clines argues for the following chapel scene of Rekhmire, but also in other overarching theme of the Torah: inscriptions throughout Egypt. Kitchen The theme of the Pentateuch is the notes that Ramses II gave no thought to partial fulfillment—which implies forcibly conscripting foreigners for state also the partial non-fulfillment—of sponsored projects. He commands grain the promise to or blessing of the patriarchs. The promise or bless- rations for both his soldiers as well as the ing is both the divine initiative in “Apiru-folk”28 during a building project a world where human initiatives always lead to disaster, and a reaf- for one of his namesake projects, the firmation of the primal divine inten- 32 “Temple of Ramses II Beloved of Ma’at.”29 tions for man. The practical administrative structure of these projects seemed to look like the A canonical analysis of the slavery texts two-tiered model found in Exodus. On in Exodus raises the question, “When the top tier was Egyptian overseers and Israel read this text as Scripture, how did below them a foreman, typically an ethnic they understand the notion of slavery native to the slaves, set over the workers within the larger theme of God’s prom- but under the Egyptians.30 ise/fulfillment to the Patriarchs?” Thus, Exodus records that Moses petitioned unlike the historical analysis that appears Pharaoh to allow the slaves time off for above, canonical analysis exposes the worship (Exod 5:1-4). Egyptian docu- testimony of the biblical writers within mentation of the thirteenth and twelfth the larger metanarrative. As historical 67 analysis seeks to place the testimony theirs and will be servants there, and of Israel into its larger ANE context, so they will be afflicted for four hundred years. But I will bring judgment canonical analysis seeks to demonstrate on the nation that they serve, and that the historical testimony of Israel has afterward they shall come out with been shaped to say something expressly great possessions. As for yourself, you shall go to your fathers in peace; theological about Israel and her God. The you shall be buried in a good old testimony of Exodus demonstrates at least age. And they shall come back here in the fourth generation, for the three things about Israel and Yahweh. iniquity of the Amorites is not yet First, slavery in Exodus is always in the complete” (Gen 15:12-16). context of the Divine Warrior’s fear- inspiring power. This reality provides Thus, canonically, the slavery of Abra- the stage on which God reveals himself ham’s offspring was explicitly known and and his nature in word, mighty acts of accomplished by God. Note also that the redemption, and promise-fulfillment. promise of enslavement takes place in the Second, slavery demonstrated the frailty context of Yahweh’s fear-inspiring power. of Israel in either affecting its own release Wenham notes that “deep sleep,” “fear,” from bondage or its subsequent living in and “darkness”—the latter two which light of liberation. Slavery in Israel pro- Egypt experienced in the plagues (Exod vides a further canonical point, namely 10:21-28)—suggested God’s awe inspiring 33 that slave legislation as it is canonically activity. Slavery would be the landscape shaped in Exodus serves as a paradigm of upon which God would work his great liberation, which defines the true nature act of liberation and display himself as of the covenant community. incomparable and peerless among the The theme of the Torah provides a gods of the ancient world, particularly dramatic moment in the enslavement of Egypt. Israel would experience a landless the Hebrew people. The biblical writers alien status that would spiral further into clearly denote that the slavery was harsh, forced servitude. They would be without institutionalized, without any end in land, value, and hope and, they would sight, and divinely orchestrated. The book remain in this condition at the very hand of Exodus commences with an immediate of their Redeemer. The remainder of the look back to the final Jacob narratives in slave promise demonstrates that God’s Genesis (Gen 37:1-2), the Joseph story promise of affliction and servitude is (Genesis 37-50): “Now there arose a new not without hope. “But I will bring judg- king over Egypt, who did not know Joseph” ment on the nation that they serve, and (Exod 1:8). Further, the Joseph narratives afterward they shall come out with great appear within the larger framework of the possessions” (Gen 15:14). promise/fulfillment narratives in Genesis. An enslavement-hope mixture appears The foretelling of the enslavement of Israel again in the Joseph narratives (Genesis occurs first in Gen 15:12-16: 37-50). Joseph’s presumptive and naïve action in sharing his dreams with his older deep As the sun was going down, a brothers provides him with the oppor- sleep fell on Abram. And behold, dreadful and great darkness fell upon tunity for world travel. Unfortunately,

him. Then the Lo r d said to Abram, it is in the form of slavery. The series of “Know for certain that your offspring will be sojourners in a land that is not crisis-resolution events in the narrative 68 culminate in one of the Torah’s highest Israel must not have been too mighty, statements of God’s sovereignty. in the sense of actually being able to overpower Egypt, or the Pharaoh would But Joseph said to them, “Do not fear, for am I in the place of God? As not have been able to forcibly conscript 35 for you, you meant evil against me, but them into service. He feared that their God meant it for good, to bring it about numbers were “too mighty” in the sense that many people should be kept alive, as they are today. So do not fear; I will of a possible coup and escape. “Let us deal provide for you and your little ones.” shrewdly with them” clearly indicates an Thus he comforted them and spoke intentional political maneuver executed kindly to them (Gen 50:19-21). under the guise of “mutual respect.” Dur- Joseph’s enslavement was meant for the ham understands the entire scenario to be sustenance of the covenant line. Regard- a ruse. The people are not “too mighty” less of what his brothers had in mind, God at all. Instead, the Pharaoh uses fear as had sovereignly orchestrated Joseph’s life political justification in turning this large 36 to include forced servitude in order to group of foreigners into slaves. place him in a position to save the lives Three basic levels of ANE culture of his covenant bearing family. existed during this time: freemen, slaves, The enslavement of Jacob’s family in and a semi-free populace. This three-tiered the book of Exodus is the result of political culture maintained three levels of labor: expediency from the “new” pharaoh, who independent labor of free peasants or lacked any impressionable connection to craftsmen, slave labor, and labor from vari- Joseph and perceived Israel as a possible ous semi-free groups. The Egyptians might future political threat (1:9-10). It is also have suggested a freepeasant/craftsmen the turning point of God working out His type relationship with Israel. Since the providential plan on behalf of the children text indicates that Israel had neither the of Abraham.34 will nor the capacity to fight (Exod 13:17), after moving them into place logistically, Now there arose a new king over Egypt, who did not know Joseph. And Egypt would have little resistance assum- he said to his people, “Behold, the ing a more aggressive posture. people of Israel are too many and After Pharaoh’s murderous response too mighty for us. Come, let us deal shrewdly with them, lest they multi- to the rupture of his first idea, he imposes ply, and, if war breaks out, they join a harsh servitude on Israel. Exodus our enemies and fight against us and describes slavery here as the type of escape from the land.” Therefore they set taskmasters over them to afflict exploitive institution that one might them with heavy burdens. They built equate with the transatlantic slave move- for Pharaoh store cities, Pithom and ment or with the modern slave trade. The Raamses. But the more they were oppressed, the more they multiplied Egyptian enslavement of the Israelites and the more they spread abroad. includes harsh, backbreaking treatment. And the Egyptians were in dread of the people of Israel. So they ruthlessly This type of oppressive situation appears made the people of Israel work as slaves five times within this paragraph, estab- and made their lives bitter with hard lishing the character of Israel’s slavery. service, in mortar and brick, and in all kinds of work in the field. In all Their work entailed agonizing work hours their work they ruthlessly made them under any conditions and forced servitude work as slaves (Exod 1:8-22). in state sanctioned building projects. 69 To further define the social position to will give it to you for a possession. which Israel had fallen, the Egyptian I am the Lo r d .’” Moses spoke thus to the people of Israel, but they did administration felt safe (even with the not listen to Moses, because of their “mighty” population) attempting to target broken spirit and harsh slavery the Hebrew children for partial genocide (Exod 6:6-9). (Exod 1:15-22). This pericope occurs after Moses and The ongoing institutionalized aspect Aaron first met with Pharaoh. The meet- of Israel’s slavery appears again later in ing went badly. Pharaoh repeated his per- the story. ception of the threat of Israelite numbers During those many days the king of and increased the burden and level of Egypt died, and the people of Israel harshness on the Israelites due to Moses groaned because of their slavery and cried out for help. Their cry and Aaron. Their deliverance from slavery for rescue from slavery came up to appears once again in the context of the God. And God heard their groaning, covenant with the fathers. Concerning and God remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with their deliverance from their harsh slavery, Jacob. God saw the people of Israel— God established his national-covenant and God knew (Exod 2:23-25). name and makes the following eight assertions of unprecedented fear-inspiring The fact that they groaned because of power (cf. Deut 4:32-40). their slavery after the death of the Pharaoh that enslaved them seems to indicate that • I will bring you out from under the their slavery was now officially insti- burdens of the Egyptians, and tutionalized. Where their enslavement • I will deliver you from slavery to was perhaps initially an attempt to curb them, and their growth, reduce the possibility for a • I will redeem you with an out- coup, and make impossible any attempt at stretched arm and with great acts escape, their slavery now goes beyond one of judgment. king with a need for building programs. • I will take you to be my people, They are (and possibly always will be) and slaves of Egypt. God hears their groaning • I will be your God, and and rescues them based upon his covenant • You shall know that I am the Lo r d with their fathers. The divine response to your God, who has brought you slavery is finally what the reader would out from under the burdens of the expect. Redemption is drawing near! Egyptians. “Say therefore to the people of Israel, • I will bring you into the land that I ‘I am the Lo r d , and I will bring you out from under the burdens of the Egyp- swore to give to Abraham, to Isaac, tians, and I will deliver you from slavery and to Jacob. to them, and I will redeem you with • I will give it to you for a possession. an outstretched arm and with great acts of judgment. I will take you to I am the Lo r d . be my people, and I will be your God, and you shall know that I am The promise ties the people specifically the Lo r d your God, who has brought you out from under the burdens to the land. The idea of slavery in Exodus of the Egyptians. I will bring you 1-12 is harsh affliction that awaits redemp- into the land that I swore to give to tion and land. Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob. I 70 To celebrate the resolve and redemptive personhood and rights was alien to the action of God and to execute his final fear- laws of the ANE. The primary premise of inspiring assault, he established a feast. slavery was that the slave was property. The Passover had a limited set of guests: Not only did free people take this perspec- the landless and the slaves. Exodus 12:43ff tive for granted, but so did the slave. An reads as follows: old Assyrian proverb sums up the ubiqui- tous ANE disposition in this way: “A man And the Lo r d said to Moses and Aaron, “This is the statute of the Pass- is the shadow of a god and a slave is the over: no foreigner shall eat of it, but shadow of a man.”37 every slave that is bought for money may Overall, slavery in the ANE was an eat of it after you have circumcised him. No foreigner or hired servant may eat extreme form of personal dependence of it. It shall be eaten in one house; and extra-economic coercion.38 Slaves you shall not take any of the flesh were dehumanized to a very real degree. outside the house, and you shall not break any of its bones. All the They had no means of personal economic congregation of Israel shall keep it. mobility or production and were consid- If a stranger shall sojourn with you and would keep the Passover to the Lo r d , let ered a thing to be bought, owned, and sold all his males be circumcised. Then he by their master. Thus, slaves had no rights. may come near and keep it; he shall They had only duties. Like livestock, be as a native of the land. But no uncircumcised person shall eat of it. they were considered a tradable com- There shall be one law for the native modity. They were included in dowries, and for the stranger who sojourns transferred in inheritances, and deposited among you.” as collateral. Examples of this mindset There would be no foreigner or hired appear in both the Laws of Eshnunna and servant taking part. The only proper par- the laws of Hammurabi. ticipants of the meal were the covenant LE ¶40 – If a man buys a slave, a people of God, who were also the slaves slave woman, an ox, or any other 39 and slave-friendly peoples within Egypt. purchase. LH ¶7 – If a man shall purchase sil- Even the one exception, the “stranger that ver, gold, a slave, a slave woman, an sojourns with you” (Exod 12:48) may be ox, a sheep , a donkey, or anything 40 seen as a landless slave type. Those who else whatsoever. would sojourn with the slaves would cer- Complicating matters further, there was tainly be numbered with the slaves. The no standard for the treatment of slaves feast made sense because it was accom- in the ANE. Concerning status, the basic plished on the landscape of forced slavery cultural architecture of the ANE afforded and the divine assault on the gods of Egypt the slave no more rights than it did any that resulted in Israel’s liberation. other piece of property. Slave owners placed an insignia on their slaves for Slavery in Israel: A Historical the same reason that cattle are branded Analysis today, namely to demonstrate and iden- One of the most significant points for tify ownership. The most frequent mode the contemporary reader of the Bible and of insignia was tattooing the name of the for the student of the ANE is the absolute owner onto the slave with a hot iron. In absence of abolitionism in the ancient Assyria, the slave’s ears were sometimes world. A slave as someone endowed with pierced. The Code of Hammurabi allowed 71 an owner to cut off the ear of a disobedi- knocks out the tooth of his slave, male or ent slave to serve as an example to others female, he shall let the slave go free because of 41 within the slave ranks. Hammurabi his tooth (Exod 21:26-27). While the men- also presented warnings to those who tion of the eye could be addressing the would mistreat other’s “slave-property.” impairment of the slave’s ability to carry 42 If a barber shaved an abbuttum from out his/her duty, the mention of the tooth the head of a slave without the master’s is altogether different. The major risk here consent, the barber’s hand would be cut is not the slave’s duty but his dignity. off. Typical of ancient law, the regulation Slaves in Israel could, by implication, simply assumes a property value onto appeal to the judiciary of Israel against the slave. their own masters. Wright comments By contrast, the Exodus legislation that this would have been a unique right protected slaves. Women and children in the literature of the ANE.44 Job 31:14 received due oversight. A female slave seems to corroborate this idea legislated could not be sold to a foreigner (Exod in the Torah. Job states that in all of the 21:8) and was privy to equal rights of a legal proceedings brought against him free woman if adopted or given in mar- by his own slaves, he had never denied riage (21:9). Child slaves belonged to them justice. the slave owner. No children appear in The monetary value of a slave or slaves Exodus 21. The text simply states that varied from culture to culture and from the man has a wife. Two laws in Exodus time to time. Like anything else with in particular protect a slave from his own market value, the slave’s price increased master: “When a man strikes his slave, throughout the centuries.45 In the third male or female, with a rod and the slave millennium prices were ten to twenty dies under his hand, he shall be avenged. shekels per slave. By the mid second mil- But if the slave survives a day or two, he lennium, documentation from Babylon is not to be avenged, for the slave is his and Mari priced a slave at twenty shekels money” (Exodus 21:20-21).43 Both the con- while Nuzi annals cited a slave at thirty sistent and subversive nature of Israel’s shekels. By late first millennium in Assyria literature, with respect to slaves, appears and Neo-Babylon the price of the slave here. The slave that recovers is not to be had soared to one hundred and twenty avenged due to the fact he/she belongs to shekels.46 In Israel’s literature, Abra- the one who struck the slave; “the slave is ham, Solomon, and Hosea all purchased his money.” However, if the slave dies he slaves.47 In Exodus the only purchaser of is avenged as a freeman would be. Aveng- a slave is God, who metaphorically pur- ing a slave in the manner one would a free chases Israel by defeating the Egyptians individual would have been unusual, to (Exod 3:7; 15:16).48 The other reference say the least, in the ANE. to monetary value is in 21:32, where Another law that chiseled away at the the gored slave’s owner received thirty status quo concept of slavery in the ANE shekels for the injury his slave incurred. appears shortly after the above passage. Most notable is the lack of price listings When a man strikes the eye of his slave, in the Covenant Regulations. It further male or female, and destroys it, he shall corroborates that Moses wants to display let the slave go free because of his eye. If he the tension between personhood and 72 social status. The slave received protection from Slaves often ran away in the ancient the community, chose for himself the world. It was standard throughout almost town in which he wished to hide or live, the entire ANE when a fugitive slave was and experienced justice within the com- apprehended to incarcerate him/her and munity. The Israelite was then to comply return him/her back to his/her owner. with his request. While the contemporary Examples can be seen from the Laws of ANE legal codes not only imposed severe Eshnunna. penalties on runaway slaves but also on those who harbored them, Israel’s law LE ¶52 – A slave or a slave woman who has entered the main city gate diametrically opposed such behavior and of Eshnunna in the safekeeping of encouraged the liberation of the slaves. only a foreign envoy shall be made One might presume that a runaway slave to bear fetters, shackles, or a slave hairlock and is thereby kept safe for was fleeing from an abusive master; such 49 his owner. was not tolerated in the codes of Israel.53 Every ancient culture had manumis- The Laws of Lipit-Ishtar obligates an sion laws for slavery. The rights to free a individual who finds a slave to return slave belonged solely to the slave’s owner. them within one month to his/her mas- There are documents as early as the third ter or pay twenty-five shekels of silver to dynasty in Ur that contain accounts of the owner. Even more harsh treatment the manumission of slaves.54 There were appears in the Code of Hammurabi, where a number of ways that one might release one who either steals or conceals a fugi- a slave. G. R. Driver and J. Miles record a tive slave is subject to the death penalty: rather common formula from Ur. Manu- “If a man should enable a palace slave, a mission took place before a magistrate, palace slave woman, a commoner’s slave, was officially documented, and precluded or a commoner’s slave woman to leave contest from the original owner.55 The man- through the main city-gate, he shall be ner in which one was to release his slave is killed” (LH ¶15).50 One may find softer not detailed in the Book of the Covenant. but similar legislation in the Laws of Esh- However, contrasted with their ancient nunna: “If a man should be seized with counterparts, Exodus contends that the a stolen slave or a stolen slave woman, slave may only serve for six years before a slave shall lead a slave, a slave woman his covenant mandated release: “When shall lead a slave woman” (LE ¶49).51 you buy a Hebrew slave, he shall serve six In contrast to the surrounding status years, and in the seventh he shall go out quo stands legislation in Deuteronomy, free, for nothing” (Exod 21:2). The Sabbath which states that, if one found a runaway pattern is striking. As Israel experienced slave, one was not obligated to return him the Sabbath of God’s provision and power to his master but to protect him: first in Exodus 16 and commemorated it You shall not give up to his master a every week, they would treat their slaves slave who has escaped from his with this idea of provision and power in master to you. He shall dwell with you, in your midst, in the place that he mind. Though they were landless they shall choose within one of your towns, still experienced provision and hope. Each wherever it suits him. You shall not 52 time a slave was released, Israel provided wrong him. a display of God’s redemptive power and 73 future hope.56 trasting the slave legislation of Leviticus In sum, slave legislation in the Book and Deuteronomy what do the differences of the Covenant bore both the status quo tell us about slavery in Exodus? Third, mark of the ANE and the covenant-sub- how do the law codes function within the versive mark of relationship with Yahweh. larger framework of the partially fulfilled Their laws were in some ways typical of promises to the patriarchs? the culture and demonstrated that Israel’s The immediate context of the slave slave legislation was integral to a second laws appears as follows: millennium B.C. provenance. They had • Altar Laws (20:22-26) laws commenting on status, monetary • Slave Manumission Law (21:2- value, runaways, and the manumission 11) of slaves. However, there are distinctions • Capital Offenses (21:12-17) • Laws Regulating Damage to that reveal the God of Israel and His sub- the Body (21:18-36) versive legislation. He exercises power • Laws Regulating Damage to Property (21:27-22:16) and provision on behalf of Israel and • Miscellaneous Cultic and extols his “covenant-subversive commu- Social Regulations (22:17-30) nity” shaping concepts of righteousness • Laws Regulating Court Proto- col (23:1-9) and justice. The historical slave-master • Cultic Calendar (23:10-19) relationship in Israel is best stated later • Epilogue (23:20-33) in Israel’s history. Phillips argues that the canonical place- Slavery in Israel: ment of the manumission slave laws at A Canonical Analysis the front of the covenant code asserts a The above discussion concerning “statement of belief about the true nature Israel’s legislation demonstrated that of Israelite society: it should be made up of 57 Exodus 21 slave laws were comparable free men.” For Moses, the new social and to the legislation of its time yet differed economic reality (namely that of desert at various junctures. They provide for the sojourners) summons many humanitarian slave’s dignity, and, while no abolition provisions concerning widows, orphans, statement appears within the text, there is foreigners, and the poor. Within those evidence of an understanding of the parity bounds, the slave legislation stands out that exists between slave, semi-free, and as preeminent among humanitarian laws free. It is important to note that these laws (21:2-11, 20-21, 26-27, 32). Economic situa- were given at the Sinai theophany after tions might force an Israelite to renounce the most unprecedented demonstration his true heritage, but his ultimate identity of raw divine power the ANE had ever is not bound up in slavery but divinely 58 witnessed, i.e., the Exodus. These laws orchestrated freedom. The shape of assume the need for further revelation Exodus 21 demonstrates the priority of of Yahweh and provide intentional com- manumission of Israelite slaves over the munity shaping for Israel. A canonical other modes of slave laws. By including analysis of the slave laws raises at least the the law of the gored slave in 21:32, Moses following three questions. First, why do further distances the perception of the the slave laws begin the Book of the Cov- slave as less than human. This placement enant? Second, when comparing and con- emphasizes a trajectory that Leviticus 74 and Deuteronomy further strengthen pericope, one might tie the legislative and define. motivation back to the prologue of the The larger canonical shape of the code itself (20:1). However, in Exodus 21 Torah substantiates the subversive idea no immediate motive for the treatment of of personal freedom within the covenant slaves appears. Within the Deuteronomic community. Canonically, Leviticus and legislation, the motive clause is Israel’s Deuteronomy follow the Exodus codes. history as slaves—a history that must gen- Tigay rightly notes that the overall struc- erate both liberation (v. 18) and liberality ture of the Deuteronomic codes could (vv. 12-14).61 This idea occurs elsewhere easily indicate their dependence upon in the comparison between Exodus and the codes like those found in Exodus.59 Deuteronomy. In the reshaping of the A brief glance at the contrasts within the “ten words,” Deuteronomy makes Israel’s codes might serve to demonstrate this slave origin the motive for Sabbath keep- continuity. ing (Deut 5:15.). In Exodus the motive for In Deuteronomy, “your brother” seems keeping the Sabbath lies in the fact that to equal both male and female slaves. the God of Israel’s liberation is the resting In Exodus, there is a clear distinction Creator of the world (Exod 20:8-11). Each between the male slave, who is released piece of legislation finds its premise on a on the seventh year of servitude, and the previous act of God. Furthermore, Exodus female slave, who was not released with legislation stands deep in the shadow of the male servants. Exodus insures that the exodus-liberation, which was unprec- the master must release the slave with no edented in the ancient world, giving the strings attached; “in the seventh he shall writer of Exodus no cause for having to go out free, for nothing.” In Deuteronomy, bring it to memory. the legislation is more elaborate for the While an obvious connection between master. The text insists that the owner Exodus and Deuteronomy exists, scholars “shall furnish him liberally out of your have long noted the seeming discontinuity flock, out of your threshing floor, and out with both books presented in Leviticus. of your winepress.”60 Though both Exodus and Deuteronomy Both Exodus and Deuteronomy con- assume the ownership of the Hebrew tain self-enslavement clauses within the slave, Leviticus seems to prohibit it. While instruction for manumission. The slave the scope of this project does not include a desires to stay in his current situation in full analysis of the Leviticus passage and Exodus because of his love for “his master, its relationship to Exodus and Deuter- his wife, and his children.” The motive for onomy, a few points may be made in order the slave to stay with his master in Deuter- to justify our canonical analysis. onomy emerges from the relationship he The laws in Leviticus presuppose the has with his “master and his household” existing laws in Exodus and supplement and the secure economic status the mas- them.62 The following distinctions may be ter provides for him. Tigay rightly notes made between the Leviticus passage and that, while these pieces of legislation are the Exodus and Deuteronomy legislation. different, they are not in conflict with one First, the individual is sold or sells him- another. self63 due to impoverishment. Second, as Recognizing its place in the larger Schenker and Chirichigno suggest, this 75 individual is the paterfamilias.64 Neither Exodus and the Modern Trade the Exodus nor Deuteronomic legislation Slavery, while illegal in every country mentions that the slave is married with still thrives as it did in ancient times but in children. The Leviticus code explicitly a horrible new way. There are an estimated cites the man as both husband and father 44 million people enslaved today.66 Tragic (25:41; cf. 54 ). Third, there is a distinct scenarios such as the Maddie McCann change in the time allotted for the slave. In story remind us of the vicious nature of both Exodus and Deuteronomy the slave the modern trade. Such situations demand serves six years and then he is freed along answers from Christians who take the with his wife if he has one. The paterfamil- biblical text seriously. ias-slave serves until the year of Jubilee. There are several points to keep in Schenker has noted that the reason for this mind when considering the modern slave change is the amount of investment that trade in light of the book of Exodus. First, the purchaser has to make to integrate Exodus, even with its critical affirmation an entire family into his household. This of the institution of ancient slavery, does family could be quite large and, with not support the current trade. The social respect to the Leviticus legislation, would architecture of the ANE is drastically be treated as servants not slaves. Thus, the different than our contemporary world. investment the purchaser made was sub- Our cultural architecture not only renders stantial and primarily for the paterfamilias- slavery unnecessary but also repulsive. slave and his family, who have descended Second, and by extension, the archi- into destitution. Thus, the Leviticus code tecture of slavery is altogether different supplements the Exodus legislation by today. While slavery was not the first codifing the treatment of a paterfamilias- choice for any ancient individual, it could slave in the context of Jubilee. be a better alternative than being desti- Thus, the canonical placement of tute. By stark contrast, the current slave the manumission laws in Exod 21:2-11 trade is not characterized by the humane demonstrates the propensity of Israel to disposition of Israel’s perspective in identify themselves as free people. The Exodus. The Hebrew Scriptures preserve ideal finds further substantiation and the preciousness of the human being and elaboration in Leviticus 25 and Deuter- recognize their inherent dignity as image onomy 15. In the first passage, Moses bearers of God. The current slave trade strongly militates against enslavement of has no such perspective on slaves. The the paterfamilias. In the second, a legitimate modern slave (who may be well below expansion of the Exodus codes occurs that the age of thirteen years old and forcibly includes the release of the female slave conscripted into any number of heinous along with the male upon entrance into acts) has no rights, is stripped of all dig- the land, which is what their liberation nity, and is bludgeoned consistently with naturally leads toward.65 This Exodus the notion that he/she has absolutely no liberation-paradigm occurs in the shadow inherent worth. Furthermore, the notion of the great exodus-liberation from Egypt of God, a fiercely just and passionately and the Sinai theophany, perhaps the two merciful God, is never an admitted aspect most explicit fear-inspiring events within in the modern slave trade. Due to Israel’s the bounds of the Old Testament. origins, these ideas were at the core of 76 both their existence and legislation. The rary reader what real freedom is, namely slave owner in Israel rooted his identity in the natural results of the supernatural the reality of liberation from slavery, and, liberating work of God. Christians must therefore, could not correctly perceive look into a privatized perverse system and a slave in an impersonal manner. They speak the truth of the gospel to those in its were to be treated with a certain measure grip who may never be freed from it. There of empathy. The modern trade knows no is freedom even in chains and hope in the empathy. It is driven by economic brutal- midst of hopelessness. No pervert or slave ity and often fueled by raw perversion. owner can abduct those who are genuinely There is no sympathetic disposition or free. While being a slave to an individual is personal identity between owner/pimp bitter, it does not match the bitter illusion and slave. The slave amounts to a tradable that master sin imposes upon his victims. commodity and nothing more, certainly While freedom from an owner is sweet and not human, certainly not as precious must be demanded in the current trade, image bearers of the one true living God, freedom from sin and to Christ is sweeter who redeems and delivers into the land still and must be even more vigorously of promise. pursued by covenant people. Third, given this new architecture for slavery coupled with the lack of abolition- EndnotE ism in the Old Testament, the spirit of the 1C. J. H. Wright, Old Testament Ethics for text still presses one toward a modern abo- the People of God (Downers Grove: Inter- litionist stance. The covenant subversion Varsity, 2004), 334. Much of my thinking within Israel’s legislation and literature has been shaped by Wright. provides the paradigm. Exodus legislation 2The notion of covenant-subversion speaks to the value of the person, of the is that Israel’s subversive disposition image bearer of God. It contends clearly toward their surrounding culture is cre- for the preciousness of human life. Fur- ated, shaped, and driven by the covenant ther, with no status quo cultural sense of relationship with Yahweh. slavery for the impoverished, the modern 3The LXX employs d ouleu ,w as its primary adherents to Exodus theology should also term for “be a slave/servant.” seek to elevate the status of people within 4According to Claus Westermann (“ db[,” the grip of the modern trade. in Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Fourth, the legislation in Exodus is Alten Testament [3 vols.; ed. Claus West- written directly to the covenant people erman; trans. Mark E. Biddle; Peabody, concerning their interaction among them- Mass: Hendrickson, 1997], 2:183), the selves. Thus, the covenant people who verb appears in Hebrew 289 times and freely reside in America must take seri- in Aramaic twenty-eight times. It perva- ously the plight of their persecuted broth- sively occurs in the qal stem (271 times). ers and sisters in hostile and restricted Of the remaining forms, it occurs in the nations such as China. Exodus displays niphal 4 times , the pu’al 2 times , the them in the context of our redemption, hiph’il 8 times, and the hoph’al 4 times. understanding them as precious and valu- 5E. Carpenter, “ db[,” in New International able, and insists upon their freedom. Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Fifth, Exodus displays to the contempo- Exegesis (5 vols.; ed. Willem A. VanGe- 77 meren; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 15I will address this passage fur- and Company, 1923), 23; See also 1997), 5:306. Aside from its 800 ther below in conjunction with its Abd-el-Moshen, Slavery in Pharaonic appearances in Hebrew, it also parallels in Leviticus and Deuter- Egypt (Supplement aux Annales Du occurs seven times in Aramaic. onomy. Service de Antiquities de l’ Egypte 6See all the pertinent studies: Wes- 16Ibid., 473. 18; Paris: L’Organisztion Egyptieane termann “ db[,” 2:182-200; Helmer 17A. Gardiner, “The Geography of Generale du Livre, 1952; repr. 1978), Ringgren, “ db[,” Theological Dic- the Exodus,” in Recueil d’études 4, 7, 124. tionary of the Old Testament (15 vols; égyptologiques dédiées: la mémoire 22Ibid., 56, This new policy was prob- ed. G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Jean-Francois Champollion (Paris: ably generated by the long awaited Ringgren, and Heinz Josef Fabry; bibliothéque de l’école des hautes expulsion of the Hyksos. See also Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), études, 1922), 204-205. Cited in Abd-el-Moshen, Slavery in Phara- 10:376-405; and Werner Foerster, James Karl Hoffmeier, Israel in onic Egypt, 81; Allan Gardiner, “A “doulos,” Theological Dictionary of the Egypt: The Evidence for the Authentic- Lawsuit Arising from the Purchase Old Testament (10 vols.; ed. Gerhard ity of the Exodus Tradition (Oxford: of Two Slaves,” Journal of Egyptian Kittel; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Oxford University, 1997), 112. It Archaeology 21 (1935): 140-46. 1964), 2:265-283. should be noted that Historical 23Kenneth Kitchen, On the Reliability 7Ringgren, “ db[,” 10:376. Minimalists such as Israel Fink- of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: 8The English term “slave” appears lestein and Neil Asher Silberman Eerdmans, 2003), 247. approximately 70 times in the ESV. (David and Solomon: In Search of the 24According to Kitchen, the label The vast majority of those times, the Bible’s Sacred Kings and the Roots of of the inscription reads as fol- translators are translating the word the Western Tradition [New York: lows: “captures brought-off by his db[. Other terms used by the bibli- Simon and Schuster, 2006]), T. L. majesty for wok at the Temple of cal writers are as follows: txt (Deut Thompson (Early History of the [Amun].” He notes that the official 21:14), Hxpv (Lev 19:20; Eccl 2:7; Isa Israelite People: From the Written and publication of the tomb chapel scene 14:2; Jer 34:11, 16), tyb !b (Eccl 2:7), Archaeological Sources (Leiden: Brill, appears in N. de G. Davies, The Tomb and sm (Lam 1:1). 1992)], and P. R. Davies (In Search of of Rekhmire at Thebes I, II (New York: 9Lev 25:38. “Ancient Israel” [Sheffield: Sheffield Metropolitan Museum of arts, 1943; 10Cf also Jer 34:11 and 16 for cor- Academic, 1992]) would certainly repr., Arno, 1973), 54-60, 58-60. respondence between xpvl and disagree with these assertions. 25See Exod 1:11-14; 5:1-21. db[l. Davies summarizes that historical 26Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old 11The context of the promise to Israel exists only in archaeological Testament, 248 notes that the Louvre Abraham (Gen 15:13) emphasizes remains, that biblical Israel exists leather scroll records that in Year the acquisition of the land after only in Scripture, and that “ancient 5 of Ramses II the “stablemasters” 400 years of afflicted sojourning Israel” exists only as an unaccept- established a quota of 2,000 bricks (landlessness). able amalgam of the first two. to be made under them. For the 12See Brevard Childs, The Book of Exo- 18William J. Murnane, The Penguin biblical corollary, see Exod 5:8, dus: A Critical, Theological Commen- Guide to Ancient Egypt (London: 13-14, 18-19. tary (Louisville: Westminster John Penguin, 1983), 37. 27Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Knox, 1974), 14 for this conclusion. 19Ibid. Testament, 248. See the mention of 13Childs comments that this particu- 20There was also a ubiquitous under- straw-based bricks in Exod 5:7, 18. lar law was bound to fail in Israel standing of the necessity of straw 28On the identification of the ‘apiru, given the nature of marriage in Gen for legitimate brickmaking see M. G. Kline, “Hebrews,” in the 2:24 and Matt 19:6 (ibid., 468). 21W. M. Flinders Petrie, Social Life in New Bible Dictionary (ed. I. Howard 14Ibid,. 468-469. Ancient Egypt (London: Constable Marshall, A. R. Millard, J. I Packer, 78 and D. J. Wiseman; 3d ed; Downers free populace. Within this construct 47Gen 17:23; Eccl 2:7; Hos 3:2 respec- Grove: InterVarsity, 1996), 457-58; N. existed three main types of labor: tively. P. Lemche, “Habiru, Hapiru” and independent labor of free peasants 48Cf. 2 Peter 2:1. “Hebrew” in Anchor Bible Diction- or craftsmen, slave labor, and labor 49Roth, Law Collections from Mesopota- ary (6 vols.; ed. David Noel Freed- from various semi-free groups. mia and Asia Minor, 67. man; (New York: Doubleday, 1992) 39Martha T. Roth, Law Collections from 50Ibid., 84. 3:6-10, 95. Mesopotamia and Asia Minor (2d ed.; 51Ibid, 70. Roth claims that the pos- 29Kitchen (On the Reliability of the Old SBL Writings from the Ancient sible meaning of this text is that Testament, 249) cites further accounts World Series; Atlanta: Scholars, the guilty party in whose posses- of Ramses II demanding slaves be 1997), 65. sion the slave is found shall return brought from as far south as Lybia: 40Ibid, 82. the slave and in addition provide “South, west, or northeast in his 41Ibid., 122: “If an awilu’s slave should another of equal value. realm, this pharaoh was prepared strike the cheek of a member of the 52Deut 23:15-16. to conscript foreigners mercilessly awilu class, they shall cut off his ear” 53It should be noted that scholars dis- if need be.” (LH ¶205). pute the idea of the slave’s identity 30Cf. Exod 5:10-21. 42Apparently a removable mark in this text. Some assert that this 31See Kitchen, On The Reliability of the placed on the shaved head of a slave only has the foreigner running to Old Testament, 248. Kitchen provides in Babylon. Israel in mind. Others state that the primary sources on 553 n. 10. 43The plain meaning of this verb slave can be either. Context would 32See David Clines, The Theme of the is that the guilty party is liable suggest the latter, which would Pentateuch (JSOT Supplement Series to death themselves via the legal include Israelite slaves running 10; Sheffield: University of Sheffield, community. Thus, in this case the from vicious masters. This idea is 1978). master was to be charged on behalf clearly the background for Paul’s 33Gordon Wenham, Genesis (Word of the slave, who had no family. discussion concerning Onesimus Biblical Commentary; Nashville: The other option is that the owner and his owner in the book of Phi- Nelson, 1987), 331. See the clear is to be avenged for killing his own lemon. connection with divine activity and slave, which makes no more sense 54Dandamayev, “Slavery,” 6:61. the above imagery in Exodus (Exod than the proverbial man who begs 55G. R. Driver and J. Miles, The Baby- 10:21, 22; 14:20; 15:16; 23:27). the court for mercy due to the fact lonian Laws: 1. Legal Commentary (2 34Childs (Exodus, 12) notes that the that he is an orphan after killing vols.; Oxford: Clarendon University, same tension in the Joseph narrative his parents. 1968), 1:221-230. For a detailed dis- exists here, namely, the outworking 44Wright, Old Testament Ethics, 335. cussion concerning manumission of God’s good will for His people 45See S. S. Bartchy, “Slavery,” in Inter- see Dandamayev, “Slavery,” 6:59-73; versus the evil schemes of the new national Standard Bible Encyclopedia (4 Mendelsohn, Slavery in the Ancient Pharaoh. vols.; ed. Geoffrey Bromiley; Grand Near East. 35John Durham, Exodus (Nashville: Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 4:541 for a 56Deuteronomy elaborates upon this Thomas Nelson, 1987), 7. more detailed discussion. law and adds the female slaves 36Ibid. 46See Isaac Mendelsohn, Slavery in along with male slaves for the seven 37As cited in Wright, Old Testament the Ancient Near East: A Comparative year release, and Leviticus seems Ethics, 337. Study of Slavery in Babylonia, Assyria, hostile to the idea of owning Isra- 38Muhammed A Dandamayev, “Slav- and Palestine, from the Third Millen- elite slaves altogether. See below ery,” in Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6:58- nium to the End of the First Millennium the comparison of the three Torah 59. There were three main social (Oxford: Oxford University, 1949), manumission laws. segments: freemen, slaves, semi- 117-55 for a full discussion. 57A. Phillips, “The Laws of Slavery: 79 Exodus 21:2-11,” Journal for the Study Leviticus, and Leviticus precedes of the Old Testament 30 (1984): 62. Deuteronomy) and express a coher- 58Ibid. ent system of debt-slavery that 59Jeffrey Tigay, Deuteronomy: The JPS differentiates the release of debt- Torah Commentary (Philadelphia: slaves according to the severity of Jerusalem Publication Society, their debt. See A. Schenker, “The 1966), 466. Biblical Legislation on the Release 60Phillips, “The Laws of Slavery,” 54; of Slaves: The Road from Exodus to N. P. Lemche (“The Hebrew Slave: Leviticus,” Journal for the Study of the Comments on the Slave Law of Exo- Old Testament 78 (1998): 23-41, for a dus XXI 2-11,” Vetus Testamentum 25 detailed discussion of Chirichigno’s [1975]: 137) notes the expansion of arguments. the legislation. 63See A. Schenker (“The Biblical Leg- 61Phillips (“Slave Law”) notes that islation of the Release of Slaves,” the Exodus is not cited in Deuter- 23-41) for the discussion on the onomy. A fair question would be, term mkr as a niph’al reflexive or “Does it have to be cited?” It would passive. be the elephant in the room in a 64Schenker, “The Release of Slaves,” slave legislation discussion. Based 27; G.C. Chirichigno, Debt-Slavery in upon the Sabbath law comparison, Israel, 335-36. Exodus theology finds its impetus 65The most obvious textual testimony in creation theology. Following the to this idea in Exodus is chapter hermeneutic of Exodus 15 (from 15, where the reader encounters land to land), Deuteronomic theol- the redemption song of Israel that ogy is rightly rooted in the prec- treats the redemptive work of God edent set in Exodus. in two phases. First, he has “thrown 62For a thorough discussion on the the horse and rider into the sea” canonical shape of Leviticus 25 overthrowing Pharaoh in holy war. as both presupposing the laws of Second, he delivers Israel into the Exodus and preceding the laws of good land. Deuteronomy, see S. Japhet, “The 66www.freetheslaves.com. Relationship between the Legal Corpora in the Pentateuch in Light of Manumission Laws,” in Studies in the Bible (Scripta Hierosolymitana, 31; ed. S. Japhet; Jeruslaem: Magnes, 1986), 63-89; G. C. Chirichigno (Debt-Slavery in Israel and the Ancient Near East, [JSOTSupp, 141; Sheffield: JSOT, 1993], 342-43) asserts that the three manumission laws in Exod 21:2-6; Lev 25:39-53; and Deut 15:12- 18 are properly shaped in the final form of the canon (Exodus precedes 80 NEW FROM THE AUTHORS OF THE DRAMA OF SCRIPTURE LIVING AT THE CROSSROADS AN INTRODUCTION TO CHRISTIAN WORLDVIEW Michael W. Goheen and Craig G. 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Available at local bookstores or by calling 1-800-877-2665 Subscribe to Border Crossings, the Brazos monthly electronic newsletter, at www.brazospress.com L Subscribe to Baker Academic’s electronic newsletter (E-Notes) at www.bakeracademic.com T 81 Dating the Exodus T. J. Betts

T. J. Betts is Assistant Professor of Probably one of the most controversial meaning the oppression of the Hebrews Old Testament Interpretation at The and hotly debated subjects pertaining to may have begun a number of decades Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. biblical chronology is the dating of the before Ramesses II came to the throne.5 He is a fourth generation Baptist minister Exodus. Basically, most biblical histori- Ramesses II finished the construction and has pastored fourteen churches in ans are divided between what are called of the city naming it after himself. It is 1 2 Ohio and Indiana. Dr. Betts is the author the late date and the early date of the inconceivable that the city could have of Ezekiel The Priest: A Custodian Of Exodus. Most proponents of the late date been named after a pharaoh who did Tora (Peter Lang, 2005). believe the biblical and archaeological not even exist. Therefore, it is impossible data discovered so far indicate the Exo- for the Exodus to have happened before dus happened in the thirteenth century a pharaoh named Ramesses was on the B.C. sometime around 1267 B.C. in the throne. Furthermore, the majority of nineteenth dynasty, twenty years into the archaeological discoveries along with reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II (1279-1213 inscriptional references to geographical 3 B.C.). Most proponents of the early date locations from this sight appear to come of the Exodus argue it happened during from the thirteenth and twelfth centuries the eighteenth dynasty in the fifteenth B.C. and not the fifteenth century B.C.6 century B.C. about 1447/46 B.C. The fol- Much debate has risen over this under- lowing is an overview of major arguments standing of the store city of Raameses pertaining to both sides of the debate. by those who advocate the early date of the Exodus. First, archaeologists have The Debated Texts discovered an eighteenth dynasty citadel Exodus 1:11 at the location of Tell el-Dabva. West of Exodus 1:11 is a key passage in the the citadel they located what might have debate. It states, “Therefore they set task- been a temple. About 150 meters south masters over them to afflict them with of the location excavators found a large heavy burdens. They built for Pharaoh storage building containing pottery dat- store cities, Pithom and Rameses.” Many ing to the Late Bronze I period. North of have equated the city of Rameses with the the citadel they discovered a number of city of Pi-Ramesses. According to Kitchen, Minoan frescoes from the same period.7 Seti I initially built a summer palace at its Shea says those who have argued against location, then Ramesses II built the vast the early date of the Exodus because there store-city of Exodus 1:11.4 Pi-Ramesses has been no evidence of an eighteenth was located at modern-day Qantir near dynasty presence at Tell el-Dabva must Faqus and is called Tell el-Dabva. Hoff- lay that argument to rest.8 meier suggests Ramesses II probably com- Second, Robert I. Vasholz questions menced work on Pi-Ramesses about 1270 the notion that a pharaoh would indeed B.C., but he recognizes that construction name cities which “were basically depots on this sight predates Ramesses II at least for the storage of supplies and taxes paid to the time of Horemheb (1323-1295 B.C.), in terms of foodstuffs” after himself.9 He 82 argues that Egyptian records of cities prove the case concerning Rameses in at from the old, middle, and new kingdoms least one of two ways. First, though they reveal that pharaohs did not name cities are convinced of it, they have failed to they built or rebuilt after themselves. demonstrate that the Rameses of Exod Instead, they tended to name cities after 1:11 was indeed the city Pi-Ramesses their gods. For instance, during the new built by Ramesses II. They have made an kingdom period, Menfe (also known assumption based on the similarity of as Memphis) was renamed to Hitpuah, the names. Second, even if they are the which means “spirit of [the god] Ptah.”10 same cities, advocates of the late date have Furthermore, a number of pharaohs had failed to show that the events of Exod 1:11 names that came from their gods. Rame- happened during the time of Ramesses ses means “begotten by Ra.” Ra was a II. Dyer believes basing the date of the sun god and was also a primary god in Exodus on the similarity of names fails Egypt. Vasholz concedes the possibility to be a compelling argument.16 that Ramesses II could be that one excep- Merrill argues, tion of a pharaoh who named a city after 11 it is by no means certain that the himself. However, if he is indeed correct, city of Rameses was named after then it would suggest the possibility that the Pharaoh of that name. In fact, Ramesses II of the nineteenth dynasty Genesis 47:11 states that Jacob and his family settled in the land of got his name in much the same way the Rameses when the entered Egypt city of Rameses got its name some two in the nineteenth century; unless we postulate an anachronism, for centuries earlier; both were named after which there is not the slightest Ra at different times. proof, we must conclude that there Third, convinced of the early date, was an area by that name before there was ever a Pharaoh Rameses. Wood believes the name Rameses in Exod It could well be that there had been 1:11 is an editorial updating of an earlier an ancient Ramesside dynasty long name that went out of use.12 Kitchen ages before and the Ramessides of the Nineteenth Dynasty were allows for editorial updating with the named for them, the city also having term Rameses in Gen 47:11 but not in Exod taken this name. In any case, there is 1:11.13 Hoffmeier argues against such an no need to assume that the mention of the city of Rameses proves that updating because it fails to fit the normal the Exodus must have taken place 17 pattern of editorial glossing of names in during the reign of Rameses II. the Old Testament. Typically, both the 1 Kings 6:1 earlier name and the later name occur First Kings 6:1 is another important together with a formula connecting the text concerning the date of the Exodus. It old name with the new name, or the new says, “In the four hundred and eightieth name is accompanied by an explanatory year after the people of Israel came out clause.14 Nevertheless, Wood demon- of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of strates there are number of occurrences Solomon’s reign over Israel, in the month where a name that has been changed of Ziv, which is the second month, he appears without any formula or explana- began to build the house of the LORD.” tion in the Old Testament.15 Solomon reigned from 971/970 – 931/930 Dyer says that those who hold to the B.C.18 Therefore, according to this pas- late date of the Exodus have failed to sage, Solomon began building the temple 83 in 967/966 B.C. Taking the number four oning time than just counting years.”22 hundred and eighty literally would then Bratcher says that there are several groups point to 1447/1446 B.C. as the date of the of numbers that perform certain roles in Exodus. Obviously, 1 Kgs 6:1 is a major Scripture. For instance, the number three text for proponents of the early date to often denotes a short period of time or argue their case. In fact, on the surface it extent without intending to be specific seems to be an open and closed case. (Jonah 1:17; 3:3). The number seven often However, advocates of the late date symbolizes completion (Gen 2:2; 29; Matt emphasize the importance of under- 15:35). The number twelve symbolizes standing how the biblical writers used community and wholeness (Gen 35:22; Jud numbers. Hoffmeier addresses the issue: 19:29). And the number forty is a “sche- matized number used for a generation the culture and conventions of the penman’s milieu must be borne in or simply an unspecified long period of mind when addressing the question time” (Gen 7:4; Exod 16:35). Furthermore, of how to interpret numbers. Such Bratcher points out how multiples of these a view of Scripture encourages the researcher to investigate seriously numbers appear in the Scripture, such as how large numbers were used and seventy or seventy-seven (Gen 4:24; Matt understood among Israel’s neigh- 18:22), one hundred twenty (Gen 6:3), one bors. A literal understanding of cer- tain large numbers may not always hundred forty-four (Deut 34:7), one hun- be correct if the authorial intent was dred and forty-four thousand (Rev 14:1), not literal. Such a misplaced literal- ism would be a “misinterpretation” four hundred (Gen 15:3), four thousand 19 of Scripture’s meaning. (1 Sam 4:2), forty thousand (Josh 4:13; 1 Kgs 4:26), and four hundred thousand Proponents of the late date believe the (Josh 20:2).23 Understanding this use of number 480 should be understood to numbers has led many scholars to believe represent twelve generations made up the 480 years of 1 Kgs 6:1 should be taken 20 of periods of forty years each. Actually, symbolically. these generations are best understood to Hoffmeier has suggested that perhaps have lasted twenty-five years each. There- prevalent use of the number forty in fore, 12 x 25, or 300 years, is a more reason- the Old Testament originated with the able actual number for the time elapsed Israelite wandering in the wilderness; between the building of the temple and from there it possibly took on symbolic the Exodus. This calculation means the meaning throughout the rest of the Old Exodus happened about 1267 B.C. during Testament. Hoffmeier continues, 21 the reign of Ramesses II. Most supporters of the late date con- There are obvious cases where the number 40 is extremely difficult tend that the number forty should be to interpret literally. For example, taken symbolically in 1 Kgs 6:1. They Moses is said to have been on Mt. observe that numbers in the Bible were Sinai to receive the law 40 days and 40 nights and during the period “he used for purposes other than just pre- neither ate bread nor drank water” cise counting. In fact, several numbers (Exod 34:28; cf. Deut 9:9,18,25). No human could last 40 days without in Scripture “are used symbolically, are water. Consequently, this verse stylized for other purposes than simple forces us to accept either the 40 days counting, or are approximate numbers or the complete fasting literally, but not both. Outside of the Bible, based on different cultural ways of reck- 84 the number 40 also has symbolic time of the Exodus to the time of Solomon. meaning. Consider the statement Following the logic of Hoffmeier and by the king Mesha in his famous stele. He declared that “Omri had Kitchen who say twenty-five years is a taken possession of the whole la[n] reasonable span for an actual genera- d of Medeba, and lived there (in) his tion, nineteen generations multiplied by days half the days of his son, forty years.” According to 1 Kgs 16:23, twenty-five years yields the number 475 Omri reigned 12 years, and to Ahab years, a number that coincides well with 22 years are credited (1 Kgs 16:29). the 480 years of 1 Kgs 1:6.25 Other genealo- Mesha claims to have liberated his land from Israelite dominance half- gies giving the generations from the time way through Ahab’s 22 years, mean- of Moses to the time of Solomon appear to ing that the 40 year period actually was no more than 23 years. be “truncated.” The genealogy of 1 Chron 6:3-10 showing the generations of the high Passages like these, and the use of priests from Aaron to Azariah indicates the number 40 with such regular- ity, suggests that the number may there were fourteen high priests from the symbolize an undisclosed period time of Moses to the time of Solomon.26 of time--an approximate number. Furthermore, what appears in 1 Kgs 1:6 Consequently, trying to recon- struct history and to establish dates is the number, four hundred and eighty, involving the number 40 is indeed not twelve and forty. Applying the num- challenging. Then, too, it is undeni- bers twelve and forty as stock numbers able that 480 does correspond to “12 times 40,” and therefore one should found in this verse may be reading into not lightly dismiss the possible sym- 27 24 the text something that is not really there. bolic nature of the number. Also, this number is couched in a verse Alternative understandings of these pas- that gives very specific information about sages where one understands the num- the date of the building of the temple. ber forty literally might be discussed at Given its context, it seems reasonable to another time, but for the sake of this dis- read all of the information literally. When cussion, Hoffmeier clearly demonstrates the context and genre of a text should be the line of reasoning pertaining to 1 Kgs taken literally, then it is logical to take all 1:6 given by many who contend for the of its constituent parts literally. late date of the Exodus. Umberto Cassuto’s lectures, The Docu- There are a couple of issues concerning mentary Hypothesis and the Composition of the notion that the number 480 is derived the Pentateuch, raise another interesting from the number of generations between point for one trying to understand 1 Kgs the time of Solomon and the Exodus. First, 1:6. Cassuto’s study gave attention to the nowhere in the Bible does it communicate biblical writers’ use of numbers in the that forty years is the ideal or full gen- Old Testament. He determined that the eration. Second, 1 Chron 6:33-37 indicates order in which numbers are given in the there were eighteen generations from the Old Testament are an indication of how time of Korah, the instigator who raised the biblical authors intended the numbers a rebellion against Moses (Numbers 16), to be understood. Cassuto observed that to the time of Heman, a musician from compound numbers appear in two dif- the time of David. If one adds one more ferent ways: sometimes the ones precede generation to get to Solomon’s time, then the tens, the tens precede the hundreds, there were nineteen generations from the and the hundreds precede the thousands; 85 in other instances the thousands precede with the Ammonites over land he said, the hundreds, the hundreds precede the “For three hundred years Israel occupied tens, and the tens precede the ones. For Heshbon, Aroer, the surrounding settle- example, one may find eighty and four ments and all the towns along the Arnon. hundred or one may find four hundred and Why didn’t you retake them during that eighty. Cassuto writes, time?” Jephthah was appealing to the idea of “squatter’s rights,” that is, since Israel This is the principal rule: when the Bible gives us technical or statisti- had been in the land for three hundred cal data and the like, it frequently years, there was no reason to give it back prefers the ascending order, since to the Ammonites now. Even though the tendency to exactness in these instances causes the smaller num- it is impossible to know the exact date bers to be given precedence and of Jephthah, most scholars estimate his prominence. On the other hand, dealings with the Ammonites happened when a solitary number occurs in a narrative passage or in a poem sometime from 1130 to 1073 B.C.29 There- or in a speech and so forth, the fore, if the Israelites had been in the land numbers are invariably arranged, save in a few cases where special for 300 years that would mean they had circumstances operate, according been there since between 1430 and 1373 to the more natural and spontane- B.C., a time that well fits an early date of ous order, to wit, the descending order. This is a fundamental rule the Exodus. In fact, the number of years governing the use of the numerals 28 given thus far in Judges for the cycles of

in Hebrew. oppression and peace comes to 301 years, not counting the Ammonite oppression While one often finds “In the four hundred Jephthah was fighting. and eightieth year” in English translations Nevertheless, some scholars object to of 1 Kgs 6:1, the number appears “in the this understanding of Judg 11:26. Bratcher eightieth year and four hundredth year” observes that the context of Jephthah’s in the Masoretic Text. According to Cas- speech suggests that the number is not suto, this ascending order would indicate intended to be precise but rather a general a “technical or statistical” number in order reference to an extended span of time. to show “the tendency to exactness.” Up Also, the narrator of the text portrays to this point, no proponent of the late date Jephthah as one who probably would have of the Exodus has provided a response to had little access to historical records in Cassuto’s study as applied to 1 Kgs 1:6. order to speak with such precision, and if the narrator had access to the informa- Judges 11:26 tion and wanted to convey chronological The final Scriptural text for consid- details, then it is odd that the rest of pas- eration concerning the Exodus is Judg sage is void of any other historical details. 11:26. This verse is located in a message Therefore, one may assume the narrator Jephthah sent to the king of Ammon in had something else in mind rather than order to persuade the king to discontinue precision in dating as his main concern. his aggression against the Israelites living Moreover, Bratcher states the meager evi- in the Transjordan. The Ammonites were dence and tenuous nature of understand- attempting to retake some of the land that ing the specific chronology of the judges Israel had taken when Moses had led his makes trying to do so nearly impossible people there. As Jephthah was contending 86 because the conclusions are compro- Why is it so impossible for the number mised by inadequate data.30 to be accurate unless one needs it to fit Some say that the “300 years” an already established historical recon- is a gloss.31 R. G. Boling argues the struction of events? Would it have even number of years is intended to be an been necessary for Jephthah to have a “exact figure” but that it is a second- “Ph.D. in chronology at some ancient ary insertion.32 Either way, it could university” to have knowledge of the still support the either date of the span of time his people had been in the Exodus. Kitchen discounts Jephthah’s land? Granted, Jephthah probably had claim also. Confident of his chronol- little concern for providing the Ammo- ogy of Jephthah’s activities in 1073 nite king with a “mathematical precise B.C., concerning the number three chronological datum.” However, is it hundred he says, reasonable to consider his use of “300 years” to be something like the way most At roughly 1070, that would place that occupation at about typical Americans would have responded 1370, which in itself makes ten to twenty years ago if they had been no sense whatsoever on any asked “How old is the United States of current date of the exodus 40 years before, whether in America?” Most would have answered 1447, 1260/1250, or any time in “200 years old,” and when they did most between. Brave fellow that he people would have understood it to be a was, Jephthah was a roughneck, an outcast, and not exactly the reasonable estimation of the span of time kind of man who would scruple in question. There are those Americans first to take a Ph.D. in local chronology at some ancient who would still give that answer today. university of the Yarmuk before Moreover, most Americans, sad to say, making strident claims to the have little knowledge of a detailed chro- Ammonite ruler. What we have is nothing more than the nology of American history, but they do report of a brave but ignorant have an idea of the length of time the man’s bold bluster in favor of United States has been a nation. Therefore, his people, not a mathematical precise chronological datum. it is reasonable to conceive that while So it can offer us no practical Jephthah was not trying to give a defini- help. It is in the same class as tive time of their occupation of the land, other statements that biblical writers may well report accu- he was giving a very close approximation rately but which they would of it. It would not have taken a Ph.D. to not necessarily expect readers 33 to believe. have that knowledge. In fact, it would be odd if both the Israelites and Ammonites Therefore, according to Kitchen, were ignorant of such information. That is the biblical writers were accurate in Jephthah’s point. It is reasonable to expect recording what Jephthah said, but it to have been common knowledge.34 As what Jephthah said was inaccurate. Davis observes, Either he was ignorant of the facts or It is scarcely possible, however, perhaps he intentionally lied about that Jephthah should make such a them in order to make the case for blunder in the midst of important his own people, certainly not the last international negotiations. His knowledge of the Torah is evident time a leader would have done so. from the context of Chapter 11 of 87 Judges. It is doubtful that Jephthah find. Archaeologists must be careful to could have exaggerated this number avoid allowing presuppositions to influ- as it was used in the argument to the king and have gotten away with ence their interpretations, but doing it. The King of Ammon had some so is nearly impossible. Therefore, it is knowledge of the historical prece- important for those of us who study the dence involved in Israel’s occupa- tion of the territory of Transjordan Scriptures and are interested in archaeol- (cf. Judg 11:13). Again it would be ogy to have an understanding of the role well to point out that numerical archaeology may play. Archaeology cer- information given in the passage under question does not appear in tainly provides an important piece to the a poetic section and therefore prob- 35 puzzle of our attempting to put together ably reflects sober fact. all of the events we see in the Bible, but it Archaeological Interests cannot stand alone. Having given a look at many of the One may find numerous volumes per- issues concerning the date of the Exodus taining to the various discoveries that may in Scripture, now attention should be have some impact on one’s understanding given to the way scholars use archaeo- of the date of the Exodus. Therefore, the logical discoveries to pinpoint the date of following is just an overview of some of the Exodus realizing that archaeological the major concerns archaeologists have finds provide no more “hard/objective” brought to the discussion. evidence than does Scripture. Just like any text in the Bible, ancient inscrip- Destruction Layers tions, artifacts, and structures must be Besides the reference to the city of interpreted. Interpretations of the same Rameses in Exod 1:11, probably the stron- data may sometimes vary quite a bit. gest argument for the late date of the One reason for this variance is because Exodus comes from a number of cities of the intricate nature of archaeology. that were in ancient Palestine that indicate Archaeologists must take into account their destruction and rebuilding during several issues including the following: the thirteenth century B.C. Kitchen and (1) topography – the study of the surface Mitchell observe, “Various Palestinian features of a region, (2) hydrology – the city-sites show evidence of clear destruc- th study of water, its properties, sources, and tion in the second half of the 13 century distribution, (3) stratigraphy – the study B.C., which would agree with the onset of the deposition and relationships of the of the Israelites placed roughly 1240 B.C. occupational layers of an archeological onward. Such sites are Tell Beit Mirsim site, (4) regional archaeology – the study (possibly biblical Debir/Kiriath-sepher), 37 of the material remains of a geographical Lachish, Bethel, and Hazor.” The two area that covers numerous sites, and (5) biblical cities that have received the most the tell – a mound consisting of debris attention are Jericho and Hazor. The Bible from cities built on top of one another on describes the complete destruction of both the same site.36 Archaeologists encounter of these cities (Josh 2:1-21; 6:1-27; 11:1-11). numerous challenges when addressing The first city the Israelites defeated as each of these issues. Another reason they came into the Promised Land was for such variance is because it is human Jericho. A British archaeologist from the nature to look for what one expects to 1930s, John Garstang, concluded that Jer- 88 icho showed evidence of destruction at the the area each day, that excavators have end of the fifteenth century.38 He based discovered where much of the mud brick his conclusion on a detailed study of the of the structure melted and then reso- pottery he discovered at the destruction lidified into the charred bricks that may level.39 In the 1950s, Kathleen Kenyon, still be seen today in its reconstruction. another renowned British archaeologist, Wood argues that Joshua and the Israelites excavated the site and came to a very dif- caused this destruction, thus supporting ferent understanding of ancient Jericho. an early date of the Exodus.44 Based on her extensive work, she con- Furthermore, excavators have uncov- cluded that Jericho actually was destroyed ered a destruction layer that dates to the in the middle of the sixteenth century B.C., thirteenth century B.C. in Stratum 1a and not at the end of the fifteenth century B.C. Stratum XIII. Wood maintains that this Furthermore, after that, she concluded destruction level is the result of Debo- there was no occupation of the site during rah and Barak’s war over King Jabin of the fifteenth century.40 Most scholars have Hazor and his general, Sisera.45 However, adopted Kenyon’s conclusions. Nonethe- the Israeli archaeologist overseeing the less, Wood argues that Kenyon failed to excavations of Hazor, Amnon Ben-Tor, thoroughly study the pottery of the site, contends that Joshua is responsible for the yet what she did discover corroborates destruction levels dating to the thirteenth the biblical account of Jericho and its century B.C. The destruction was so severe destruction. In other words, Garstang’s that the city was not reinhabited until the study of the pottery was correct after time of Solomon in the tenth century B.C.46 all. According to Wood, the fortification Yigael Yadin, the Israeli archaeologist who system and evidence of its collapse did first excavated these stratums attributed not happen in the sixteenth century as the destruction to the Israelites.47 Also, Kenyon espoused, but it happened at the Ben-Tor is convinced Israelites were end of the fifteenth century B.C., support- responsible for this destruction because ing the early date of the Exodus.41 of the mutilated statues of Egyptian and Hazor is another city at the center of the Canaanite gods and kings many of which debate.42 It is the largest excavated site in were decapitated.48 Hoffmeier maintains Israel. Hazor was strategically located ten Deborah and Barak could not be responsi- miles north of the Sea of Galilee. Accord- ble for this destruction because the battle ing to the biblical writers, it is the only they fought with King Jabin and Sisera one of three cities captured and destroyed happened about thirty-five miles south by Joshua and the Israelites (Josh 11:1-11). of Hazor (Judg 4:6, 12-13). While the text The other two are Jericho and Ai. Excava- indicates God “subdued” Jabin and that tions at Hazor have revealed the fifteenth the Israelites “cut off” or “exterminated” century B.C. city of Hazor (Stratum XV Jabin (Judg 4:23-24), Hoffmeier observes in the upper city and Stratum 2 in the that the text is silent regarding any kind lower city) was destroyed by fire. In the of military action against the city of Hazor upper city the temple/palace in area A itself. He says, was destroyed and never rebuilt.43 In fact, It is hard to believe that the city that the heat was so intense, probably fueled was the “head” of all kingdoms of by the blustery winds that move across northern Canaan would so thor- oughly be devastated by Joshua in 89 1400 BC and then rise from the ashes with great and good cities that you to be rebuilt to its peak of prosperity did not build, and houses full of all only to be demolished by a much good things that you did not fill, smaller force from the tribes of and cisterns that you did not dig, Naphtali and Zebulon (Judg 4:6, 10) and vineyards and olive trees that 49 under Deborah and Barak. you did not plant­—and when you eat and are full, then take care lest In his response to Hoffmeier, Wood says, you forget the LORD, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of Judg 5:14-18 indicates that Ephraim, the house of slavery. Benjamin, Makir (Manasseh), Zebulon, Issachar, and Naphtali, Is it logical for people who are conquering six northern hill country tribes, a land with the intention of settling in it participated in the war against Jabin king of Hazor. Furthermore, to destroy the cities they are intending Hoffmeier denies that there was on inhabiting themselves? Moses gives any military action against Hazor the impression that the Israelites were itself by Deborah and Barak, as the battle described in Judges 4 took going to live in the Canaanite cities and place at the Kishon River resulted houses that the Canaanites had built, not in Jabin being “subdued” (Judg that the Israelites would have to rebuild. 4:23). Following this, the “Israelites grew stronger and stronger against The destruction of the three cities men- Jabin” until they “destroyed him” tioned in Joshua each seem to have hap- (Judg 4:24). The destruction of Jabin implies the destruction of his capital pened under special circumstances, yet city Hazor. it is reasonable that the Israelite military These are minor points, however, strategy was to eliminate the inhabitants compared to the major issues facing the 13th–century model which Hoff- of the land without destroying their cit- meier does not address. That is, if ies, homes, or crops. Moreover, the book the 1320 BC destruction at Hazor is of Judges seems to indicate that there was assigned to Joshua, where is the city that Jabin of Judges 4 ruled, since a great deal of conflict happening during Hazor was not rebuilt until the time 50 that period in ancient Palestine. Could it of Solomon. be that the numerous destruction levels As already indicated, the advocates of the thirteenth century B.C. are the of the late date say the destruction levels remains of those conflicts along with the of numerous cities in the thirteenth cen- destruction of Hazor? tury B.C. are evidence of the conquest of the promised land. The Bible only men- Amarna Letters Excavators have uncovered 382 tab- tions three cities that were destroyed by lets at Tell el Amarna, which is located Joshua, but advocates of the late date say about 180 miles south of Cairo.51 This that these cities are representative of the site was the location of the capital dur- mass destruction wielded by the Israelites ing the reign of the ninth pharaoh in the throughout the land. Nevertheless, could eighteenth dynasty named Amenhotep it be that Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were the IV or Akhenaton, named for the sun god only cities destroyed in the conquest? Aten or Aton. The Amarna tablets are Deut 6:10-12 says, significant because they are a collection of And when the LORD your God diplomatic correspondences. Out of this brings you into the land that he swore to your fathers, to Abraham, collection, 106 of the letters were requests to Isaac, and to Jacob, to give you-- from various vassals of Egypt in Canaan 90 for military aid from the pharaoh in the Israelites had just destroyed the city? In face of attacks by a group of people called response to the first issue, theHapiru who Hapiru.52 These attacks happened in the were allies with Hazor obviously were early to mid-fourteenth century B.C. The not Israelites. Once again, “Hapiru” is a term, Hapiru, appears in texts dating from generic as well as derogatory term that 1750 to 1150 B.C. and was a designation was given to these semi-nomadic peoples for semi-nomadic peoples who “were in causing unrest in settled areas. Not all the process of sedentarization, who came Hapiru were Israelites, but some may have from the semi-desert zone and entered been called this by the Canaanites who civilized regions as strangers . . . they certainly would not have been concerned were members of tightly knit tribal units with making any distinction between whose allegiance was determined by these groups as they were conquering kinship and who had their own system Canaanite settlements. The second issue of law.”53 Astour says the Amarna tablets assumes it was impossible for Hazor to indicate the Hapiru “acted in large armed rebuild within forty to fifty years. How- units which were not only engaged in ever, the books of Joshua and Judges sug- plundering raids but were also seizing for gest it did regardless of which date of the themselves towns and parts of the lands Exodus one takes. Another possibility is under Egyptian rule.”54 He continues, that the Hapiru appeared after the initial “History shows that whenever one finds conquest led by Joshua. They would have independent armed bands, these were been among those who oppressed Israel always ethnically homogeneous.”55 While during the time of the judges.58 not all Hapiru attacking cities in Palestine were Hebrews, some proponents of the Extra-biblical References to Israel early date believe that some of the Hapiru The Merenptah Stele is a monument mentioned in the letters were references heralding military campaigns carried to Hebrews.56 From the perspective of the out by Pharaoh Merenptah (1237-1227 Canaanites the Hebrews would have fit B.C.). The close of this “Hymn of Victory” the description of Hapiru. contains a passage concerning a campaign Probably the best argument against that happened early in his reign saying, equating the Israelites with the any of Carried off is Ashkelon; seized upon the Hapiru comes from Hoffmeier. He is Gezer; points out that one of the Amarna tablets Yanoam is made as that which does not exist; indicates that the king of Hazor was an 59 Israel is laid waste, his seed is not. ally of the Hapiru as they attacked Tyre.57 This observation raises two issues for an This inscription is the oldest extra- early date of the Exodus. First, the books biblical inscription where scholars agree of Joshua and Judges indicate that the on the mention of Israel. Most attention Israelites and the inhabitants of Hazor has been given to the determinatives were anything but allies. Second, if the (signs in the text that indicate the nature Israelites had come into the land in ca. of the accompanying word) that follow 1400 B.C., then how could the king of the names of the cities and Israel. The Hazor be waging war on other city-states determinatives accompanying the cities in northern Palestine if Joshua and the indicate that they were city-states. The 91 determinative accompanying Israel indi- Conclusion cates that it was a less settled people indi- Several more issues surround the cating they were a tribal people without debate concerning the date of the Exodus. any fixed territorial boundaries, a picture Was there an Egyptian capital near Gos- in keeping with the time of the judges.60 hen during the eighteenth dynasty in the Since, no other mention of Israel appears mid-fifteenth century B.C.?67 Did Pharaoh prior to ca. 1220 B.C. and Merenptah actually perish in the Red Sea?68 Can one recognized Israel as only a tribal people trust the Jubilee’s data from the Talmud instead of a nation, some argue the stele that seems to indicate the beginning of supports a late date.61 On the other hand, the conquest happened in 1406 B.C.?69 Did supporters of the early date contend that the populations in Moab and Edom dur- Merenptah’s mention of Israel indicates ing the fifteenth century B.C. correspond the Israelites were established enough to biblical descriptions during Israel’s for Merenptah to boast about having trek to Canaan?70 The list goes on as does fought Israel, meaning Israel was well- the debate. established in Canaan by this time.62 So why is it important for evangelicals Manfred Görg’s publication concern- to concern themselves with what seems to ing a column base fragment located in the be insignificant compared to other mat- Egyptian Museum in Berlin has peaked ters concerning Scriptures? It is important some interest in the debate. Görg has because a great many people are abandon- discovered that it preserves three place ing the notion that the Exodus ever really names that were part of a longer list. The happened.71 No doubt, the message of the first two names are clearly Ashkelon and text is preeminent over any chronological Canaan. Görg contends that the third issues, but chronological issues naturally is Israel. The orthography63 suggests arise if we acknowledge the historicity of this inscription dates to the eighteenth the text. While evangelicals have no need dynasty. 64 If so, then it would lend support for extra-biblical evidence to uphold our to an early date of the Exodus. Hoffmeier conviction pertaining to the message, says Görg’s reading of “Israel” is “plagued inspiration, and authority of Scripture, by serious linguistic and orthographic we should be committed to upholding the problems which preclude it from being truth before a skeptical and unbelieving Israel,” then he proceeds by addressing world. Evangelicals do not need to prove “four of the most glaring objections.”65 the veracity of the bible, yet apologetics is In Görg’s formal response to Hoffmeier, an important aspect of contending for the Görg puts forth his reasons for maintain- faith. Our chronological understanding ing the inscription should be read “Israel.” of events before the Exodus and after the What is just as interesting is that Görg Exodus until Israel’s monarchy is largely says, “My commentary has no relation- dependant upon our understanding of the ship to questions about the date of the date of the Exodus. As Wood states, “If so-called exodus.”66 Apparently, Görg we are looking in the wrong century for has no interest in the debate concerning evidence to support the biblical account the Exodus, indicating his objectivity in of the exodus, clearly we will not find any the matter. evidence!”72 Both sides of the debate raise serious 92 questions concerning the date of the Israel (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1996), 66-75; Exodus. If Moses had recorded the name Bryant Wood, “The Rise and Fall of the of the pharaoh there would be no debate. 13th-Century Exodus-Conquest Theory,” However, during that time it was custom- Journal of the Evangelical Theological Soci- ary for people to call the Egyptian mon- ety 48 (2005): 475-89; idem, “The Bibli- arch “Pharaoh.” Until stronger evidence cal Date for the Exodus is 1446 BC: A points to the contrary, the mid-fifteenth Response to James Hoffmeier,” Journal century B.C. appears to be the most prob- of the Evangelical Theological Society 50 able date for the Exodus. (2008): 249-58; idem, “From Ramesses to Shiloh: Archaeological Discoveries Endnotes Bearing on the Exodus-Judges Period” in 1The following are some well-known Giving the Sense: Understanding and Using proponents of the late date of the exodus: Old Testament Historical Texts (ed. David Alan Cole, Exodus: An Introduction & M. Howard Jr. and Michael A. Grisanti; Commentary (Downers Grove: InterVar- Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2003), 256-62; Wil- sity, 1973) 40-43; John Currid, A Study liam H. Shea, “The Date of the Exodus,” Commentary on Exodus (Auburn, MA: in Giving the Sense, 236-55. Evangelical, 2000), 27-29; Richard Hess, 3Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical Date for Joshua: An Introduction & Commentary the Exodus?” 236. (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1996), 4Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testa- 139-43; James K. Hoffmeier, “What Is the ment, 256. Biblical Date for the Exodus? A Response 5Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical Date for to Bryant Wood,” Journal of the Evangelical the Exodus?” 233. Theological Society 50 (2008): 225-47; K. 6Ibid., 234-35. A. Kitchen, Ancient Orient and the Old 7M. Bietak, Avaris and PiRamesse: Archaeo- Testament (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, logical Exploration in the Eastern Nile 1966), 57-69; idem, The Bible in Its World Delta (Wheeler Lecture for 1979; Oxford: (Exeter: Paternoster, 1977), 75-79; idem, Oxford University, 1981), 67-79. On the Reliability of the Old Testament 8Shea, “The Date of the Exodus,” 249. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 307- 9Robert I. Vasholz, “On the Dating of the 09; Alan Millard (archeological notes), Exodus,” Presbyterion 32 (2006): 111. Picture Archive of the Bible (ed. Caroline 10Ibid., 112. Masom and Pat Alexander; Tring, Herts, 11Ibid. England: Lion Books, 1987), 22. 12Wood, “The 13th–Century Exodus- 2The following are some well-known pro- Conquest Theory,” 479. Wood gives ponents of the early date of the exodus: several examples, such as Bethel in Gen Walter C. Kaiser, Jr. A History of Israel 28:19, used proleptically in Gen 12:8 and from the Bronze Age Through The Jewish 13:3, and Dan, named by the Danites Wars (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, in Judg 18:29 but used proleptically in 1998), 104-11; idem, Exodus, in vol. 2 of The Gen 14:14. Expositor’s Bible Commentary (ed. Frank E. 13Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testa- Gaebelein; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, ment, 354 1990), 288-91; Eugene H. Merrill, King- 14Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical Date for dom of Priests: A History of Old Testament the Exodus?” 233. 93 15Wood, “A Response to James Hoff- 29John J. Bimson, Redating the Exodus 39John Garstang, “Jericho: City and meier,” 250-51. and Conquest (Sheffield: Sheffield, Necropolis, Fourth Report,” Liv- 16Charles H. Dyer, “The Date of the 1981), 103; Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, erpool Annals of Archaeology and Exodus Reexamined,” Bibliotheca 148; Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Anthropology 21 (1934): 118-30. Sacra 3 (1983): 226. Old Testament, 207. 40Kathleen Kenyon, Digging Up Jericho 17Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, 107. 30Bratcher, “The Date of the Exo- (London: Ernest Benn, 1957), 262; 18Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old dus.” idem, “Jericho,” in Archaeology and Testament, 83. 31J. Hughes, Secrets of the Times: Myth Old Testament Study (ed. D. Winton 19Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical and History in Biblical Chronology Thomas; Oxford: Clarendon, 1967), Date for the Exodus?” 235-36. (JSOTSup 66; Sheffield: JSOT, 1990); 265-67; idem, The Bible in Recent 20Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old R. G. Boling, Judges: A New Transla- Archaeology (Atlanta: John Knox, Testament, 307. tion with Introduction and Commen- 1978), 33-37. 21Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical tary (Anchor Bible; Garden City: 41Wood, “From Ramesses to Shiloh,” Date for the Exodus?” 236. Doubleday, 1975), 204. 262-63. 22Dennis Bratcher, “The Date of the 32Boling, Judges, 204. 42I had the privilege of participating Exodus: The Historical Study of 33Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old in the 2006 excavations at Hazor. Scripture,” n.p. [cited 25 August Testament, 209. 43Wood, “From Ramesses to Shiloh,” 2008]. Online: http://www.cresour- 34I am always amazed at how we 268. cei.org/exodusdate.html. moderns portray the ancients as so 44Ibid., 268. 23Ibid. ignorant. The more I study ancient 45Wood, “The 13th-Century Exodus- 24Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical near Eastern cultures the more I Conquest Theory,” 487-88. Date for the Exodus?” 237. See R. D. am amazed at how much they did 46Amnon Ben-Tor, “The Fall of Patterson and Hermann J. Austell know. Canaanite Hazor—The ‘Who’ and 1 & 2 Kings, in vol. 4 of The Exposi- 35John J. Davis, Moses and the Gods of ‘When’ Questions,” in Mediterra- tor’s Bible Commentary with the New Egypt (Grand Rapids, Baker, 1971), nean Peoples in Transition, Thirteenth International Version (ed. Frank E. 31. to Early Tenth Centuries B.C.E (ed. Gaebelein; Grand Rapids: Zonder- 36See John D. Currid, Doing Archaeol- Semour Gitin, Amihai Mazar, and van, 1988), 181, for a discussion of ogy in the Land of the Bible: A Basic Ephraim Stern; Jerusalem: Israel the events taking forty literally. Guide (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1999) Exploration Society, 1998), 456-67. 25I would like to thank my colleague for an excellent introduction to 47Yigael Yadin, “The Fourth Season Peter Gentry for pointing out this Palestinian Archaelogy; for further of Excavation at Hazor,” The Biblical passage to me and its significance to reading see Joel F. Drinkard, Gerald Archaeologist 22 (February, 1959): 9. this discussion; cf. Wood, “The 13th L. Mattingly, and J. Maxwell Mill, 48Ben-Tor, “The Fall of Canaanite Century Exodus-Conquest Theory,” Benchmarks in Time and Culture Hazor,” 456, 465. 486-86. (Atlanta: Scholars, 1988). 49Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical 26Wood, “A Response to James Hoff- 37Kenneth A. Kitchen and T. C. Mitch- Date for the Exodus?” 244. meier,” 253. ell, “Chronology,” in The Illustrated 50Wood, “A Response to James Hoff- 27Dyer, “The Date of the Exodus Reex- Bible Dictionary (3 vol.; ed. J. D. meier,” 256. amined,” 235. Douglas; Wheaton: Tyndale House, 51For a detailed study see Y. Goren, 28Umberto Cassuto, The Documentary 1980), 1:275. Y., I. Finkelstein, and N. Na’aman, Hypothesis and the Composition of the 38John Garstang, “Jericho and the Inscribed in Clay - Provenance Study Pentateuch (Jerusalem: The Magnes Biblical Story,” in Wonders of the Past of the Amarna Tablets and Other Press, The Hebrew University, (ed. J. A. Hammerton; New York: Ancient Near Eastern Texts (Tel Aviv: 1961), 52. Wise, 1937), 1222. Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of 94 Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, meier,” 255. 2004). 67Dyer, “The Date of the Exodus Reex- 52Wood, “From Ramesses to Shiloh,” amined,” 233; J. A. Thompson, The 269. Bible and Archaeology (3d ed.; Grand 53Michael C. Astour, “The Hapiru in Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), 60-62. the Amarna Texts: Basic Points of 68Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical Controversy,” Ugarit-Forschungen Date for the Exodus?” 239-40; Wood, 31 (1999): 41. “A Response to James Hoffmeier,” 54Ibid., 31. 253-54. 55Ibid., 40. 69Robert C. Young, “When Did Solo- 56Kaiser, A History of Israel from the mon Die?” Journal of the Evangelical Bronze Age Through The Jewish Wars, Theological Society 46 (2003): 599- 109-11; Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, 603. 102-108; Wood, “The 13th-Century 70Nelson Glueck, “Explorations in Exodus-Conquest Theory,” 489. Eastern Palestine and the Negeb,” 57Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical Bulletin of the American Schools of Date for the Exodus?” 245. Oriental Research 55 (1934): 3-21; 58Meredith Kline, “The Ha-Bi-Ru— Gerald L. Mattingly, “The Exodus- Kin or Foe of Israel?” Westminster Conquest and the Archaeology of Theological Journal 20 (1957): 54-61. Transjordania: New Light on an 59Alfred J. Hoerth, Archaeology and the Old Problem,” Grace Theological Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker, Journal 4, no. 2 (1983): 245-62; Gösta 1998), 228. W. Ahlström, The History of Ancient 60K. A. Kitchen, “The Physical Text Palestine (Minneapolis: Fortress, of Merenptah’s Victory Hymn (The 1993), 220-21. ‘Israel Stele’),” Journal of the Society 71Carl Rasmussen, “Conquest, Infil- for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities tration, Revolt, or Resettlement?” 24 (1994): 74-75. in Giving the Sense, 153. 61Andrew E. Hill, Baker’s Handbook 72Wood, “A Response to James Hoff- of Bible Lists (Grand Rapids: Baker, meier,” 249. 1981), 71-72. 62Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, 155-56; Wood, “From Ramesses to Shiloh,” 274. 63Orthography describes or defines the set of symbols used in a lan- guage and the rules about how to write these symbols. 64Manfred Görg, “Israel in Hierogly- phen,” Biblische Notizen 106 (2001): 24. 65Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical Date for the Exodus?” 241. 66Wood, “A Response to James Hoff- 95 Sermon: You Cannot Serve Both God and Mummy: Pharaoh Hunger and the Draw of a Golden-Calf Spirituality (Exodus 32:1-35)1 Russell D. Moore

Russell D. Moore is Senior Vice Their little eyes widened as they pressed calf. We instinctively know this is wrong. President for Academic Administration their faces to the glass. The room was We know this is idolatry. We know it and Dean of the School of Theology dark, except for a single light shining kindles the anger of Israel’s God. What we at The Southern Baptist Theological on the shriveled corpse in front of them. miss is that this is no one-time incident. Seminary, where he also serves as There the thing was, mouth open, eyes Instead, the entire Bible points back to Associate Professor of Christian Theol- still and dead. Their voices quivered as this incident—repeatedly—as a paradigm ogy and ­Ethics. He also serves as a they asked two questions. The first, “Dad, of rebellion. preaching pastor at Highview Baptist what is it?” I replied, “She’s a mummy.” This act of worshipping a cow is exactly Church in Louisville, where he ministers The second, “Dad can we go now?” what the Apostle Paul tells us is true of all weekly. Dr. Moore is the Executive Direc- We walked out the doors of the room— people in all places everywhere—a pat- tor of the Carl F. H. Henry Institute for the museum here on the campus of The tern of turning away from the Creator and Evangelical Engagement and a ­Senior Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. It toward the creature, even to the image of Editor of Touchstone: A Journal of Mere was late on a Friday night, after a new stu- a beast (Rom 1:18-25). Christianity. He is the author of The dent orientation event and I was walking The horror of this account is even worse Kingdom of Christ: The New Evangelical back to my office with my two six year- than the brute fact of idolatry. Our brother Perspective (Crossway, 2004). old sons. Benjamin asked a third set of Stephen, right before he was pelted to questions, with his voice cracking: “Dad, death with rocks, preaches something why do you have a mummy at your work? very interesting about this incident. He Aren’t you scared to be here?” says that even after Israel had seen God’s I reassured them that, of course, I work on their behalf—in the defeat of Pha- wasn’t scared. Mummies aren’t real—at raoh and the deliverance from the Egyp- least, not real in the way we’re accustomed tian empire—the people of Israel turned to seeing them in the black-and-white hor- their back on God’s prophet Moses. They, ror films. Mummies are dead. They can’t Stephen preaches, “thrust him aside, and hurt anyone. Despite the fact that these in their hearts they turned back to Egypt” boys kept looking over their shoulders, (Acts 7:39). I told them, “One can’t be chased by a When the Israelites dance before this mummy.” thing, they are doing more than simply But is that entirely true? rebelling against their God. They are The text in front of us is a very familiar becoming affectionally Egyptian—again. passage to those of us who’ve followed The Israelites complain to Moses, ask- Christ for any length of time. The people ing if he had brought them out to the of Israel are dancing around a golden wilderness to kill them. They recall how 96 Pharaoh had given them food and springs in the way they make this idol. This calf of water. And when Moses is gone for a is formed, after all, by their jewelry. But while, they remember something else where does this jewelry come form? The Pharaoh had given them: visible gods. gold is from Egypt. They have it only There are very few people in Christian because the Lord gave them favor in the churches who have ever danced in wor- sight of their masters, so they were able ship around a cow statue. But the Scripture to plunder their captors (Exod 11:2-3). warns us that our forefathers and fore- Aaron is taking the very spoils of war mothers weren’t especially aberrant. There God had granted them and turning it into remains before all of us, everywhere, a an arsenal against the One who gave it in pull toward a golden calf spirituality. the first place. Israel was delivered from slavery—and Their problem isn’t just ingratitude, but so were we. The Pharaoh hunger that led also fear. The Israelites aren’t looking for a them to disaster is persistent in our own ceremony. They instruct Aaron to “make lives and ministries. If we’re not careful us gods who shall go before us” (Exod we’ll find ourselves—like them—longing 32:1). They are echoing—in a perverted for the power of a mummy. sort of way—God’s own promise to them. Yahweh had told them he would go before The Pull to a Christless God them to fight off their enemies, to bring When Moses goes up to the mountain them into the land of promise. to pray before Israel’s God, the people Here the people stand—outside the gather around Aaron to negotiate with land of Egypt but not yet in the land of him. One can hear even in the way they promise—and they are afraid. They are are speaking a profound ingratitude. seeking a god who will fight for them, a “Up,” they say to Aaron, “And make us god who will satisfy their needs, a god gods who shall go before us. As for this who will give them good. Because they Moses, the man who brought us up out of don’t see it by faith, they decide to force the land of Egypt, we do not know what it by sight. Because they don’t believe in has become of him” (Exod 32:1). a good, wise, powerful God, they decide Moses? Was it Moses who brought to create one. them up out of the land of Egypt? It was In addition to this ingratitude and fear Yahweh who poured out the plagues, who is self-deception. After all, the Israelites split the seas, who drowned the army. The don’t say to themselves, “Let us worship people though speak as though it were Baal” or “Let us worship Ra.” They speak by the power of the flesh that they were as though they are worshipping Yahweh. delivered. God turns this same language Aaron even speaks of the calf thing in this back toward Moses when he says, “Your way, commemorating it with “a feast to people, whom you brought out of the land the Lord” (Exod 32:5). The people believe of Egypt” (Exod 32:7). In there is an indict- themselves to be worshipping the God ment. These people don’t see themselves who has delivered them from Pharaoh’s as redeemed. They don’t bow the knee in Egypt, but they want to worship him gratitude. They are, as Paul puts it, those after the pattern they’ve seen in Pharaoh’s who refuse to give thanks (Rom 1:21). Egypt. And they are able to convince The posture of ingratitude is seen even themselves this is the way it ought to be. 97 Most of us have a hard time seeing can feel and point to and say, “This is our ourselves in the picture of ancient Middle God.” Moreover, they can control this. Easterners howling around a cultic statue. They can conveniently turn their heads But there we are. The Scripture tells us away from it when they wish. They can there will always be scoffers among us, move it about where they want. They right up until the last days, asking the can control its sight of them, and thus its question, “Where is the promise of his oversight of them. This golden calf seems coming?” (2 Pet 3:3-4). The walk of faith is more real to them than their invisible, so difficult and the walk of sight so easy. often hiding God. The way of the Spirit is so frightful, and In the exact same way, there are those the way of the flesh so comfortable. today—even among us—whose driving Faced with the prospect of a wilderness force is their own ambition, their own journey, the Israelites looked backward. pleasure. It’s what is most real to them. Back in Egypt, they reasoned, we had all This leads to idolatry, and idolatry leads the gods, all the food, all the protection we to destruction. The persistent temptation needed. As they stand in the land outside before us is to rather have a calf than a the land, they find themselves looking Christ, a Pharaoh than a Father. back at Egypt, back toward gods who could be created and formed, guaranteed The Pull to a Christless Intercession to be visible and tangible, guaranteed to On display here in this text are two ward off fears and fill stomachs. So they very different priesthoods. Aaron melts try to replicate it. the gold. He forms the calf. When Moses The Israelites want what we want—a returns to confront him, Aaron hides life without questions, a life that can be in a fashion reminiscent of Adam in manipulated toward the end we desire. Eden. “Mistakes were made,” he replies. Don’t you hear the echo of our idolatrous “Moses, you know these people. They ancestors in your own grumbling? Do you kept grumbling so I gathered their stuff think you would have the life you really together. I melted it down—and how need if only the two strips on the preg- was I supposed to know it would come nancy test would line up or if only that out on the other end as a calf!” Aaron acceptance letter would come in the mail presents himself not as a craftsman but or if only your ministry would succeed as a spectator—like the amazed man who the way your peers’ ministries have? It is sees the outline of the Virgin Mary in his easy to seek to manipulate and order your grilled cheese sandwich. life and affections around these things, This evasion, though, doesn’t succeed. forsaking everything else until you get it. God repeatedly tells us in this text—all You’re longing for some thing—for some the way to verse 25—that “the people thing. You can place this at the forefront broke loose.” Why? It’s because Aaron of your mind, even calling it “Jesus,” but let them. When God speaks of the calf he deep down you know better. names it “the calf Aaron had made” (Exod Here in this text, the Israelites stand 32:35). This thing bears Aaron’s name, and and worship the work of their own hands. Aaron’s responsibility. They have what they want: something Aaron stands as a priest before the tangible before them, something they people, and he responds to their appe- 98 tites—deceiving himself that he’s actually We come before God as rebels and doing the service of God. Aaron takes the law-breakers—exactly the same as our worship of God and uses it to manipulate forebears. But when we pray we are pray- the people—just as Pharaoh did. Just as ing with Jesus through the Holy Spirit. Pharaoh used gods, and even proclaimed He is praying with us, and we pray in his himself to be one of them, to secure name. God hears us then not because we loyalty and veneration, Aaron uses the have any meritorious reason to be heard, sacred things of God to secure his own but because God always hears the voice of tranquility. his beloved Son. Jesus’ priesthood averts As new covenant believers, this danger us from disaster—because God keeps his now applies to all of us. We are, after all, covenant promises to his Christ. now the promised “kingdom of priests” How many of us can see the begin- (Rev 5:11; Exod 19:6). Don’t we follow this nings of a golden calf spirituality in our tragic Aaronic path when we deceitfully own prayerlessness? I wonder how many twist our language to get some desired of us would rather spend a day at the end? It’s easy to be the kind of priest beach or before a television screen than who gossips or lies. It’s easier to protect an afternoon on our faces praying before ourselves than to seek to deny ourselves our God? I wonder how many of us would to edify one another. Aaron certainly rather preach and teach than to stand in believes this to be the case. But in so the very presence of God, with Christ, and doing, he images Pharaoh and not Jesus. plead for his power? As the people dance, though, this text points us to another priesthood. It tells The Pull to a Christless Judgment us of Moses as he stands before a furious As Moses and Joshua come down from God, a God who vows to come down and the mountain, they hear a commotion. It wipe out his people. Moses stands before sounds like a victory party. Then it sounds his God and pleads. He pleads with God like the wailing of the defeated. Finally, to remember that he has delivered this though, it sounds to Joshua like neither people. He pleads with God not to give the triumph nor tragedy, but just a party. Egyptians further ammunition for their When Moses sees the cultic worship propaganda campaign. He pleads with taking place, he throws down the tablets God, above all, to remember his covenant of the Law, the very Word of God. He with Abraham. Moses intercedes for the grinds up the calf and pours its ashes people, and God’s wrath is turned back. in water. Moses then makes an earring Moses here is a pattern, a pattern for smoothie, as it were, and forces it down exactly the kind of life every follower of the throats of the people. Christ is now living. God then brings judgment on his Jesus, our high priest, intercedes for us people—and notice how he does so. God right now, as One greater than both Aaron has Moses gather the sons of Levi and and Moses. Jesus, the Book of Hebrews instruct them to kill their brothers and tells us, is praying for us even now, pres- companions. God judges the people of ent with his own blood, before the Father. Israel exactly the way he judged Pha- And in Christ the wrath of God is perma- raoh and Egypt—by causing them to nently turned aside on our behalf. lose their brothers and sons. God sends 99 plagues on the people—just like he did These people want a priest to stand and with Pharaoh and Egypt. God treats them intercede before them, but on their own exactly how they’ve asked to be treated. terms. They want a god to save them from They turn their hearts to Pharaoh and judgment and give them their daily bread, align themselves with that old pyramid but, again, on their own terms. They fail to system. So God comes to them as he did recognize that this doesn’t come by “the to the Pharaoh they wish to serve—with will of the flesh or the will of man, but of judgment. God” (John 1:13). God shows his people then that they We see our Christ Jesus foreshadowed fear the wrong thing—just as Pharaoh in the desperation of Moses, who stands had. Pharaoh feared the Israelites when before God and pleads that God would they began to multiply. They were a threat blot him out of the book of life in order that to his political power. Pharaoh feared his the people may be saved. God refuses to enemies, and used idols to keep them at do this. Why? It’s because, as we’ll see later bay. What Pharaoh did not fear was God. in this Book of Exodus, Moses is himself The Israelites fear starvation. They fear a sinner. God is moving toward another warfare. They fear isolation. But they don’t Prophet, another Priest, who indeed will fear their God. be blotted out of the presence of God. He Isn’t this so often true of us? Isn’t will cry out, “My God, my God, have you fear-mongering so easy among us—fear forsaken me” (Matt 27:45-46). God is pre- of everything from Hillary Clinton to paring his people for a Christ. Hollywood? How many of you have an When the Israelites turn toward this almost crippling fear of failure in minis- golden calf, they’re not just turning away try? You don’t want to be embarrassed in from some abstract idea of true worship. front of your family or friends—maybe They are turning away from Jesus. the ones who said you were insane for This remains a persistent danger, even going into the ministry in the first place. I —maybe especially—for those of us called wonder, though, how many of us actually to Christian ministry. Remember the rich tremble in holy, reverent fear before a God young ruler. He wanted the right thing— who will one day expose every thought, eternal life, the inheritance promised. feeling, inclination, word, and affection What he did not want was Christ (Mark before his face? 10:17-22). There is a way of reading Chris- God brings judgment because the issue, tian Scripture and a way of carrying out ultimately, isn’t a cow. The issue is Christ. Christian ministry that employs a golden God is preparing these people to have the calf hermeneutic. Just as the Israelites said visible God they so earnestly desire. God is all the right things about the wrong god, moving these people toward the fullness it is possible for us to preach theologically of time, a time in which they will have pristine and practically on-target sermons an Immanuel—God with us—a God in that evade Jesus. It is possible to counsel the flesh whom they can touch with their people in ways that bypass Christ. It is hands. But they’ll not touch the smoothed- possible to have devotional exercises that over gold they’ve graven out themselves. make one more spiritual but further away They’ll touch instead the scabbed-over from the Savior. hole in the side of an abdomen. I wonder how many of us today are just 100 like these Israelites: ungrateful, fearful, prayerless. I wonder how many of us are slinking toward our own golden calf, that object of our own hedonistic idolatry. I wonder how many of us have turned our hearts back to that Pharaoh-behind-the- Pharaoh—the prince of the power of this air—from whom we were delivered. The Israelites seemed to be safe. Pha- raoh was no longer chasing them. His troops were drowned. And yet, the Pha- raoh in their own hearts, their own imagi- nations, was indeed still chasing them. Pharaoh could no longer draft them into hard labor. He could no longer kill their children. But he was still there. And the people could become just like him. That’s the danger for you and for me. There’s always that pull to the flesh, to the appetites. We can always make ourselves think our golden calf is noble, even divine. We claw to get that corner office, in the guise of “providing for my family.” We baptize thousands—but secretly in order to see our name printed in the denomina- tional newspaper. We want to find a kind of stability, a life that can be manipulated for our own tranquility. In this kind of life, we proclaim that we’d rather have a calf than a Christ, a Pharaoh than a Father. The Spirit, though, pulls us in the opposite direction. He points us away from our own hands. He draws us away from our craving to see and to feel, point- ing us instead to Jesus. He reminds us of the invisible promise—and the invisible judgment—to come. He reminds us that we cannot serve both God and mummy.

Endnotes 1This sermon is a version of a message preached in chapel at The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary on Janu- ary 31, 2008. 101 Book Reviews

Christians at the Cross: Finding Hope in Second, Wright rightfully locates from all other gods, and to believe in the Passion, Death, and Resurrection of the story of Jesus within the story of the gospel. That theme is quite muted Jesus. By N. T. Wright. Ijamsville, MD: Israel. What took place at the cross in Wright’s sermons. The Word Among Us Press, 2007, xvi was not just a transaction. It is part of The second weakness is related + 79 pp., $10.95 a grand narrative—part of God’s plan to the first. Wright pays much more to reclaim the world for his glory. attention to our responsibility to This book derives from a series of Third, Wright does not give pat further God’s work in this world than sermons that N. T. Wright preached answers. He admits that he does not he does to the need to put one’s faith at the Church of the Ascension, Eas- have a blueprint that can solve the in Jesus. He agrees that the latter is ington Colliery, during Holy Week problems of the town. The cross of necessary, but he stresses the former. in March 2007. Easington Colliery, Christ reminds us that the way is not Of course the Christian life is about a small town in England, has suf- invariably easy. Sometimes we suffer more than “getting saved.” We have fered over the years: a devastating as Christians in agonizing ways. work to do in this world after we underground explosion in 1951 Fourth, the sermons offer hope. believe. Nevertheless, it would seem killed 83 people, and then the mines The resurrection of Jesus reminds us that Easter week sermons would be themselves were shut down in 1993. that death is not the last word. We can a prime occasion to call upon one’s The town has not recovered from that be sure that we will ultimately tri- hearers to believe in the gospel; economic blow, and it is still reeling umph. Nor is the resurrection merely and yet a strong call to faith is lack- socially, morally, and spiritually. a “spiritual” reality. Jesus was truly ing from this book. Wright seems Wright’s sermons were intended and physically raised from the dead, to assume that all his hearers are to bring the message of the cross and and we too will be raised physically already Christians. Wright should resurrection to a community that with him. emphasize conversion more and call had lost hope. Anyone familiar with Fifth, Wright emphasizes that the his readers (and hearers) to repen- Wright’s work would expect the ser- resurrection represents God’s “yes” tance and faith, especially since the mons to be creative and fascinating, to creation. As Christians we are not church in England is shrinking and and Wright does not disappoint. His to retreat from the world but work to evangelism is such a crying need in sermons here have a verve and dyna- change it, for we proclaim the joyful Britain. mism that carry the reader along. news that Jesus is Lord. Third, Wright clearly believes that Several things particularly struck Are there any weaknesses in the Jesus bore our sins as our substitute. me in reading the book. First, Wright book? Three different things stood Still, he scarcely emphasizes the captures the theme that the love of out to me, but they are all related awful judgment and wrath that we God is displayed in the cross. The to the same issue. First, one of the deserve as sinners—a wrath that is cross signifies that God in Jesus has central themes in Jesus’ preaching turned away by the cross of Jesus come to make things right. Some- was the call to repentance and faith. Christ (Rom 3:25-26; 1 Thess 1:10; 5:9). thing has gone horribly wrong with Wright rightly offers comfort to the Wright focuses on the love of God, the world, but the cross shows us that church, but Jesus also emphasized but he does not say much about his God loves us and cares about our the sins of those in Israel (yes, even holiness. Yet it is when we see God’s plight. Wright reminds the church when speaking to those who were dazzling holiness that his love shines at Easington Colliery—and us—that already religious). Hence, he called all the brighter. we can bring our pain and shattered on Israel to repent, to take up their We can be grateful for some of the hopes to the cross. cross and follow him, to turn away themes sounded in this book. Still, 102 the lack of urgency about our need to transformed, and that we will enjoy creatures made in God’s image, and repent and believe in the gospel is a the new creation. to evangelize the lost. blind-spot in Wright. Any pastor who Wright’s understanding of the How should we assess Surprised preaches during Easter week must Christian hope is predicated upon by Hope? Wright’s fundamental thesis make it a first priority to preach the the resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. here is correct. Heaven will be on good news of Christ crucified and Surprised by Hope therefore summa- a new earth, and therefore it must risen and call upon sinners to repent rizes Wright’s older, massive, and not be regarded as floating in some and to put their faith in Jesus Christ outstanding book The Resurrection kind of spiritual never-land. We look as Savior and Lord. Wright’s failure to of the Son of God. What is important forward to our future resurrection, do this during Easter week is some- to see here is that the resurrection is and to the new heavens and new thing pastors should not imitate. irreducibly physical. People in the earth where righteousness dwells. (This review was originally pub- ancient world believed in spirits, Wright’s defense of the resurrection lished by 9 Marks, www.9marks.org. ghosts, and the like, but they did not of Christ, defended more fully in his Reprinted with permission.) confuse things like these with the major book on the topic, is the finest idea of a resurrection. Also, Wright treatment I have read on the subject. Thomas R. Schreiner does not simply accept the resur- Wright does affirm the intermediate rection by faith, since the historical state, but he rightly stresses that the Surprised by Hope: Rethinking Heaven, evidence for the resurrection of Jesus future hope of believers is the resur- the Resurrection, and the Mission of the is incredibly strong. No, we cannot rection. Furthermore, Wright is on Church. By N. T. Wright. New York: prove beyond a shadow of doubt that target in saying that we are to strive HarperCollins, 2008, 352 pages, Christ was raised. Still, his physical for justice, truth, and beauty in this $24.95. resurrection fits most suitably with world. Some believers have said that the evidence of the empty tomb and this world is destined for destruction, N. T. Wright is one of the most talented the appearances of Jesus Christ. and hence only focus on the salvation writers among New Testament schol- The resurrection of Jesus is funda- of the lost. ars today. In this book he presents his mental to Wright’s thesis, for Christ’s Yet there are some significant understanding of what the Scriptures resurrection is tied to the future problems with the book. Surely some teach about heaven, the resurrection, resurrection of believers. Hence, the believers have mistakenly thought and the church’s mission. future that awaits believers cannot be that heaven was only spiritual, but What is heaven after all? Wright described as a spiritual existence in many (most of those I know) do not contends that too many Christians heaven. Rather, heaven will be on a conceive of heaven in this way. We have a Platonic idea of heaven. They new earth where believers will con- could say that Wright exaggerates conceive of it in ethereal terms, as if tinue the bodily existence they enjoy his thesis to make his point. Well and we float in a bodiless state in some in this world, but with bodies that are good. Still, he is excessively critical of transcendent realm. Indeed, most transformed by the Holy Spirit. the phrase “go to heaven.” After all, Christians think of heaven as “up And what is the payoff for the we have a number of statements in there,” and as separated from the church’s mission in the present? Scripture about entering (going to!) earth. What the Scriptures teach, Wright emphasizes over and over the kingdom in the future (e.g., Matt however, is that heaven will come that our life in this world makes a 5:20; 7:21; 18:3; 19:23-24; Mark 9:47; to earth. The Scriptures do not say, difference. We do not simply wait to 10:15; John 3:5; Acts 14:22). Scripture according to Wright, that we will go to heaven when we die. We are also speaks of heaven as a realm “go to heaven when we die,” but called upon to engage this world, above and separate from us (Matt that heaven will come to earth, that to work for justice in the political 6:1, 9, 10, 20; 18:10; Luke 24:51; John the earth upon which we live will be realm, to exercise our artistic gifts as 1:51; Acts 1:10; 2 Cor 12:2; Col. 1:5; 103 1 Pet 1:4). That does not, to be sure, will tackle the matter with reasoned turn from our sins and put our faith communicate that our future destiny public discourse instead of dicta in Christ. Wright does not disagree is non-physical, but it does stress that from above. with the need to do so, but he seems it is a realm separate from our present Wright commends evangelism as to be most excited about our work in existence. Yes, Wright is correct in part of our work as believers, but he the political and social sphere. saying that heaven will be a trans- clearly emphasizes being engaged in I could perhaps understand why formed earth, and that heaven will the political sphere. Surely Wright Wright would stress social concerns come, so to speak, to this world. But has his emphases backwards here. if England’s churches were full and since the Scriptures also speak of us The Scriptures teach that only those thriving—as if almost everyone was “entering” the kingdom; since they who believe in Jesus Christ and a believer. But what is curious is that speak of heaven as a world above and repent of their sins will enjoy the new England’s churches are empty, and beyond us; and since the new creation creation. Isn’t the most important unbelief is common. It seems that a is not yet here in its fullness, I don’t thing for human beings, therefore, bishop in these circumstances would believe it’s wrong to say that we will to gain acceptance into this new cre- vigorously call upon the church to “go there,” as long as we recognize ation? Aren’t there great artists and evangelize, and would emphasize the that this is just one of the ways to gifted politicians who have improved need to put one’s faith in Jesus Christ express the reality that awaits us. In our life in this world (for which we and to turn from one’s sins. I don’t see fact, Wright’s protests against using are all thankful), and yet who will not that urgency in Wright’s writing, and the phrase “go to heaven” betray be part of the new creation because therefore he veers from the message an overly literal understanding on they have rejected the gospel? More- of Jesus and the apostles. his part. Hence, against Wright, the over, while Wright correctly affirms I would also mention some bits hymn Away in the Manger does not that everything done in this world and pieces of the book that call out contradict Scripture when it asks God matters, there is also discontinuity for comment, even if I don’t have to “fit us for heaven, to live with thee between this world and the next. The space here to interact with them here there” (22). curse of Genesis 3 will not be lifted in detail. For instance, Wright con- As noted above, Wright often until Jesus comes again. Our work in tends that Jesus never spoke about emphasizes that our work in this this world is provisional and always his return. He defends this claim in world is important. Christians ought touched by the curse. The invention other works, but it’s a controversial not to think that their work in poli- of the car solved a pollution problem point. Here I simply want to register tics, economics, business, art, and in the streets caused by horses, but my disagreement with his exegesis. so forth is insignificant. There has no one foresaw that it would cause Also, Wright correctly says that been a kind of pietism that has deni- pollution problems of its own. justification by faith and judgment grated such work. Still, it isn’t clear All this is to say that the call for according to works do not conflict that forgiving third world debt is a Christians to evangelize remains (140), but he gives us no help in see- moral obligation on the same level as more pressing than any call to work ing how these two themes fit together. abolishing slavery. Wright too con- in the political sphere, even though Readers would be helped in knowing fidently dismisses all who disagree all our work in this world is sig- how the two themes cohere. Putting with him on this matter, sweeping nificant. Wright emphasizes that the these truths together wrongly can lead away any objections with rhetori- good news of the gospel is that Jesus to a final curse (Gal 1:8-9), and hence cal statements. Moral claims in the is Lord, but, as John Piper has pointed Wright must be clearer in explaining public sphere must be advanced by out, this isn’t good news if you’re still the gospel in his exposition. careful reasoning, and Wright does a rebel against God; its terrifying The section on purgatory is nicely not provide arguments to support his news. The New Testament is perme- done, showing that purgatory is conclusions. Perhaps in the future he ated with the message that we must absent from the biblical witness. 104 But Wright falls into inconsistency task of proclaiming the good news to understands the perlocutionary when he endorses praying for the a lost generation. force of the Scriptures. The Scrip- dead since this practice is not found (This review was originally pub- tures perform their work in us, but in the Scriptures (172). He does right- lished by 9 Marks, www.9marks.org. in what way do they do so? In his fully rule out invoking the saints for Reprinted with permission.) analogia dramatis Vanhoozer presup- assistance. poses an essentially active role for Contrary to Wright, Jesus’ state- Thomas R. Schreiner the human being—not only for the ments about gehenna do not refer to hearer of Scripture, but also for the the judgment of A.D. 70, though I can- The Drama of Doctrine a Canonical- speaking theologian—“Theatrical not defend this argument here. Nor Linguistic Approach to Christian Theol- beholding overcomes the theory/ do I think Wright is correct in saying ogy. By K. J. Vanhoozer. Louisville: praxis dichotomy, then, when it insists that judgment is a minor theme in Westminster John Knox Press, 2005, on audience participation.” (16, empha- the letters. The theme is pervasive in 493 pp. $39.95 paper. sis in original). The theologian is to them, but, again, that would take too serve as the dramaturge—the expert long to defend here. Scripture is more than a set of propo- advisor on the performance of a dra- Too often Wright prosecutes his sitions. It is a divine speech-act with matic script—who provides creative case by caricaturing a view and then an intended effect. This proper and insight into how to bridge the gap introducing his own view as the healthy understanding of the biblical between the text and performance, solution. Hence, he rightly rejects the text guides Vanhoozer’s proposal between past and present, between notion that hell is a torture chamber, that the aim and task of theology is scientia and sapientia, between knowl- but his own view of hell seems to be to further the “performance” of the edge and practical understanding. shorn of any notion that God pun- drama of the biblical narrative in Informed by the theologian and ishes those who refuse to believe the life of the church. The attempt to empowered by the Spirit, the congre- in Christ. Wright argues that those develop a hermeneutical theology gation performs the text. in hell lose the divine image, and that accounts for the effect of Scrip- Underlying this approach is the this may well be part of the picture. ture in life while neither jettisoning view that the humanity is related to Nevertheless, many texts speak the primacy of Scripture nor the God through a covenant or series of of God’s active punishment of the cognitive, propositional dimension covenants (137, n. 70), which despite wicked. Since Wright summarizes of biblical revelation is by all means the element of promise that they con- his view and does not engage in to be welcomed. Even if one must be tain, lay obligations upon the human detailed exegesis, I assume he would conscious of the limits of speech-act being (50-52, 136-137). From Van- offer a different interpretation of the theory, it is entirely justified and hoozer’s perspective, that is true not relevant texts. Still, it’s difficult to see appropriate to appeal to it, as Van- only for the Sinai covenant, but also how God’s active punishment of the hoozer does, in developing a theol- the new covenant, which is nothing wicked can be denied (e.g., Rom 2:8-9, ogy of Scripture that moves beyond but the old covenant in a different key 16; 2 Thess 1:8-9, etc.). a bare propositionalism. We must (e.g., 21-23, 115-150, 301). Here prob- Wright appeals to many because truly appreciate Vanhoozer’s project, lems arise. The location of “promise” he is brilliant and fascinating, and especially in its primary concerns. within the larger structure of cov- some of what he says is helpful. Nev- Nevertheless, the model of dra- enantal requirements and demands ertheless, his failure to emphasize the matic performance that forms the obscures the distinct, unconditional centrality of the gospel is troubling, basis of his work leads in various words of promise given in Scripture. and pastors who find his work illu- ways to questionable outcomes. One Thus, for example, in describing the minating need to be careful that they of the most fundamental of these place of “promise” within the context do not veer away from their central is the manner in which Vanhoozer of “covenant,” Vanhoozer urges that 105 “the covenant is personal-relational “whole theo-drama” (388). Neverthe- Jesus’ death did not take God by sur- before it is legal-political” (107). less, he is also able to say that “the prise (388). Yet he also characterizes Unless, however, this “personal- Scripture remains incomplete” in the event as God’s “improvising with relational” dimension of “covenant” that it calls for “performance” (101). a canonical script.” In this sense, “the is bound to a distinct word of promise The two irreconcilable thoughts sit cross was God’s creative response to (“My child, your sins are forgiven uneasily side-by-side in his work. a new situation” that nevertheless you!” Mk 2:5) it remains undefined Of course, the assertion that God’s is in keeping with what had gone and diffuse, and threatens to become work has been completed outside of before (388). The affirmation of the dependent on some inward quality us does not all imply that God has newness and the wonder of the of the human being: either a sense no work to perform in us, or that we cross are to be appreciated. Yet one of dependence or a disposition for have no work to perform. The divine must wonder if Vanhoozer’s model action. In response one must counter: performance that has been completed of drama and improvisation does promise is itself “legal-political” in and set before our eyes for us in the not lead him astray. The dramatic, nature, just as in the Scriptures all crucified and risen Christ—and covenantal plan upon which God that is “personal-relational” is fully in which we ourselves have been creatively improvises remains in and entirely verbal. included— must yet be performed place as the fundamental story-line. But Vanhoozer does not see the in us. God’s work does not exclude The cross appears as a happy blip in matter so, or at least obscures it. our work, but sets us free for it by an otherwise straight line of develop- With him “promise” comes to us placing and keeping it within its proper ment in which God and his purposes enclothed in covenant, in a sort of limit. And our actions are not only remain calculable and visible. As an inversion of Calvin’s totus lex. By limited, but are also—so long as we improvisation (and a good one at virtue of this understanding and are in this body and life—flawed that), the cross becomes integrated the guiding paradigm of an analogia and finally perverse. It is the action into God’s purpose, but does not dramatis, the performance of the of Another that in sheer grace carries appear essential to the divine drama. divine drama becomes nearly—if the drama through. This relation Or at least, Vanhoozer does not tell us not entirely—a performance in us. may be profoundly paradoxical, but how it is so. What is of fundamental Indeed, for Vanhoozer, it becomes our it is nevertheless clear and compre- importance to him is that we findour performance, even if it is ultimately the hensible. In Vanhoozer’s approach to roles. Here one must say: either the performance of the sovereign God. the atonement, however, the relation story of Christ determines our under- But to the extent that our performance between the divine performance standing of “story” or our construc- of the drama stands at the center of and our own remains obscure. He tion of story, storyline, and drama (so interest—and this is substantially unequivocally affirms the ultimate popular among evangelicals these the case in Vanhoozer’s work—we and fundamental character of “the days) determines our understanding lose from view the true drama of penal substitution view” of the atone- of Christ and, therefore, of God. Scripture, the stupendum duellum in ment, while at the same time conceiv- That the place of the substitution- the cross and resurrection of Christ ing of it as “relational restoration” ary understanding of the atonement where God triumphs over sin, death, (387). What sort of relationship exists, remains underdefined for Vanhoozer and the devil for us. The real perfor- however, between these two views is reflected then in the overwhelming mance of Scripture is not properly of the atonement? The ideas again priority he gives to the “redemptive a performance in us, but one which sit uneasily side-by-side. The under- relational” conception of the atone- has been completed without reserve standing of the atonement as penal ment. This understanding of the extra nos. Vanhoozer himself speaks substitution remains intact. But is it atonement, guided by the metaphor of the history of Jesus Christ as the essential to Vanhoozer’s presentation of dramatic performance, is largely “perfection and completion” of the of the divine drama? He affirms that what the book is about—and tellingly 106 appears in Vanhoozer’s characteriza- To the extent, however, that the with us (301). Romans 12:1-2 calls tion of the Lord’s Supper. Just as he work of God in Christ is extended into for something far greater than the embraces the understanding of the the life and work of the church rather acquisition of a new world-view, even atonement as an act of penal substitu- than announced to it as an effective if the text generally is preached that tion, Vanhoozer clearly and decisively word from without, the uniqueness way. We require deliverance from affirms the priority of Christ over the of the dramatic action of God the ourselves, a deliverance that comes church. But his interest is so focussed Creator is lost. The promises of God to us again and again solely from the on the communication of Christ to have their “yes” not in us, but in the word and work of the Creator, who the church and on the participation of crucified and risen Christ—as Bon- pronounces the forgiveness of our the church in Christ, that the abiding hoeffer himself reflects in one of his sins and promises our resurrection. distinction between Christ and the healthier moments. The work of the Only in this way does the Gospel church—the distinction between the Creator remains inimitable, Jesus’ set us free from our past, grant us strong and loving bridegroom and new commandment notwithstand- a future and a hope, and set us in the poor harlot whom he saves— ing. The call to be God’s co-worker service in the present. As Paul makes goes missing at the most decisive is never a call to be a co-creator. God clear, Christian obedience—our par- points of his presentation. He urges alone remains author and performer ticipation in the divine drama—is that between the understanding of of drama, a drama that he displays nothing other than the resurrection the Supper as a mass and the under- through the apostles before the from the dead projected into the standing of it as a memorial stands audience of the world and angels. present, an event which daily must the third option of understanding In this drama, we are not in the be grasped as such. “the church as mimēsis of the body first instance actors, but those acted Our identity is not to be found in of Christ” (409). The celebration and upon. The Christian life is neither the roles that we play. The attempt enactment of the Supper is not lack- contemplation nor action, but—said to make it so is to risk losing our self ing in this proposal—liturgy after with Luther—it is faith understood in our multiple tasks or to play the all is one dimension of the church’s as vita passiva: life received as a gift hypocrite—a term derived from the actions—but Vanhoozer’s views the from God. Here our actions are not Greek theater. At the risk of sound- drama as centered upon the church dismissed but defined in their second- ing like a Bonhoeffer fan (which I that signifies Christ and thus by the ary place. It is not we who fulfill the am not), it is worth pointing to his Spirit is drawn into “the ongoing Law, but the Law—weak as it is—is remarkable poem of self-doubt and theo-dramatic action” (412). Indeed, fulfilled in us by Another. faith, “Wer bin ich?” (“Who am I?”): for Vanhoozer, the church itself is Although he does not forget the the roles we play are always uncer- sacrament (408). At this point he history of Adam, the abstractness tain and tainted with our sin. Thank almost certainly is thinking not only of the dramatic metaphor leads God our identity lies in Christ! of its liturgical acts, but also of its Vanhoozer to forget that Adam’s The one who lives by faith, does life in the world (408). The thought tragic drama is also our drama, reca- not live by sight. Neither the Scrip- stands remarkably close to Bonho- pitulated in sorrow, sickness and tures, nor our lives, nor human his- effer’s likewise sacramental view death, and in the destructiveness tory run the predictable course of a of the church as “Christ existing in of sin. There is no neutral place on continuous storyline. Israel’s history community”—which likewise fails to this earth between wrath and grace. is largely a history of regress from distinguish properly between Christ Deliverance from our past (which is brilliant moments of grace—as is also and the church. It also approximates always with us) is much more than the case for the history of the church the churchly dimension of Barth’s our discovering our role in a drama, up to the present moment. Nor are Church and State, which bears the or responding “rightly to God’s God’s acts of mercy and deliverance same weakness. cognitive and covenantal contact” predictable, even if evangelicals are 107 tempted to pretend that they are so. do with the Scripture, but what the temporary Theological Significance,” We are not permitted to forget the Scripture does with us is of funda- in The Cambridge Companion to Martin history of Job, nor God’s inexplicable mental importance. It is perhaps not Luther [ed. Donald K. McKim; Cam- hiding of his face—Luther’s deus without significance that Aristotle’s bridge: Cambridge University, 2003], absconditus—upon which Paul in conception of theater as mimēsis with 278). Like John the Baptist before hope against all hope builds the soar- its intention of empathetic effect on him, Paul with all his life and word ing conclusion of Romans 8. We hear the audience implicitly stands in the merely points to Christ. So long as of the immeasurably happy end of all background of Vanhoozer’s work, his churches continue in faith, he things in the gospel, including our and that the role of the dramaturge is entirely dispensable (Phil 2:17-18, freedom from sin and death, but we with its task of overcoming historical 4:9; 1 Cor 11:1). The call to imitate the do not yet see it, nor can we track and distance, which especially G. E. Less- apostle—and thus Christ himself— chart it in some redemptive-historical ing furthered plays such a large role is an imitation worked by the word scheme. The real drama of doctrine in it. It is not the Aristotelian theory (Phil 3:17; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:16-17; 11:1; 1 and of salvation is the unfathomable of drama that Vanhoozer offers in his Thess 1:6; 3:7-9). In contrast to the love of the Creator in unsearchable proposal, nor does he overlook the refined role of the dramaturge, the ways of mercy and judgment. This promissory dimension of Scripture apostle chooses the lowly metaphor drama, which has come to fulfillment entirely. He does, however, subordi- of the farmer to describe his theo- in Jesus, now is taking place in the nate the category of promise to the logical labors: “I planted, Apollos whole creation and, therefore, also in paradigm of imitation and dramatic watered, but God caused growth, us mere human creatures. Paul thus re-production. Theology is thus the so that neither the one who planted sings his praise at the conclusion of “bridge” between the drama of nor the one who watered counts as Romans 11. The drama advances not Scripture and the performance of something, but only the God who in the clear vision of a storyline, but Scripture in life. Correspondingly, causes growth” (1 Cor 3:7-8). “Ruling in the groaning of the Spirit who according to Vanhoozer, one who the church” with the Word demands reaches out for us toward an unseen serves as a theologian in a public dirty and sweaty work. But this mere hope. In this drama, we remain way—whether as an academic or as delivery of seed, water, and perhaps those called to stand and see the a pastor—is called to be a “drama- some manure remains secondary. We Lord’s work—as did Israel at the Red turge,” that is, one who mediates farm hands—mere migrants that we Sea—without any diminishing of our Scripture to the congregation. are—are entirely dispensable. God duties or the final removal of our sor- Such a priesthood of the theolo- alone remains the true and final rows. If this is so, our work includes gian is nowhere to be found in the author, performer, and dramaturge. joining the song of the apostle and New Testament. Not even the apostle If theology may be understood the lyric of the psalms (of which genre has a place between Christ and his as a guide for reading Scripture, Vanhoozer remains suspicious)—the bride, even if he is father, mother, proper theological instruction must “little Bible within the Bible.” Israel and more to his churches. His rela- drive us away from all theological sang God’s praises at the shore of the tionship to them is far more intimate schemes and constructions, back sea. Shall not we Christians sing? The than the merely intellectual role of a into Scripture—there to encounter Apocalypse surely sees our song as dramaturge (1 Thess 2:7, 11-12; 2 Cor the living God. This understanding our final role in the divine drama. 12:14). Yet its intimacy by no means shaped the first Protestant systematic The true weight of the gospel as renders it mediatorial. The apostle theologies of Melanchthon and Cal- “God’s saving power,” as the effective already knows what Robert Jenson vin. The performance of the drama of Word of God that performs what it articulates concerning Christian Scripture—what the Scriptures call says, does not come to expression in preaching, “‘Who hears you hears “piety” (eusebeia)—is a great mystery Vanhoozer’s proposal. Not what we me’ is not a trope.” (“Luther’s Con- that has been revealed in the flesh, 108 seen by angels, and taken up in glory. The Holy Spirit and Christian Origins: Luke 22:20, “The cup that is poured This One cannot finally be imitated, Essays in Honor of James D. G. Dunn. out for you is the new covenant in but only believed, confessed, and Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004, 382 my blood.” McKnight argues that worshipped with body and life. Our pp., $50.00. this locution likely originated in the place in the divine drama is thus months after Pentecost when the not discovered (especially not by Everyone engaged in serious study early church had occasion to connect the cleverness of a dramaturge), but of the New Testament has benefited the death of Jesus with Jeremiah 31 given to us through the gospel, no from the work of James D. G. Dunn, (46-47). matter that we must apply to it all recently Lightfoot Professor of Divin- Robert Banks has made many the wisdom that God grants us. Our ity at the University of Durham. positive contributions to our under- roles as God’s earthly vessels are Controversial, yet engaging, Dunn’s standing of early church communi- more “suffered” than acted. So long work has spanned many areas of NT ties in his writings. Here in an essay as God remains his own interpreter, and theological investigation, includ- which clearly gives a higher regard the claritas Scripturae remains, his- ing Pauline studies, pneumatology, to the historicity of Acts than can be torical distance notwithstanding. As Christology, theological method, found in the work of the recipient one Reformer reminds us, the Holy and NT theology in general, among of the Festschrift, Banks identifies a Spirit is no skeptic, nor is that which others. He has made profound and work of the Spirit in the Book of Acts he writes in the hearts of his Chris- lasting contributions in all these that others have given little attention: tians uncertain. As Paul reminds us, areas. In light of that, the appearance The guidance of the Apostles in their the hand that writes in our hearts is of a Festschrift in his honor was an journeys by the Spirit. He notes that Christ’s alone, no matter that he uses anticipated event, and this volume Luke’s preface to each of the Pauline earthen vessels to do so. Whatever is no disappointment in terms of its journeys “begins with a clear refer- course the world and the church content. ence to the Spirit” (119). So, even as around us might take in this drama, This reviewer found the essays the Spirit led Jesus into the wilder- through the Word the Spirit binds us by Robert Morgan, Scot McKnight, ness, so that same Spirit led Paul on to the power of Christ’s resurrection Robert Banks, I. Howard Marshall, the way to fulfilling his ministry of and the fellowship of his sufferings. and Richard Bauckham to be the carrying the gospel to the Gentiles. According to Peter, it is here that we most engaging, though all twenty- Marshall writes on the Holy have been given a fixed and unchang- seven essays had something helpful Spirit in the Pastoral Epistles and ing interpretation of Scripture, a little to say. Morgan’s chapter on unity the Apostolic Fathers. He begins lamp upon which we are called to and diversity picks up where Dunn’s with a tacit affirmation of P. N. Har- fix our gaze until God’s epic runs monograph on that topic leaves off. rison’s argument that the Pastorals its course and the daystar rises in His work will be unsatisfactory to reflect a vocabulary closer to the our hearts. If the Scripture may be most evangelicals, but it is a helpful second century Fathers than to Paul, understood in this way as “the divine piece in ascertaining where non- and thus that the Pastorals are not Aeneid” (Vanhoozer’s suspicions of evangelicals who still have regard Pauline (see his commentary on the the epic genre notwithstanding), we for Scripture are headed with that Pastorals in the International Critical poor beggars dare not touch it, but topic. McKnight also leaves those of Commentary), a point with which we must—with body and life—worship us who want to affirm his evangelical would not agree. But beyond that, his its course. status as being intact in some doubt. treatment of the Fathers is helpful, In his chapter, “Covenant and Spirit: not least so because it demonstrates Mark A. Seifrid The Origins of the New Covenant many affinities of flesh/spirit lan- Hermeneutic,” he calls into question guage between the Fathers and Paul the authenticity of the statement in himself, especially in Ignatius. Curi- 109 ous, indeed! Bauckham’s essay on the has found him to be an engaging and genres: psalms, narratives, parables, Spirit in James also is worth careful clear communicator. proverbs, epistles, and apocalyptic reading. Two caveats. Though he argues literature. There is much in this book that his position well, this reviewer is still Before getting to those chapters, will bother evangelical readers, but unconvinced of the basic Pentecostal however, Arthur first makes his case also much that is helpful, a sense that thesis with regard to Spirit baptism. for the importance of preaching with many of us have encountered when Second, his rejection of traditional variety. He notes in his introduction reading Dunn’s own work through evangelical views on justification is that preaching with variety is not the years. disturbing (129-40). In a lecture a few the most important of a preaching years ago at the Society for Pentecos- ministry (that would be glorifying Chad Owen Brand tal Studies he made a comment some- God), but that is nonetheless still thing like, “When I read the Canons important (15-16). The first chapter Baptized in the Spirit: A Global Pente- of Trent on justification, my heart was explains that variety is important costal Theology. By Frank D. Macchia. strangely warmed.” That is a problem. because God, who is the Great Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006, 296 But in these pages, one will discover Communicator, communicates with pp., $29.99. a very fine work of scholarship in the variety. The Bible is full of different pneumatic tradition. literary forms that communicate in Frank Macchia, well-known Assem- different ways. General revelation in blies of God theologian and professor Chad Owen Brand creation also manifests God’s creative of theology at Vanguard University variety. Preachers ought to emulate in Costa Mesa, California, has pro- Preaching With Variety: How to Re- God by preaching according to the duced a closely-reasoned and well- create the Dynamics of Biblical Genres. forms of his revelation. The second researched volume on Spirit baptism By Jeffrey D. Arthurs. Grand Rapids: chapter gives a second reason why it which is penned on behalf of the Kregel, 2007, 238 pp., $15.99 paper. is important to preach with variety. global Pentecostal community. Mac- Preaching ought to be incarnational; chia is a great exemplar of the new Jeffrey Arthurs, Assistant Professor it ought to adapt God’s truth to a Pentecostal scholarship. That two- of Preaching and Communication particular culture. Our culture is word locution might once have been at Gordon-Conwell Theological visual, fast, interactive, leery of thought to be an oxymoron, but that Seminary, believes that a sermon’s authority, and full of different types is no longer the case, even if it once content should explain and apply of listeners and learners. Not only was. With a D.Theo. from Basel, Mac- the Word of God as it is found in should preachers preach with variety chia is one of the finest theologians a biblical text, and that a sermon’s because God communicates that way, in America, with numerous publica- form should unleash the impact but also because it helps people learn tions under his belt. of that text (13). The second part of God’s truth more effectively. Here is an irenic and thoughtful that belief is the focus of his book, Each of the remaining chapters defense of the traditional Pentecostal Preaching With Variety. In order to covers one particular biblical genre view on Spirit baptism—that it is explain how preachers can be bibli- (although narrative is treated in two generally subsequent to conversion/ cal in how they preach and not just chapters), and each chapter is divided initiation, and that it is evidenced what they preach, Arthurs describes into four sections. In the first section by tongues. Absent from Macchia’s the aspects of certain biblical genres Arthurs defines what the genre is. presentation is any sense that this and then explains how preachers can The second section focuses on the implies Pentecostal spiritual supe- reproduce those aspects in their ser- particularities of each genre, explain- riority. This reviewer has had the mons. In the last seven chapters of the ing how the text communicates and privilege of meeting the author and book Arthurs describes the following what the text does. For example, in his 110 chapter on Psalms, Arthurs explains fresh and helpful. The other sections “to address some tough questions to that lyric poems such as the psalms of the chapters, Arthurs’s explana- clarify its future direction” (11). Treier are normally short, have intricate tions and definitions of the different defines the movement broadly as one structure, use concrete images, and genres, while necessary for a book that “seeks to reverse the dominance convey intense emotion. The third of this sort, are nothing new to those of historical criticism over a churchly section of each chapter is entitled who have read standard works on reading of the Bible and to redefine “Try This.” Arthurs here give practi- homiletics or hermeneutics. They are the role of hermeneutics in theol- cal suggestions on how preachers good introductions to the different ogy” (14). can express the form of the biblical nuances of each genre, but noth- Treier divides the book into two text in their sermons. For example, ing more. For a book of this length, main sections. In part one, he charts in his chapter on Proverbs, Arthurs however, this is not a problem, and the “catalysts and common themes” offers the following tips: preach Arthurs does include footnotes and of the movement, which include an observations, not promises; do not a bibliography. Arthurs succeeds in interest in precritical interpretation preach selfish behavior, human- explaining why variety in preaching (chapter one), the possibility of a ism, or materialism; preach through is so important and how preachers “ruled” reading which takes account units; use your imagination; show can actually accomplish that variety of Christian doctrine (chapter two), as well as tell; turn on the spotlight; in their sermons. Preachers of all ages and the role the community plays in make your central idea proverbial; and experience, from those begin- discerning and arriving at meaning compare and contrast proverbs; bor- ning in the ministry to those who (chapter three). In part two, Treier row the proverb’s movement; adopt have preached thousands of sermons, delineates the areas where propo- the teacher’s stance; feature women; would benefit from many of the sug- nents of theological interpretation use some humor; and use homespun gestions in this book. have sharp disagreements. These language. Each of these suggestions differences include the assumptions is supported with examples from Gary L. Shultz Jr. and positions involved in engaging relevant portions of Scripture. The biblical theology (chapter four), gen- fourth section of each chapter is a Introducing Theological Interpretation eral hermeneutics (chapter five), and checklist of the main points from the of Scripture: Recovering a Christian various social locations (chapter six). chapter that the preacher can use as a Practice. By Daniel J. Treier. Grand In this section, Treier asks if theologi- reference tool when putting together Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008, 221 cal interpretation can bridge the gap his sermon. pp., $17.99 paper. between biblical studies and theo- The third sections of the chap- logical reflection, if secular theories ters are the strongest parts of the One of the vexing aspects of engaging of reading and interpretation have book, and worth the purchase price. in the conversation about theological any bearing on biblical texts, and if Arthurs’s suggestions are not only interpretation is the problem of defi- interpreters of Scripture should be practical, but useable. Preachers nition. Scholars and theologians from mindful of global social contexts. could easily use this book as a ref- varying backgrounds and disciplines One notable feature of this book erence when putting together their are claiming “theological interpreta- is the analysis of theological inter- sermons, incorporating one or two tion of Scripture,” while employing pretation that Treier offers in a of the suggestions as ways to vary methods and producing results concluding chapter. Synthesizing their preaching. No one preacher is that span the interpretive grid. In his previous material, Treier asserts likely to use every one of Arthurs’s Introducing Theological Interpretation that theological interpretation uses tips, but he offers enough of them of Scripture, Daniel Treier seeks “to the ideas of canon, creed, and culture for each genre that most preachers tell the story and map the major to engage the Scriptures with and will find at least one or two that are themes of this movement” and also for the church. However, for Treier, 111 the church does not participate in feature of the introductory nature theological interpretation movement the theological process merely to of the work rather than a result of (e.g., Stephen Fowl, Francis Watson, take part in an informed discussion oversight. A further concern relates Kevin Vanhoozer), he also interacts about the Bible. Rather, “the ultimate to the chapter on globalization. Treier with a wide range of related schol- interpretive interest of the church is recognizes that while the other issues arship (e.g., the canonical approach to know God in a holistic sense” (204). he treats “are frequently addressed of Brevard Childs and Christopher Theological interpretation seeks to at length by advocates of theological Seitz). In addition, Treier constantly utilize all the various “lenses” of exegesis, globalization is not” (157). references the Dictionary for Theo- literary and theological reflection in He quickly moves from this conces- logical Interpretation of the Bible, thus order to produce “a coherent vision of sion to an extended discussion of making his study a fitting companion who God is and who that calls us to postcolonial thought and the rise of volume to this other important work become in Christ” (203). Treier calls Pentecostalism in “the global south” in the field. ThoughIntroducing Theo- this perspective the “widest-angle (157). Because this emphasis is in logical Interpretation appears early in lens” which puts the task of interpre- some ways unique to Treier, readers the movement, it offers a contribution tation into proper focus (203). These would benefit from a more detailed of definition and direction. To borrow perspectives also function as a map discussion of its relevance and con- his own metaphors, Treier’s work can that guides the church on its pilgrim- nection to the idea of theological function as a set of lenses to bring the age to know and respond rightly to interpretation, especially in light of contours of this movement into focus God. To illustrate this practice, Treier Treier’s acknowledgement that “this and can serve as a roadmap to chart provides a sustained case study chapter evokes more questions than some of the trajectories the church throughout the book concerning the answers” (182). One also notices and the academy will need to follow “Image of God” (Imago Dei). In doing Treier’s heavy reliance on the cultural in order to recover the “Christian this, Treier relates the themes of each analysis of Philip Jenkins. Neverthe- practice” of theological interpretation chapter to this doctrinal concept, and less, Treier’s basic point in this chap- of Scripture. in the conclusion, he summarizes ter is well taken. As the Bible is being the role that exegesis, biblical theol- read, cherished, and interpreted Ched Spellman ogy, historical theology, systematic in diverse contexts, “non-Western Southwestern Baptist theology, and practical theology play voices can no longer be marginal as Theological Seminary in its full explication. For Treier, this they once were. We must listen” (186). “sketch” of theological reflection pro- This emphasis resonates with Treier’s vides a “pattern for thought” that can similar interest in demonstrating the guide the interpreter in his pursuit ecumenical benefit of a widespread of “prayerful contemplation” (199). return to the practice of theological Thus, Treier engages in the process interpretation (20-33). of theological interpretation even as Through his clear structure and he introduces the concepts. concise content, Treier achieves his Some readers, though, might aim of providing scholars, students, object to Treier’s framing of the and pastors with a succinct introduc- issues, as even the ordering of an tion to this burgeoning movement. “introduction” involves debatable The two parts of the book quickly interpretive decisions. Others may highlight the unity and significant also see a few gaps in the “prehis- diversity of the movement. Further, tory” of the movement that Treier while Treier’s primary dialogue part- develops, though this is likely a ners are the ones at the forefront of the 112 ** Southern Baptist Journal of Theology - June 30, 2008 - KF - Disk: June 12

“ The Christian Church must respond to the challenge of the New Atheism with the full measure of Christian conviction.” R. Albert Mohler Jr.

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