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Islamophobia from the Inside: How Turkish Immigrants Responded to the Securitization of Integration in Germany and the Netherlan

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Islamophobia from the Inside: How Turkish Immigrants Responded to the Securitization of Integration in Germany and the Netherlan ISLAMOPHOBIA FROM THE INSIDE: HOW TURKISH IMMIGRANTS RESPONDED TO THE SECURITIZATION OF INTEGRATION IN GERMANY AND THE NETHERLANDS by Esref ERTURK A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-Newark Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Global Affairs written under the direction of Dr. Ariane Chebel d’Appollonia and approved by Dr. Teri G. Lindgren Dr. Jyl Josephson Dr. Oğuzhan Ömer Demir Newark, New Jersey October, 2014 ©2014 Esref ERTURK ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Islamophobia from the Inside: How Turkish Immigrants Responded To the Securitization of Integration in Germany and the Netherlands By Esref ERTURK Dissertation Director: Dr. Ariane Chebel d’Appollonia Although there is a vast literature on the securitization and Islamophobia phenomena in Western societies, there is relatively less research about the perceptions and mobilization of Muslim immigrants in the West, especially Turks, with respect to these phenomena. Therefore, the research set out to explore whether there has been any change in the forms of mobilization of Turkish immigrants in Germany and the Netherlands after 9/11 as a response to the securitization of integration. The present comparative study identified not only the changes after 9/11, but also the main similarities and differences between the two cases. Characteristics of Turkish immigrants and the context of reception, as well as the subjective aspects (such as perceptions, feelings, emotions, and so on) related to the issue were taken into account in the study. From the methodological perspective, the study employed a mixed methods research approach by including interviews, participant observation, and a quantitative analysis of population and political representation data. In total, in Germany and the Netherlands, 27 ii face to face semi-structured interviews were conducted with either the representatives of Turkish organizations or the political party members that originated from Turkey. The study concluded that Turkish immigrants in both countries have been negatively affected by the securitization process. They felt that they faced more problems (such as discrimination, hate crimes, more restrictive policies towards them, and so on) in their contexts after 9/11. Along with these perceptions, the changes in their characteristics and the context of reception played an important role in their mobilization in this process. The study revealed that they became more mobilized and organized after 9/11. After evaluating the motives and objectives of mobilization and acculturation strategies of Turkish immigrants, the study identified three main forms of mobilization (political, social, and cultural) as a response to the securitization of integration. Not only differences between the characteristics of Turkish immigrants in Germany and the Netherlands but also dissimilarities in their receiving contexts resulted in differences in their political mobilization approaches. However, their social and cultural mobilization approaches in both countries have mainly been similar. Keywords: Immigrant mobilization, securitization, Islamophobia, global security, Muslims, Turkish immigrants. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It may not be possible to complete this dissertation without priceless help of my mentors, family, and friends. First, I would like to thank my dissertation advisor, Prof. Ariane Chebel d’Appollonia, for her academic guidance, support, and encouragement in all stages of my research. She has always been very understanding, responsive, and patient in this process. I am also very thankful to my committee members, Dr. Teri G. Lindgren, Dr. Jyl Josephson, and Dr. Oguzhan Omer Demir for their supportive and constructive advice and recommendations about my study. I am grateful to Ann Martin, associate director of DGA, and other DGA staff for their assistance during my graduate education in DGA. Additionally, I would like to express my gratefulness to my friends who shared their valuable thoughts about my research. I would like to extend my profound gratitude to all study participants in Germany and the Netherlands, who reserved their time for my research although they were very busy. Many thanks are owed to my relatives, who graciously provided me accommodation in Germany and the Netherlands. I am also very thankful to my parents who live in Turkey and endured my absence in this process. Finally, special thanks go to my lovely wife, Hamide, and wonderful children, Erdinc and Fatma Beyza, for their patience, understanding, self-sacrifice, and support during my graduate education. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION ....................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDMENTS .................................................................................................. iv TABLES AND FIGURES ............................................................................................... ix CHAPTER I- INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................1 1. Paradoxical Observation ...................................................................................................... 1 2. Explanatory Dimensions of the Research ............................................................................ 7 CHAPTER II- MUSLIMS IN EUROPE .........................................................................9 1. Presence of Muslims in Europe ........................................................................................... 9 2. Muslim Identity in Europe ................................................................................................. 11 3. Islam and Western Civilization .......................................................................................... 12 4. Accommodation of Muslims in Europe ............................................................................. 13 5. Transnational Networks of Muslims .................................................................................. 19 6. Islamophobia in Europe ..................................................................................................... 21 7. Factors of and the Concerns Raised by Securitization ....................................................... 25 CHAPTER III- MUSLIMS IN GERMANY AND THE NETHERLANDS ...............28 1. Facts and Figures ............................................................................................................... 28 2. Muslims in Germany .......................................................................................................... 28 3. Muslims in the Netherlands ............................................................................................... 31 4. Comparative Perspectives on Muslims in Germany and the Netherlands ......................... 34 5. Turks in Germany and the Netherlands ............................................................................. 35 v CHAPTER IV- LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................39 1. Securitization and Discrimination ...................................................................................... 39 A. Intergroup Relations and Uncertainty ............................................................................ 39 B. Perceived Discrimination and Identification Question .................................................. 46 2. Migrant Mobilization ......................................................................................................... 49 A. Theories Focusing on the Context of Reception ............................................................ 49 B. Theories Focusing on Migrant Characteristics .............................................................. 64 C. Theories on Mobilization ............................................................................................... 68 D. Traditional Assumptions ................................................................................................ 78 3. Critical Evaluations and a Model of Immigrant Mobilization ........................................... 81 CHAPTER V- RESEARCH APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY ........................84 1. Research Approach ............................................................................................................ 84 2. Research Methodology and Design ................................................................................... 85 A. Sampling ........................................................................................................................ 87 B. Data Collection .............................................................................................................. 90 C. Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 92 D. Strengths and Limitations .............................................................................................. 95 CHAPTER VI- FINDINGS ON SECURITIZATION .................................................98 1. Impact of Security Concerns .............................................................................................. 98 A. Integration Policy ........................................................................................................... 99 B. Legislation...................................................................................................................
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