CONTEXTUAL*GENDER*NEUTRALITY:*
A*THEORY*OF*GENDER*JUSTICE*
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By**
Ashton*Collins*
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Submitted*in*partial*fulfillment*of*the** requirements*for*Departmental*Honors*in*
the*Department*of*Political*Science*
Texas*Christian*University*
Fort*Worth,*Texas*
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May*4,*2015* * * * ii* *
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CONTEXTUAL*GENDER*NEUTRALITY:*
A*THEORY*OF*GENDER*JUSTICE*
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Project*Approved:*
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Supervising*Professor:*Samuel*Arnold,*Ph.D.*
Department*of*Political*Science*
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Carrie*Currier,*Ph.D.*
Department*of*Political*Science*
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John*Harris,*Ph.D.*
Department*of*Philosophy*
* * * * iii* ABSTRACT*
Many*political*theorists*rely*on*gender*neutrality*as*the*standard*for*a* gender*just*society.**Within*such*a*society,*equal*opportunities*would*result*in*equal* outcomes*for*men*and*women*in*all*professional*and*domestic*spheres.*I*find*that* contextual*gender*neutrality*better*characterizes*a*genderYjust*society*in*that*it* accepts*certain*unequal*outcomes*as*just*if*they*result*from*biological*sex* differences*or*adaptive*and*individual*preferences,*as*long*as*equality*of* opportunity*is*recognized.*In*order*to*realize*equality*of*opportunity,* reinforcements,*or*those*factors*that*influence*peoples'*decisions,*must*only*attempt* to*direct*choices,*not*limit*them.*Negative*reinforcements,*which*are*either*forceful* or*nonYforceful,*and*the*use*of*positive*reinforcements*with*negative*intent,*and*the* inculcation*of*positive*reinforcements*limit*one’s*opportunities.*Legal*recourse,* better*education*and*societal*evolution*may*be*utilized*to*diminish*or*eliminate* negative*reinforcements.***
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* * * * iv* TABLE*OF*CONTENTS*
INTRODUCTION...... 1*
CGN*THEORY*IN*REVIEW...... 3*
LIBERAL*FEMINISM...... 5*
THE*GENDERYNEUTRAL*SOCIETY:*STRICT*VS.*CONTEXTUAL...... 6*
THEORIES*OF*SEX*DIFFERENCES...... 9*
SEX*VS.*GENDER...... 9*
THREE*COMPETING*THEORIES:*EVOLUTIONARY*PSYCHOLOGY,** FEMINIST*PSYCHOLOGY,**
AND*BIOSOCIAL*CONSTRUCTIONISTTHEORY...... 9* GENDERED*SOCIALIZATION,*EQUALITY*OF*OPPORTUNITY,** AND*EQUALITY*OF*OUTCOME...... 19*
* PHILLIPS’*DEFENSE*OF*EQUALITY*OF*OUTCOME...... 19*
* LEVEY’S*ADAPTIVE*PREFERENCES*ARGUMENT...... 22*
* MANSFIELD’S*MANLINESS*ARGUMENT...... 27*
NEGATIVE*VS.*POSITIVE*REINFORCEMENTS...... 31*
STATE*INTERVENTION...... 36*
THE*THEORY*IN*PRACTICE:*ROGERS*AND*WRIGHT...... 37*
* PAY*EQUITY...... 37*
* * * * v* *
UNIVERSAL*CHILDCARE...... 39*
* PAID*PARENTAL*LEAVE...... 41*
CONCLUSIONS...... 42*
REFERENCES...... 45
* * * * 1* INTRODUCTION*
Although*women*in*the*U.S.*have*been*legally*enfranchised*since*the*passage* of*the*Civil*Rights*Act*of*1964,*there*remain*certain*gender*discrepancies*within* some*life*spheres*that*appear*to*highlight*gendered*advantages*and*disadvantages.*
Female*labor*force*participation*has*greatly*increased*since*the*1950’s,*and*since* the*1960’s,*the*percentage*of*women*employed*in*traditionally*male*professions*has* increased*dramatically.*As*evidence*of*these*trends,*the*percentage*of*working* mothers*with*children*under*the*age*of*six*has*grown*from*10*percent*to*now*over*
60*percent.1*Along*with*these*occupational*advances*have*come*expanded*economic* opportunities.*Increasing*numbers*of*women*are*obtaining*undergraduate,*graduate,* and*professional*degrees*and*are*enjoying*success*in*career*fields*previously* inaccessible*to*them.*Women*are*also*receiving*higher*compensation,*with*female* earnings*now*averaging*82*percent*of*male*earnings,*up*from*63*percent*in*1973.*
These*statistics*support*the*premise*that*women*have*made*great*strides*since*the*
1950’s.*That*said,*there*are*two*spheres*in*which*gender*discrepancies*are*still*very* much*apparent:*lack*of*women*within*the*upper*echelons*of*corporate*America*and* government,*and*an*abundance*of*women*managing*the*home*and*raising*children.2**
Women*have*not*made*the*advancements*in*accessing*the*highest*positions* of*power*within*corporations*and*government*that*it*could*be*agued*they*should* have*made,*given*the*increases*in*their*education*levels*and*labor*force* participation.*Females*only*represent*15.7*percent*of*Fortune*500*corporate*officers*
******************************************************** 1*Wright*and*Rogers,*pgs.*302Y316* 2*Ibid*
* * * * 2* and*3*percent*of*Fortune*500*CEOs.*Similarly,*women*remain*decidedly* underrepresented*within*government,*with*only*about*25*percent*of*state*level* elected*officials*and*17*percent*of*congressional*representatives*being*female*in*
2009.*Conversely,*women*are*vastly*overrepresented*in*the*performance*of* domestic*duties*and*childcare.*Though*discrepancies*in*domestic*responsibility* have*greatly*decreased*over*the*last*decade,*women*still*spend*quadruple*the*time* as*men*performing*household*duties*and*twice*the*time*taking*care*of*children.3*
Interpreting*this*data,*it*is*clear*that*positive*changes*have*been*made,*both* professionally*and*domestically,*in*the*gendered*division*of*labor.*Gender*equality* in*U.S.*society*is*evolving;*however,*it*is*unclear*how*to*address*lingering*gender* inequality.*Are*remaining*gender*discrepancies*evidence*of*continued*gender* discrimination?*Should*society*strive*to*achieve*greater*gender*equality,*and,*if*so,* how?*What*is*gender*justice*and*how*can*it*be*achieved?*These*are*questions*I*will* address*in*the*course*of*my*argument*in*developing*my*theory*of*gender*justice,* termed*Contextual*GenderYNeutral*(CGN)*Theory.*
In*September*2014,*the*United*Nations*spearheaded*a*new*campaign,* entitled*HeForShe,*to*confront*the*worldwide*issue*of*gender*inequality*and* discrimination.*The*initiative*seeks*to*spark*widespread*social*change*by* encouraging*corporations,*universities,*and*governments*to*adopt*principles*that* promote*gender*equality.*In*a*speech*given*at*the*launch*of*the*campaign,*its*
Goodwill*Ambassador,*Emma*Watson,*asked*men*to*join*with*women*in*the*gender* equality*discussion.*As*she*explained,*“We*don’t*often*talk*about*men*being* ******************************************************** 3*Ibid.*
* * * * 3* imprisoned*by*gender*stereotypes*but*I*can*see*that*they*are,*and*that*when*they* are*free,*things*will*change*for*women*as*a*natural*consequence.*Both*men*and* women*should*feel*free*to*be*sensitive.*Both*men*and*women*should*feel*free*to*be* strong.*It*is*time*that*we*all*perceive*gender*on*a*spectrum,*not*as*two*opposing*sets* of*ideals.”*With*this*statement,*Watson*highlights*important*shortcomings*in*the* gender*justice*debate:*the*lack*of*taking*men*into*consideration*and*the*need*to* accept*individual*gender*preferences.*I*believe*these*deficiencies*stem*from* excessive*focus*on*disregarding*gender*differences*in*an*effort*to*realize*an* ostensibly*ideal*genderYneutral*society.*
CGN*Theory*In*Review*
In*my*judgment,*a*society*that*offers*equal*opportunities*for*the*sexes*and* also*acknowledges*and*advocates*individual*gender*preferences*provides*the* highest*level*of*gender*justice.*In*order*to*achieve*such*a*milieu,*a*moral*theory*of* gender*justice*must*be*formulated*and*adopted.*If*properly*conceived,*such*a*theory* would*promote*equality*of*opportunity*without*also*requiring*equality*of*outcome.**
In*formulating*my*theory,*I*took*into*consideration*three*opposing*theories* of*gender*justice:*Mansfield’s*argument*in*Manliness,*Phillips’*hypothesis*in*
“Defending*Equality*of*Outcome,”*and*Levey’s*adaptive*preferences*premise* argument*in*“Liberalism,*Adaptive*Preferences,*and*Gender*Equality.”*Mansfield* argues*that*a*genderYneutral*society*would*require*an*artificial*recreation*of*gender* roles*that*are*in*place*because*of*biological*differences*between*the*sexes.**He*finds* that*a*genderYjust*society,*defined*as*one*that*is*genderYneutral,*can*never*be* achieved*because*men’s*natural*desire*is*to*be*“manly,”*which*will*always*produce*
* * * * 4* unequal*outcomes.*Phillips*posits*that*inequality*in*gendered*outcomes*is* symptomatic*of*genderYbiased*opportunities;*thus,*unequal*gendered*results*are* unjust*because*of*the*unjust*steps*that*led*to*such*outcomes.*She*also*argues*that*a* society*in*which*both*genders*have*equal*opportunities*would*necessarily*be* characterized*by*gender*equal*results*in*all*spheres.*She*further*hypothesizes*that* societies’*gender*unequal*results*proves*unequal*opportunities*exist*between*men* and*women.**Levey*contends*that*gendered*divisions*of*labor*derive*from*voluntary* choices.**These*choices*may*result*from*adaptive*preferences,*or*preferences*made* within*the*constraints*of*gendered*socialization;*this*does*not,*however,*invalidate* them*because*most*individual*choices*are*adaptive.*She*contends*that*overriding* skewed*gender*outcomes*would*require*state*intervention,*which*cannot*be* justified*from*a*liberal*perspective.*
My*genderYjustice*theory*is*differentiated*from*the*genderYneutral* perspective*in*three*ways:*first,*sexYdifferentiated*behaviors*between*men*and* women*can*be*both*biologically*and*socially*determined;*second,*certain*forms*of* gendered*socialization*are*appropriate,*as*long*as*opportunities*are*equal*and*third,* it*would*be*wrong*to*use*State*force*to*achieve*balanced*outcomes.**To*formulate* my*theory,*I*utilized*Eagly*and*Woods’*argument*for*a*biosocial*constructive*theory* of*sex*differences,*which*I*will*describe*below.*This*reasoning*takes*into*account*not* only*gendered*socialization*and*social*preferences*but*also*naturally*constructed* preferences*in*the*determination*of*gendered*preferences,*choices,*and*resultant* outcomes.*I*drew*on*Levey’s*adaptive*preferences*argument*to*address*Phillips’* concerns*over*injustice*in*equality*of*opportunity.*Furthermore,*I*utilized*
* * * * 5* Mansfield’s*theory*to*argue*against*Levey*and*Phillips’*exclusion*of*biological*sex* differentiated*behaviors*and*choices.*Then,*I*discuss*the*merits*of*the*use*of*state* intervention*to*promote*equality*of*outcomes.*Finally,*I*explore*the*practical* implications*of*my*theory,*where*I*analyze*the*possible*solutions*to*achieving* gender*equality*put*forth*by*Wright*and*Rogers*in*their*“Gender*Equality”*chapter*in*
American,Society:,How,It,Really,Works.**
Liberal*Feminism*
* The*liberal*feminist*perspective*values*individual*freedom,*and*more* specifically*freedom*for*women*in*the*form*of*personal*and*political*autonomy.*
There*are*two*dichotomous*factions*of*liberal*feminism:*comprehensive*and* political.*There*is*debate*amongst*these*groups*as*to*the*appropriate*role*of*the* state*in*helping*women*achieve*personal*and*political*autonomy.**Comprehensive* liberal*feminists*give*the*state*power*to*attain*certain*feminist*ends*for*reasons*of* moral*doctrine,*whereas*political*liberal*feminists*find*the*state*is*justified*only*in* attaining*those*feminist*ends*as*prescribed*by*a*shared*public*conception*of*the* good.*For*instance,*comprehensive*liberal*feminists*believe*the*state*should* necessarily*take*interest*in*family*life*because*family*structure*can*limit*women’s* personal*autonomy,*particularly*if*they*assume*the*caregiver*role.*They*believe*the* state*should*support*its*ideal*family*structure*by*promoting*the*equal*division*of* professional*and*domestic*work*for*each*spouse.*Conversely,*political*liberal* feminists*argue*the*state*is*not*justified*in*promoting*its*own*ideal*of*the*family* structure*upon*adults.*They*do,*however,*find*it*is*the*state’s*responsibility*to* support*children’s*development*of*personal*autonomy.*They*find*this*particularly*
* * * * 6* important*for*girls*because*their*involuntary*familial*participation*is*more*likely*to* negatively*influence*their*sense*of*selfYworth,*preferences,*and*capacities*for* reflection*and*imagination.4**
Comprehensive*liberal*feminists*also*believe*the*state*has*an*obligation*to* remedy*the*unequal*distribution*of*costs*and*rewards*of*social*cooperation*the* sexes,*as*promulgated*by*the*patriarchal*structure*of*society.*It*is*not*entirely*clear* how*the*state*can*remedy*this*disproportionate*distribution,*but*certain*liberal* feminists,*namely*Susan*Okin,*have*suggested*certain*policy*measures*that*would* mitigate*the*impact*of*gender*differences*within*society,*such*as*universal*daycare,* paid*parental*leave,*and*flexible*work*schedules.*Okin*takes*this*a*step*further*to* argue*that*the*state*should*“encourage*and*facilitate*the*equal*sharing*by*men*and* women*of*paid*and*unpaid*work,*or*productive*and*reproductive*labor,”5*which* leads*us*to*the*discussion*of*gender*neutrality.6**
The*GenderYNeutral*Society:*Strict*vs.*Contextual*
Many*gender*justice*theorists,*Levey,*Phillips,*and*Mansfield*included7,* operate*under*the*assumption*that*the*realization*of*the*comprehensive*liberal* feminist*ideal*society*requires*strict*gender*neutrality.*For*many*liberal*feminists,* such*a*society*would*signify*the*achievement*of*the*ultimate*goal*of*complete* equality*between*women*and*men.*From*Susan*Okin’s*perspective,*a*genderYneutral* society*is*realized*when,*“one’s*sex*would*have*no*more*relevance*than*one’s*eye*
******************************************************** 4*Baehr* 5*Baehr,*from*Okin, Susan (2005). ‘‘Forty Acres and a Mule’ for Women: Rawls and Feminism.’ Politics, Philosophy and Economics 4, 233–248.* 6*Baehr* 7*See*Levey*(2005),*Phillips*(2004),*Mansfield*(2006).*
* * * * 7* color*or*the*length*of*one’s*toes.**No*assumptions*would*be*made*about*‘male’*and*
‘female’*roles…*it*would*be*a*future*in*which*men*and*women*participated*in*more* or*less*equal*numbers*in*every*sphere*of*life,*from*infant*care*to*different*kinds*of* paid*work*to*highYlevel*politics.”8*As*she*explains,*in*a*genderYneutral*society,*if*sex* were*no*longer*a*relevant*factor,*both*sexes*would*be*equally*represented*both* professionally*and*domestically.**
But*is*strict*gender*neutrality*society*truly*what*is*required*for*a*gender*just* society?*I*believe*not.*I*conclude*that*gender*justice*calls*for*widespread*social* acceptance*of*differences*in*gender*and*individual*preferences,*not*the*forced* equality*of*outcomes.**An*amendment*to*strict*genderYneutral*theory,*which*better* defines*a*genderYjust*society,*would*give*greater*weight*to*biological*gender* differences*and*individual*personality.**For*example,*a*man*who*is*manly*by*
Mansfield’s*reckoning*may*be*more*inclined*to*want*to*independently*financially* support*his*family.*Such*a*man*may*look*for*a*partner*who*is*supportive*of*this* desire,*and*is*satisfied*to*be*a*stayYatYhome*parent.*There*are*many*things*that* shape*and*influence*a*person’s*personality,*preferences,*and*choices,*none*of*which* should*be*overlooked.*I*believe*that*factors*such*as*a*person’s*biological*makeYup,* familial*socialization,*social*location,*hometown,*schools,*developmental* experiences,*acquaintances,*places*visited,*etc.*shape*one’s*personality,*preferences,* and*choices.*Whether*a*person*is*socialized*to*uphold*traditional*or*modern*gender* roles*should*not*inevitably*impugn*the*voluntary*choices*one*makes.*The*choices*
******************************************************** 8*Susan*Okin*
* * * * 8* and*preferences*of*people*of*opposite*genders*within*a*an*ostensibly*utopian* society*that*strictly*ignores*gender*can*never*be*known*because*it*would*require* evading*the*above*stated*biological*and*social*influences.*
In*opposition*to*the*strict*genderYneutral*theory*of*gender*justice,*I*put*forth* my*vision*of*a*gender*just*society.*In*my*view,*such*a*society*would*accept*biological* gender*differences*between*men*and*women*and*individual*gender*preferences.*It* would*afford*everyone*equal*opportunities*without*deeming*unequal*gender* outcomes*unjust,*because*they*are*a*natural*consequence*of*biological*and*social* influences,*and*individual*preferences.*Strict*genderYneutrality*necessitates*the* equalization*of*opportunities*and*outcomes,*at*the*expense*of*individual* preferences*and*biological*sexYdifferences,*in*realizing*a*genderYjust*society.*
Conversely,*contextual*genderYneutral*(CGN)*theory*sees*every*outcome*in*the* context*of*the*opportunities,*individual*preferences,*and*biological*sexYdifferences* that*produce*such*outcomes.*It*would*provide*justice*for*both*men*and*women*by* allowing*them*to*recognize*and*act*upon*their*biological*and*socialized*preferences* and*individuality,*and*also*by*encouraging*each*individual*to*pursue*his*or*her*own* conception*of*the*good.*If*Phillips,*Levey,*and*Mansfield*amended*their*arguments*to* propose*that*gender*justice*requires*the*contextually*genderYneutral*society*that*I* have*briefly*sketched,*I*contend*their*concerns*about*unequal*gender*outcomes* could*be*rectified.*
I*will*now*present*the*theoretical*foundation*upon*which*CGN*Theory*is* postulated:*the*biosocial*constructionist*theory*of*sex*differences.*
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Theories*of*Sex*Differences*
i.*Sex*vs.*Gender*
To*preface*this*discussion*of*sex*differences,*it*is*necessary*to*define*and* distinguish*the*terms*“sex”*and*“gender”.*While*the*use*of*sex*and*gender* interchangeably*to*explain*the*differences*between*men*and*women*may*seem* trivial,*there*is*one*very*important*distinction*between*the*two.*“Sex”*describes*the* biological*differences*among*men*and*women,*while*“gender”*describes*the*social* construction*of*masculine*and*feminine*roles*and*what*it*means*to*be*a*man*or*a* woman.*Sex*is*inherent,*while*gender*is*learned.*Sex*can*be*perceived*as*a*mundane* description*of*the*reproductive*capacities*of*humans,*while*gender*conveys*a*more* intricate*idea*that*describes*socialization*based*on*these*sexual*differences.*
However,*as*I*will*explain*further,*it*is*ineffective*to*focus*solely*on*gender* differences*in*determining*gender*justice*while*excluding*sexual*or*biological* differences.9**
ii.*Three*Competing*Theories:*Feminist*Psychology,*Evolutionary*Psychology,*
and*Biosocial*Constructionist*
There*are*three*theories*of*sex*differences,*which*range*from*purely*social* factors*to*entirely*biological*factors:*feminist*psychology,*evolutionary*psychology,* and*biosocial*constructionist.*All*existing*theories*of*gender*justice,*including*CGN*
Theory,*are*based*upon*one*of*these*theories.*Most*feminist*psychology*theories*fall* ******************************************************** 9*Wright*and*Rogers,*pg.*301.*
* * * * 10* within*the*social*category*and*describe*sexual*differences*in*behaviors*as*the* product*of*societal*norms.*Though*there*are*many*variations*of*feminist*psychology* theories,*one*that*exemplifies*a*commonly*held*belief*is*social*structural*theory.*It*is* typical*for*many*feminists*to*utilize*some*variation*of*feminist*psychology*in*order* to*support*their*goal*of*gender*equality.*They*see*evolutionary*theory*as*promoting* unequal*gender*relations*because*of*the*assumed*inherent*nature*of*sex* differences.10*Counter*to*the*feminist*psychology*perspective*is*evolutionary* psychology*theory.*This*theory*posits*that*all*sexual*differences*are*the*product*of* evolved*adaptive*mechanisms*that*universally*shape*sexual*behavior*in*response*to* problems.*Tying*together*these*opposing*theories*is*biosocial*constructionist*theory,* which*asserts*that*both*biological*and*social*factors*influence*sexYdifferential* behaviors.**For*CGN*Theory,*I*utilize*the*biosocial*constructionist*theory,*because*it* provides*the*most*comprehensive*explanation*for*sex*differences*and*behaviors* that*ultimately*influence*choices.*
Eagly*and*Wood*(1999)*identified*and*compared*two*theories*of*the*origins* of*sex*differences:*evolutionary*psychology*and*social*structural*theory.*The* evolutionary*psychology*perspective*asserts*that*humans*have*evolved*coping* mechanisms*in*adaptation*to*ancestral*sexYtyped*problems.*These*adaptations*in* turn*produce*sexYdifferentiated*behavior.*Conversely,*the*social*structural* perspective*argues*that*men*and*women*become*psychologically*different*in* response*to*different*social*roles.*Under*this*premise,*men*and*women*display*sexY
******************************************************** 10*Eagly*and*Wood,1999*
* * * * 11* differentiated*behavior*to*accommodate*individual,*situational,*and*cultural* constraints*placed*upon*them.*Though*these*perspectives*may*seem*diametrically* opposed*in*the*nature*vs.*nurture*argument,*there*are*certain*similarities*that*may* facilitate*their*amalgamation.*Evolutionary*psychology*theory*also*upholds*that* environmental*factors*influence*how*evolved*mechanisms*manifest*within* individual’s*behavioral*expressions,*thus*somewhat*accepting*the*social*structural* perspective*in*determining*behaviors*and*choices.**In*a*complementary*fashion,* social*structural*theory*finds*that*certain*genetic*predispositions*–*such*as*the* greater*strength*and*size*of*men*and*the*ability*of*women*to*bear*children*–**
“...interact*with*shared*cultural*beliefs,*social*organization,*and*the*demands*of*the* economy*to*influence*the*role*assignments*that*constitute*the*sexual*division*of* labor*within*a*society*and*produce*psychological*sex*differences.”11**
A*key*crossYcultural*study*by*Buss*(1999)12*utilized*by*both*theories*studied* the*sex*differences*in*mate*selection.*According*to*the*evolutionary*psychology* perspective,*mate*selection*follows*Darwinian*sexual*selection*theory,*where:**
“Because*men*competed*with*other*men*for*sexual*access*to*women,*men’s*
evolved*dispositions*favor*violence,*competition,*and*risk*taking.*Women*in*
turn*developed*a*proclivity*to*nurture*and*a*preference*for*longYterm*mates*
who*could*support*a*family.*As*a*result,*men*strived*to*acquire*more*
******************************************************** 11*Eagly*and*Wood,*pg.*409*(1999)* 12*Eagly*and*Wood,*pg.*409.*(1999),*referencing*Buss’s*37*country*crossYcultural*study*
* * * * 12* resources*than*other*men*in*order*to*attract*women,*and*women*developed*
preferences*for*successful,*ambitious*men*who*could*provide*resources.”13**
Evolutionary*psychology*theorists*see*the*uniformly*crossYcultural*evidence*of* women*preferring*mates*who*have*earning*potential*and*are*older,*and*men* preferring*mates*who*are*physically*attractive,*proficient*in*domestic*activities,*and* younger*as*proof*of*the*existence*of*sexual*selection*as*a*result*of*evolved* mechanisms.*Conversely,*from*the*social*structural*perspective,*mate*selection*is* based*upon*a*costYbenefit*analysis*to*maximize*utility*within*the*constraints*of* societal*expectations*of*gender*and*marital*roles.**From*this*perspective,*the* evidence*produced*by*crossYcultural*analysis*is*deficient*because*of*its*use*of* homogenous*and*culturally*and*economically*similar*societies.**
In*order*to*reanalyze*the*crossYcultural*data*to*determine*whether*greater* gender*equality*erodes*sex*differences*in*mate*preferences,*Eagly*and*Wood* integrated*the*“GenderYRelated*Development*Index”,*which*indicates*the*level*of* gender*equality*within*a*society.*When*correlated*with*Buss’s*original*data,*Eagly* and*Wood*found*only*a*weak*relationship*between*gender*equality*and*sex* differences*in*mate*preferences.*In*concluding*their*study,*Eagly*and*Wood*suggest* that*further*empirical*testing*for*the*evolutionary*psychology*and*social*structural* perspectives*could*shed*greater*light*on*the*fundamental*cause*of*sex*differences;* furthermore,*they*do*not*rule*out*that*the*two*perspectives*could*be*combined*to* better*explain*sex*differences.*
******************************************************** 13*Eagly*and*Wood,*pgs.*410Y411*(1999)*
* * * * 13* * Later*studies*by*Eagly*and*Wood*(2002*and*2011)*analyzed*articles*within* the*“Special*Issue”*of*Sex,Roles.*They*argue*that*evolutionary*psychologists*and* feminist*psychologists*are*locked*in*interminable*disagreement*over*the* determinant*factors*of*sex*differences*and*similarities,*for*which*there*is*evidence* to*support*both*positions.*They*argue*that*in*order*for*evolutionary*psychologists*to* comprehensively*address*sex*differences,*they*must*also*include*those*cultural* processes*that*feminist*psychologists*argue*are*present*within*the*determination*of* sex*differences.*Conversely,*feminist*psychologists*must,*“...recognize*the* importance*of*the*ultimate,*evolutionary*origins*as*well*as*the*proximal*causes*of* sex*differences*and*similarities.”14*They*argue*that*feminist*alternatives*to* evolutionary*psychology*theory*are*too*focused*on*present*individual*and*social* determinants,*rather*than*“distal*evolutionary*pressures.”*
According*to*Myers*in*Exploring,Social,Psychology,*evolutionary*psychology* is*the*study*of*how*psychological*traits*and*social*behaviors*that*help*a*person*pass* down*and*preserve*their*genes*are*passed*through*generations*by*natural*selection.*
Myers*explains,*“As*mobile*gene*machines,*we*carry*not*only*the*physical*legacy*but* also*the*psychological*legacy*of*our*ancestors’*adaptive*preferences.”15*Evolutionary* psychology*explains*that*humans*universally*share*certain*preferences,*and*that*our* biology*gives*us*the*ability*to*adapt*to*different*environments.*Thus*evolutionary* psychology*combines*nature*and*nurture*to*explain*how*individuals*adapt*to*the* cultures*into*which*they*are*born.**
******************************************************** 14*Eagly*and*Wood,*Pg.*759*(2011)* 15*Myers,*pg.*125*
* * * * 14* Although*men*and*women*are*more*psychologically*similar*than*different,* studies*have*shown*that*the*sexes*diverge*most*starkly*in*four*psychological* categories:*independence*v.*connectedness,*social*dominance,*aggression,*and* sexuality.*In*terms*of*independence*v.*connectedness,*girls*play*less*aggressively* and*in*smaller*groups,*are*more*likely*to*describe*themselves*in*terms*of*their* relationships,*tend*to*gravitate*towards*jobs*that*promote*equality,*are*more*likely* to*take*on*traditional*genderYspecific*attitudes*and*behaviors*after*having*a*child,* and*are*more*likely*to*feel*empathy*than*men.16**In*reference*to*social*dominance,* men*are*socially*dominant*in*nearly*every*society.*The*male*style*of*communicating* is*typically*direct*and*taskYfocused,*whereas*women’s*communication*style*tends*to* be*more*inspirational*and*social.*Men*are*also*more*likely*to*be*impulsive*riskY takers*than*women.17*Men*are*more*physically*aggressive*than*women,*so*it*follows* that*they*are*more*likely*to*hunt*and*to*go*to*war.*Nonetheless,*aggression*in* response*to*provocation*can*be*a*natural*response*for*either*men*or*women.18*
Finally,*men*and*women*differ*greatly*in*terms*of*sexuality.*Men*tend*to*have* stronger*sex*drives*and*to*want*more*unrestricted*sex*than*women.*As*Myers* explains,*men*in*comparison*to*women*have*been*shown*to,*“...fantasize*more*about* sex,*have*more*permissive*attitudes,*seek*more*partners,*are*more*quickly*aroused,* desire*sex*more*often,*masturbate*more*frequently,*use*more*pornography,*are*less*
******************************************************** 16*Myers,*pgs.*135Y137* 17*Myers,*pgs.*137Y139* 18*Myers,*pg.*139*
* * * * 15* successful*at*celibacy,*refuse*sex*less*often,*take*more*risks,*expend*more*resources* to*gain*sex,*and*prefer*more*sexual*variety.”19**
As*Eagly*and*Wood*explain,*and*Myers*confirms,*sex*differentiated*mating* preferences*are*predicated*by*evolutionary*psychology.*Because*of*pregnancy*and* gestation,*female’s*investment*in*reproduction*is*much*longer*term*than*male’s* investment;*hence,*women*seek*mates*who*will*be*committed*and*can*provide* resources.*Conversely,*males,*by*virtue*of*inherently*wanting*to*propagate*their* genes,*look*for*partners*who*are*healthy*and*fertile.*In*response*to*the*needs*of*the* opposite*sex,*men*tend*to*want*to*accumulate*resources*and*to*appear*more* physically*able*to*protect*women.*Conversely,*women*tend*to*want*to*portray*a* youthful,*healthy*appearance,*which*biologically*portrays*fertility*to*men.*
Biologically,*women’s*bodies*alert*men*to*their*fertility*by*a*change*in*behavior,* scent*and*voice*during*ovulation.*Buss’s*(1999)*crossYcultural*analysis*confirmed* evolutionary*psychology’s*prediction*of*mating*selection*tendencies.**
Many*critics*often*claim*that*evolutionary*psychologists*are*merely* providing*conjectures*in*hindsight*of*findings*they*observe.*Evolutionary* psychologists*counter*that*their*field*has*produced*empirical*data*confirming*their* predictions*through*animal*behavioral*studies,*crossYcultural*analyses,*and* hormonal*and*genetic*testing.*For*example,*hormonal*studies*have*shown*that* hormones*matter*in*producing*biological*sex*differences.*In*one*study,*when*female* embryos*are*exposed*to*excess*testosterone*during*development,*they*display*more*
******************************************************** 19*Myers,*pgs.*141Y142*
* * * * 16* tomboyish*characteristics.*Other*studies*show*that*violent*male*criminals,*football* players,*and*some*fraternity*members*have*higher*than*normal*testosterone*levels.*
Results*of*another*study*have*shown*that*human*and*ape*males*display*higher* aggression*than*females*in*the*early*life*stage,*which*progressively*wanes* throughout*adulthood.*This*genderYdiverse*aggression*is*present*before*culture*has* a*pronounced*impact.20**
Culture*does*play*an*important*role*in*shaping*genderYdifferentiated*roles,* but*it*does*so*in*tandem*with*biology.*As*Myers*explains,*“Cultural*norms*subtly*yet* powerfully*affect*our*attitudes*and*behavior,*but*they*don't*do*so*independently*of* biology.*Everything*social*and*psychological*is*ultimately*biological.*If*others’* expectations*influence*us,*that*is*part*of*our*biological*programming.*Moreover,* what*our*biological*heritage*initiates,*culture*may*accentuate.*Genes*and*hormones* predispose*males*to*be*more*physically*aggressive*than*females,*but*culture* amplifies*that*difference*through*norms*that*expect*males*to*be*tough*and*females* to*be*the*kinder,*gentler*sex.”21*It*follows*that*we*can*discount*neither*biology*nor* cultural*socialization*when*discussing*sex*differences.** *
In*response*to*the*shortcomings*of*evolutionary*and*feminist*theories,*Eagly* and*Wood*formulated*a*theory*of*sex*differences*that*combines*the*two.**In*their* words,*“We*developed*our*biosocial*constructionist*theory*to*explain*the*evolution* and*function*of*social*expectations*and*selfYconcepts*in*human*society*and*thereby*
******************************************************** 20*Myers,*pgs.*145Y146* 21*Myers,*pg.*147*
* * * * 17* to*integrate*cultural*and*biological*influences*on*the*sexes’*behavior.”22*In*their* theory,*they*argue*that*physical*attributes*interact*with*social*constructs*to*produce* sex*differences,*and*that*social*processes,*such*as*gender*roles,*and*biological* processes*such*as*hormonal*changes,*determine*these*sex*differences.*They*posit* that*human*evolution*explains*sexYtyped*adaptive*behaviors*in*response*to* changing*situational*problems,*which*allows*the*sexes*to*either*conform*to*or*reject* societal*norms*to*maximize*utility.*Their*theory*also*asserts*that*this*psychological* adaptation*conforms*to*the*“proximal*mediators”*of*socialization,*such*as*division*of* labor.*In*conclusion,*Eagly*and*Wood*argue,*“...humans*evolved*a*psychology*that*on* the*one*hand*allows*considerable*flexibility*in*behavior*between*societies*but*on*the* other*hand*stably*structures*culturally*shared*beliefs*to*make*the*typical*activities* of*men*and*women*within*a*society*seem*natural*and*inevitable.”23**
To*provide*evidence*for*their*theory,*Eagly*and*Wood*contend*that*the* establishment*of*parental*roles*is*both*biologically*and*socially*constructed.*They* explain*that,*“...hormonal*changes,*particularly*increases*in*cortisol,*also*are* implicated*in*initiation*of*the*parental*role.*Such*changes*in*mothers*accompany* childbirth*and*evidently*stimulate*nurturing.”*Furthermore*they,*“...assume*that* such*biological*processes*work*in*concert*with*psychological*processes,*such*as*sexY typed*social*expectations*and*selfYconcepts,*to*orient*men*and*women*toward* certain*social*roles*and*to*facilitate*their*performance*of*these*roles.”24*Eagly*and*
******************************************************** 22*Eagly*and*Wood,*pg.*764*(2011)* 23*Eagly*and*Wood,*pg.*765*(2011)* 24*Eagly*and*Wood,*pg.*702*(2002)*
* * * * 18* Wood*maintain*that*sexYtyped*roles*can*be*the*result*of*a*maximization*of*utility.*
Drawing*on*crossYcultural*analysis*of*nonindustrial*societies,*Eagly*and*Wood* determined*that*in*complementary*relationships,*men*and*women*maximize*their* utility*by*performing*tasks*that*are*complementary*to*their*physical*attributes*and* skills,*while*also*operating*under*societal*constraints*of*their*sexYtyped*roles.*They* found*that,*“The*allocation*of*specific*tasks*across*societies*appears*to*be*flexible,* with*the*majority*of*tasks*not*uniquely*associated*with*one*sex.*Yet,*across*societies* some*activities*were*almost*always*performed*by*men*(e.g.,*hunting*of*large* animals),*and*other*activities*were*almost*always*performed*by*women*(e.g.,* cooking*of*vegetal*food).”25*Thus*their*findings*are*consistent*with*evolutionary* perspectives*that*accept*the*influence*of*environmental*factors*as*well*as*evolved* sexYtyped*adaptive*physical*and*reproductive*capacities*in*sexYdifferentiated* behaviors.*
The*formulation*of*CGN*Theory*is*based*on*the*premises*of*biosocial* constructionist*theory.*I*rely*on*this*theory*because*it*is*the*most*comprehensive* explanation*of*sexYdifferential*behavior.*It*includes*both*distal*and*proximal* influences*on*sex*differences*and*accepts*that*both*biological*and*social*factors* influence*sexYdifferentiated*behaviors.*Though*biological*differences*cannot*explain* all*disproportionate*outcomes,*they*cannot*be*discounted.*My*subsequent* arguments*will*explain*the*shortcomings*of*utilizing*strict*gender*neutrality*in* determining*gender*justice,*and*support*my*theory*of*gender*justice,*CGN*Theory.**
******************************************************** 25*Eagly*and*Wood,*2002,*pg.*707*(2002)*
* * * * 19* Gendered*Socialization,*Equality*of*Opportunity,*and*Equality*of*Outcome**
To*achieve*a*strict*genderYneutral*society,*there*must*necessarily*be*gender* equal*opportunities*and*outcomes.*In*order*for*gender*to*become*entirely*nonY influential,*as*required*by*strict*genderYneutral*theory,*men*and*women*must*have* formal*equality*of*opportunity*through*equal*legal*rights,*as*well*as*equal* opportunities*for*success*in*any*profession.*They*must*also*do*an*equal*share*of* domestic*work*and*childcare.*Phillips*argues*that*disparate*outcomes*are*unjust* because,*if*opportunities*are*available*to*men*and*women,*the*result*should*be* equal*outcomes*in*the*form*of*equal*numbers*of*men*and*women*in*all*career*fields* and*equal*sharing*of*domestic*work*and*childcare.*Her*arguments*are*not* compelling*because,*as*I*will*argue,*not*all*unequal*outcomes*are*proof*of*injustice* because*they*may*be*the*result*of*biological*gender*preferences*and*adaptive* gender*preferences.*
i.*Phillips’*Defense*of*Equality*of*Outcome**
Phillips’*argument*can*be*summarized*as*follows:*Gendered*socialization*and* social*preferences*influence*gendered*preferences,*which*lead*one*to*make* gendered*choices,*collectively*producing*gendered*unequal*outcomes.*Phillips* asserts*that*the*unequal*distribution*of*men*and*women*in*all*spheres*is* symptomatic*of*unequal*opportunities.*She*maintains*that*we*can*link*the* predomination*of*men*in*highYpaying,*and*highYpower*careers*and*the* predomination*of*women*in*lowYpaying*positions*or*in*the*home*to*injustice*of* opportunities.*Phillips*says,*“Any*systematic*disparity*in*outcomes*–*whether*this*be*
* * * * 20* a*concentration*of*certain*groups*at*certain*points*of*the*social*hierarchy*or*a* marked*segregation*of*occupations*and*roles*–*alerts*us*to*a*likely*inequality*in* initial*opportunities.”26*Phillips*further*argues*that*because*unequal*opportunities* exist*in*the*pursuit*of*life*goals,*and*those*goals*are*in*turn*influenced*by*the* gendered*opportunities*available,*there*is*injustice*in*the*steps*leading*to*gendered* unequal*outcomes.**In*particular,*Phillips*finds*that*women*are*socialized*to*aspire* to*stay*at*home*and*raise*children,*thus*an*unequal*number*of*women*forego* careers*in*relation*to*men.*In*response*to*the*counterYargument*that*perhaps* women*naturally*have*preferences*towards*children,*as*evidenced*by*the*fact*that* many*women*volunteer*to*stay*at*home,*Phillips*says,**“to*take*this,*however,*as* evidence*that*the*distribution*of*caring*and*achievement*orientations*is*intrinsically* linked*to*sex*is*to*presume*in*advance*that*the*causation*goes*one*way.*It*is*far*more* plausible,*in*my*view,*to*see*it*as*evidence*that*people*accommodate*themselves*to* whatever*they*perceive*as*the*options*before*them.”27*Phillips*clearly*bases*her* argument*on*the*feminist*psychology*perspective,*as*evidenced*by*her*dismissal*of* the*possibility*of*biology*in*determining*preferences*in*favor*of*solely*the*impact*of* socialization*on*gendered*preferences.*
One*response*to*Phillips’*argument*is*that*if*the*choices*women*and*men* make*are*voluntary,*and*those*choices*do*not*harm*anyone*else,*how*can*the* outcome*be*unjust?*Phillips’*counterYpoint*renounces*the*possibility*of*voluntary* choice*when*gendered*socialization*is*the*root*of*choices.*She*responds,**
******************************************************** 26*Phillips,*Pg.*13* 27*Phillips,*Pg.*12*
* * * * 21* “There*are*many*ways*in*which*current*writing*on*inequality*understates*
the*impact*of*social*relations*and*structures,*and*I*note*here*just*three*of*the*
more*obvious*ones.*First,*the*aspirations*that*shape*our*choices*are*
themselves*framed*by*our*social*location,*most*notably*and*persistently*by*
the*impact*of*social*class…*A*second*problem*is*that*the*outcome*of*these*
choices*depends*in*large*part*on*the*chances*of*what*our*society*now*
values…*A*third*problem*is*that*the*choices*we*make*tend*to*have*a*
cumulative*effect*that*can*lead*to*outcomes*none*of*us*deliberately*chose.”28**
Phillips*claims*that*because*our*choices*are*most*greatly*influenced*by*our*social* location,*and*the*outcomes*of*those*choices*are*directed*by*societal*values,*the* cumulative*effect*of*these*choices*in*producing*undesired*outcomes*calls*into* question*the*efficacy*of*the*voluntary*nature*of*gendered*choice.*It*is*her*belief*that* people*must*involuntarily*adapt*to*the*constraints*of*their*social*location*and* societal*values,*thus*producing*unequal*and*unjust*outcomes.*
I*take*issue*with*two*important*points*of*Phillips’*conclusion:*1)*that* gendered*choices*are*never*valid*because*they*were*produced*through*gendered* socialization,*and*2)*unequal*gendered*outcomes*are*unjust*because*the*preferences* and*choices*that*led*to*those*outcomes*were*unfairly*influenced.*I*assert*that*no* choice*is*made*nor*preference*developed*without*myriad*influences.*To*argue*that* these*choices*are*invalid*because*they*are*partially*impacted*by*gendered* socialization*is*to*ignore*the*other*influencing*factors,*and*to*give*unwarranted*
******************************************************** 28*Phillips,*Pg.*15Y16*
* * * * 22* weight*to*gendered*socialization,*in*particular*the*influencing*effect*of*social*class* upon*individual*choices.*However,*I*see*that*there*are*many*factors*that*influence* one’s*choices.*For*example,*cultural*differences,*such*as*southern*vs.*northern*
American*culture,*influence*peoples*preferences*and*choices.*Regardless*of*social* location,*southern*boys*are*typically*socialized*to*be*chivalrous*and*gentlemanly,* whereas*these*traits*are*not*emphasized*as*greatly*in*the*socialization*of*northern* boys.*These*different*kinds*of*socialization*then*produce*divergent*outcomes*in*the* way*southern*and*northern*men*act.*What*is*important*to*note*is*that*no*child*can* develop*and*grow*without*certain*influences*that*will*shape*their*eventual* personality,*preferences,*and*choices,*and*every*child’s*life*experiences*and* influences*will*be*different.*With*that*said,*no*influence*should*be*given*undue* weight*over*other*influences*in*determining*whether*one’s*choices*have*been*made* voluntarily.*In*a*contextual*genderYneutral*society,*each*person’s*choices*would*be* respected,*and*all*opportunities*would*be*available*for*achieving*one’s*own*concept* of*the*good,*whether*or*not*that*would*produce*unequal*gender*outcomes.**
As*I*will*now*explain,*Levey*provides*an*argument*for*adaptive*preferences,* or*preferences*that*are*shaped*by*gender*socialization,*that*gives*merit*to*their* voluntariness*even*in*the*wake*of*gender*socialization.***
ii.*Levey’s*Adaptive*Preferences*Argument:**
Previously,*I*summarized*Phillips’*theory*of*injustice*of*unequal*outcomes* based*on*the*injustice*of*unequal*gender*opportunities.*I*conveyed*her*thoughts*that* gendered*preferences*and*choices*are*not*made*voluntarily*because*they*are*unduly*
* * * * 23* influenced*by*gendered*socialization.*Levey*presents*an*argument*for*adaptive* preferences*that*I*believe*in*fact*justifies*unequal*outcomes*in*gender* representation*in*all*societal*spheres,*and*thus*is*useful*in*responding*to*Phillips.*
Levey’s*argument*is*as*follows:*1)*liberalism*cannot*justify*overriding*outcomes*that* are*the*result*of*people’s*voluntary*choices;*2)*gendered*unequal*outcomes*result* from*voluntary*choices,*therefore,*liberalism*cannot*justify*overriding*unequal* gendered*outcomes;*and*3)*feminism*necessarily*requires*overriding*this*gendered* inequality*through*state*intervention,*therefore,*liberalism*and*feminism*lie*in* opposition*to*each*other.*Levey*argues*that*because*people*adapt*to*gendered* socialization*and*make*voluntary*choices*in*response*to*it,*a*genderYneutral*society* cannot*be*realized*from*a*liberal*perspective*because*it*would*require*the*state*to* unacceptably*intervene*in*the*exercise*of*voluntary*choice.***
Levey*concludes*that*unequal*gendered*outcomes*are*unjust*despite*the*fact* that*these*outcomes*are*effectuated*through*the*voluntary*exercise*of*choice.*I* disagree*with*this*conclusion*because*although*Levey*appropriately*provides*a* justification*for*the*voluntariness*of*choice,*she*erroneously*concludes*that*unequal* outcomes*are*unjust.*She*comes*to*this*misguided*conclusion*because*she*relies*on* the*ideal*of*a*strict*genderYneutral*society.*Nevertheless*she*fails*to*see*that*a*strict* genderYneutral*society*does*not*necessarily*bring*the*highest*level*of*gender*justice.*
If*the*ideal*were*a*contextual*genderYneutral*society,*in*which*opportunities*were* equal*and*differing*preferences*were*accepted,*I*believe*unequal*gendered*
* * * * 24* outcomes*would*be*moral*and*just.*For*example,*Levey*concedes*that*women*who* choose*to*work*in*lowerYpay*occupations*than*men,**
“...might*prefer*to*be*paid*more*for*making*these*choices;*but*at*least*
sometimes*they*make*these*choices*despite*the*pay,*because*they*value*the*
work*more*than*they*value*higher*economic*reward.*Historically*we*can*
account*for*the*lower*pay*of*women’s*occupations*by*reference*to*beliefs*
about*women’s*lesser*worth,*but*it*does*not*follow*that*the*women*who*
make*those*choices*are*basing*them*on*any*belief*about*their*lesser*worth.*
To*assume*that*these*choices*are*based*on*false*beliefs*about*equal*worth*
denigrates*those*choices*in*a*way*that*does*not*seem*an*accurate*
characterization*of*women’s*relations*to*their*choices.”29**
In*coming*to*such*a*conclusion*about*the*validity*of*gendered*choices*and*the* inaccuracy*of*calling*into*question*these*choices,*I*believe*one*should*also*conclude* that*if*we*are*to*respect*free*will*and*the*ability*for*people*to*make*choices,*we* should*also*support*the*possibility*that*those*choices*overall*may*produce*unequal* outcomes.*However,*Levey*concludes*that*no*matter*the*validity*of*the*choices,*the* outcome*is*still*unjust,*yet*liberalism*cannot*justify*using*state*coercion*to*correct* these*outcomes.*I*find*that*if*Levey*formulated*her*argument*on*the*assumption*of* creating*a*contextual*genderYneutral*society,*she*would*conclude*that:*1)*choices* made*may*be*the*result*of*adaptive*preferences;*2)*nonetheless,*these*choices*are*
******************************************************** 29*Levey,*pg.*137*
* * * * 25* made*voluntarily*and*thus*are*valid;*and*3)*if*all*choices*are*made*of*one’s*own* volition,*and*no*opportunities*are*blocked,*an*unequal*outcome*is*morally*legitimate.**
Levey*provides*further*evidence*for*the*validity*of*adaptive*preferences,* which*strengthens*my*argument*that*Phillips*is*incorrect*in*assuming*gendered* preferences*and*choices*are*invalid*because*they*are*adaptive.**Levey*explains*that* preferences*are*often*seen*as*responses*to*the*“sour*grapes”*phenomenon.*In*the* sour*grapes*fable,*a*fox*that*is*unable*to*reach*and*eat*some*grapes*operates*under* the*assumption*that*the*grapes*are*sour*and*no*longer*prefers*them.*The*sour* grapes*scenario*may*be*the*case*in*certain*preferences,*but*certainly*not*all.*As*
Levey*explains,**
“If*gendered*preferences*were*only*the*result*of*the*sour*grape*effect,*then*
we*would*have*good*reason*to*think*that*the*preferences*of*women*are*
suspect*in*a*fairly*straightforward*way.*If*women’s*preferences*are*merely*
the*result*of*habituation*and*resignation,*if*we*can*say*nothing*more*about*
them,*then*they*are*not*choices*we*need*feel*compelled*to*respect.*However,*
gendered*preferences*(men’s*and*women’s)*generally*seem*more*robust*
than*this…*When*choices*made*are*lived,*the*effect*is*typically*the*formation*
of*a*robust*set*of*preferences*and*values*that*will*persevere*through*
change.”30**
******************************************************** 30*Levey,*pg.*132*
* * * * 26* From*this*we*can*conclude*that*women*do*not*develop*gendered*preferences* merely*in*resignation*to*their*fate*and*to*what*they*cannot*have.*Rather,*we*observe* choices*made*as*a*result*of*myriad*factors,*as*I*have*posited.*
To*exemplify*her*personal*development*of*adaptive*preference,*Levey* explains*that*growing*up*she*was*taught*to*bake,*a*traditionally*female*activity,*and* determined*that*she*enjoyed*it.*At*the*same*time,*she*had*an*aversion*to*feminine* clothing,*shoes,*and*makeYup,*most*likely*due*to*her*brother’s*distaste*for*such* feminine*things.*As*she*explains,**“My*preferences*regarding*dress*were*caused*by* social*pressure,*yet*they*have*become*my*preferences*even*though*I*recognize*that*I* might*not*have*had*them*in*the*absence*of*my*brother’s*teasing.*Causally,*these* preferences*came*about*through*mechanisms*no*different*from*those*preferences* feminists*consider*suspect.*But*if*it’s*not*suspect*for*me*to*prefer*not*to*wear*makeY up*or*high*heels,*why*is*it*suspect*to*prefer*to*do*so?”31*Levey’s*mother*may*have* influenced*her*fondness*for*baking,*and*her*brother*may*have*influenced*her* aversion*to*feminine*things,*yet*that*should*not*call*into*question*the*validity*of* those*preferences.**Perhaps*we*can*never*know*what*Levey’s*voluntary*preferences* would*have*been*in*the*absence*of*her*particular*socialization,*despite*that,*we* should*not*discount*the*fact*that*she*can*make*voluntary*choices*based*on*those* preferences.*
To*use*a*personal*example,*for*as*long*as*I*can*remember,*I*have*had*an* aversion*to*orange*juice.*As*a*child*I*preferred*to*drink*milk*instead*of*orange*juice*
******************************************************** 31*Levey,*Pg.*131Y132*
* * * * 27* for*every*meal.*As*an*adult,*I*continue*to*have*an*aversion*to*orange*juice.*I*believe* numerous*factors*influenced*this*aversion,*including*the*fact*that*I*was*typically* offered*milk*over*orange*juice*as*a*beverage*option*by*my*parents;*I*rarely* witnessed*my*parents*drinking*orange*juice,*though*they*both*like*it;*none*of*my* friends*particularly*liked*the*taste*of*oranges;*and*I*just*genuinely*did*not*like*the* taste.*Though*the*option*was*always*available*to*me,*I*consistently*chose*other* drinks*because*I*had*a*biological*aversion*to*orange*juice*and*was*socialized*to*not* like*it.*Yet,*I*think*few*if*any*would*say*I*was*unfairly*socialized,*or*my*opportunity* to*drink*orange*juice*had*been*unfairly*limited;*I*believe*virtually*everyone*would* say*I*simply*did*not*prefer*orange*juice.*People*have*preferences*and*make* decisions*based*on*those*preferences*every*day,*just*as*I*favor*other*drinks*to* orange*juice*and*make*decisions*based*on*this*preference*frequently.*Though*these* decisions*may*be*at*least*partially*due*to*socialization,*this*should*not*disparage* their*voluntary*nature*or*validity.*
Though*Phillips*and*Levey*recognize*that*men*and*women*are*biologically* different,*they*discount*the*notion*that*these*biological*differences*can*create*sexY differentiated*preferences.*Mansfield’s*argument,*however,*accounts*for*these*sexY differences*and*posits*that*truly*equal*outcomes*are*impossible*as*a*result*of* biological*differences.**
iii.*Mansfield’s*Manliness*Argument*
* Mansfield’s*“manliness”*argument*gives*weight*to*the*idea*that*gender* differences*are*socialized*and*come*naturally,*and*argues*that*one*cannot*discount*
* * * * 28* the*fact*that*biological*gender*differences*influence*preferences*and*choices.**While*
I*find*that*he*assumes*that*a*strict*genderYneutral*society*is*the*ultimate*goal*of* feminism*and*believes*that*the*modernYday*trend*is*to*ignore*sexual*differences*in* creating*professional*and*career*alternatives.*He,*however,*finds*that*the*creation*of* a*society*with*the*capabilities*of*entirely*ignoring*sexual*differences*is*unachievable* because*men*will*not*share*in*the*responsibilities*of*what*they*believe*to*be*
“women’s*work.”*Mansfield*explains,*“How*is*it*possible*that*men*will*let*women*do* men’s*work*but*not*reciprocate*and*do*women’s*work*when*women*are*perfectly* willing*to*let*them*do*it*–*when*women*even*invite*them*to*do*it?*The*answer*is*that* men*look*down*on*women’s*work.*They*look*down*on*it*not*because*they*think*it*is* dirty*or*boring*or*insignificant,*which*is*often*true*of*men’s*work;*they*look*down* on*it*because*it*is*women’s.”32*While*I*find*that*Mansfield*overgeneralizes*male*and* female*individual*opinions*towards*housework,*his*work*highlights*a*consequential* point.*As*our*society*moves*in*the*direction*of*greater*gender*equality,*it*will* inevitably*meet*some*resistance*by*those*biological*differences*that*would*stall* change*and*skew*outcomes.*Ultimately,*these*immutable*differences*make*the*goal* of*strict*neutrality*unobtainable.**
While*I*fail*to*see*manliness*as*the*most*important*distinguishing*biologically* sexYdifferentiated*characteristic,*as*explained*in*biosocial*constructionist*theory,* there*are*clearly*sexYdifferentiated*behaviors*that*influence*decisions*about* professional*and*domestic*work.*For*example,*while*Phillips*expresses*concerns*
******************************************************** 32*Mansfield,*Harvey*Claflin.*"The*GenderYNeutral*Society."*Manliness.*New*Haven:*Yale*UP,*2006.*Pg.* 7Y8*
* * * * 29* about*generalizing*female*affinity*for*child*rearing,*I*have*argued*that*women*are* generally*biologically*more*nurturing*than*men.**This*is*not*to*say*that*all*women* can*and*should*choose*to*be*stayYatYhome*mothers,*nor*to*say*that*all*men*should* choose*to*be*the*predominant*financial*provider*for*their*families*rather*than*being* stayYatYhome*fathers.*As*I*have*argued*previously,*numerous*factors*affect*people’s* preferences*and*selections,*and*biology*is*just*one;*however,*it*should*be*seen*as*a* valid*and*impactful*influencer.*So*if*a*woman*decides*to*stay*home*and*raise*her* children,*and*an*important*factor*influencing*this*decision*is*that*she*is*a*naturally* nurturing*person,*this*choice*should*be*respected*and*not*invalidated*to*further*the* goal*of*gender*neutrality.*
* Mansfield*also*explains*that*an*ethical*problem*with*attempting*to*realize*a* strict*genderYneutral*society*is*that*free*will*must*be*overridden*by*state*coercion*to* produce*equal*outcomes.*As*he*explains,**
“But*a*society*of*choice*could*not*be*one*where*it*does*not*matter*to*me*
whether,*say,*you*choose*to*be*manly*or*not.*If*it*were,*choice*would*be*
unimportant*even*though*it*is*put*forward*as*the*very*principle*of*human*life.*
In*such*a*society,*you*would*think*hard*about*what*to*choose*and*then*find*
that*your*effort*was*wasted;*there*are*no*consequences*to*choice,*or*choice*is*
of*no*consequence.*When*people*are*free*to*choose*how*they*live*regardless*
of*their*sex,*it*matters*how*they*choose*because*the*choice*affects*others;*the*
* * * * 30* choice*of*the*majority*rules*everyone.*Manliness*tends*to*be*insistent*and*
intolerant,*and*it*is*truly*a*threat*to*the*genderYneutral*society.”33***
If*people*are*free*to*make*their*own*choices,*and*those*selections*negatively*impact* the*strict*genderYneutral*agenda,*intervention*would*be*necessary*to*“correct”*those* choices.*Therefore,*any*gains*toward*gender*equality*would*be*made*at*the*expense* of*personal*freedom.*I*find*a*society*without*freedom*of*choice*to*be*immoral;*and* therefore*I*find*intervention*in*people’s*individual*choices*to*be*misguided.*State* intervention*could*be*utilized*to*influence*the*way*people*are*socialized*in*an* attempt*to*realize*a*strict*genderYneutral*society;*however,*it*could*not*change* biological*differences*and*the*sexYdifferentiated*preferences*and*choices*associated* with*those*differences.**Therefore,*even*if*the*right*to*freedom*of*choice*was* completely*violated*by*intervention*into*private*lives,*a*true*strict*genderYneutral* society*is*not*possible.**
* However,*biological*differences*can*only*explain*so*much.*As*Myers*describes,* men*and*women*are*more*psychologically*similar*than*different.*Therefore,*the* widely*genderedYunequal*outcomes*present*may*be*more*attributable*to*socialized* differences,*rather*than*biological*differences.*It*is*important*to*determine*the* societal*reinforcements*used*to*either*direct*or*limit*people’s*opportunities*in*order* to*eventually*realize*equality*of*opportunity.*Once*the*intent*of*reinforcements*is* discovered,*the*proper*course*of*action*to*remedy*inequalities*may*be*legal*recourse,* better*education,*or*societal*evolution.*
******************************************************** 33*Mansfield,*Pg.*16*
* * * * 31* iv.*Negative*vs.*Positive*Reinforcements*
One*issue*upon*which*my*theory*rests*is*equality*of*opportunity.*Can*certain* forms*of*socialization*negate*the*voluntary*nature*of*choices,*and*must*these*forms* of*socialization*be*limited*to*achieve*equality*of*opportunity?*I*contend*that* socialization*through*negative*reinforcements,*which*is*incompatible*with*CGN*
Theory,*includes*force*(such*as*physical*force,*threat*of*force,*fraud,*intimidation,* coercion,*etc.)*and*nonYforce*(the*most*prevalent*of*which*is*negative*stereotyping).*
Associated*emotions*include*fear*in*the*case*of*force,*and*guilt*and*shame*in*the*case* of*nonYforce.*While*the*state*is*the*best*tool*for*eliminating*forceful*negative* reinforcements,*there*are*two*possible*ways*in*which*nonYforce*negative* reinforcements*can*be*diminished:*state*intervention*and*the*natural*evolution*of* society.*States*can*work*in*tandem*with*social*movements*to*overcome*these*nonY force*negative*reinforcements,*or*one*or*the*other*can*be*utilized.**
One*example*of*how*socialization*can*lead*to*involuntary*adaptive* preferences*pertains*to*Islamic*societies*in*Arab*States.*In*many*of*these*Islamic* nations,*women*are*denied*even*minimal*equality*of*opportunity,*and*socialized* through*negative*reinforcement.*The*resulting*consequences*for*women*include* being*pressured*into*arranged*marriages,*being*restricted*from*unaccompanied* travel,*remaining*in*an*inferior*authoritative*position*to*men*inside*and*outside*the* household,*and*have*limited*educational*or*professional*options.*Not*surprisingly,*
* * * * 32* many*women*feel*threatened*and*choose*to*remain*in*the*home.34*This*is*clearly*a* violation*of*CGN*theory*because*many*Islamic*women’s*opportunities*are*limited* through*the*use*of*intimidation*and*force.**
A*second*example*is*a*person*trying*to*leave*a*religious*cult.*According*to*
Anderson*and*Zimbardo,*“Some*of*the*means*of*psychological*control*utilized*within* cults*include:*separation*from*familiar*surroundings,*deception,*creation*of* confusion,*social*isolation,*prohibitions*against*dissent*or*free*will,*induction*of*guilt,* the*offer*of*affection*that*is*dependent*on*compliance,*threats*of*harm,*and*creation* of*fear.”35*The*use*of*these*to*deceitful,*threatening,*and*fearYinducing*tactics*to* constrain*followers*is*abhorrent*socialization*methods*that*are*also*incompatible* with*CGN*Theory.*
A*third*example,*albeit*less*perverse,*which*limited*women’s*opportunities,* was*the*socialization*to*conform*to*1950’s*American*culture.**The*use*of*guilt*and* fear*of*the*unknown*to*pressure*women*into*finding*a*husband*and*becoming*stayY atYhome*mothers,*coupled*with*the*more*limited*constrained*educational*and* professional*opportunities,*also*conflicts*with*CGN*Theory.*By*inducing*fear*of*not* being*able*to*attain*financial*security*or*becoming*an*“old*maid,”*and*guilt*for* leaving*children*in*pursuit*of*a*career,*society*limited*women’s*actual*and*perceived* opportunities,*thus*denying*them*equality*of*opportunity.**Though*women*today* have*attained*a*higher*level*of*formal*and*informal*equality*of*opportunity,*many*
******************************************************** 34*"POLL:*Women's*Rights*in*the*Arab*World"*(2013).* 35*Anderson,*Susan*and*Phillip*Zimbardo,*“Resisting*Mind*Control”,,USA,Today,*Nov.*1980,*pg.*44Y47.*
* * * * 33* families*continue*to*recognize*the*traditional*family*structure,*and*many*women* continue*to*be*negatively*reinforced*to*conform*to*traditional*gender*norms*for*fear* of*disapproving*their*families.*This*limits*their*ability*to*seek*alternative*careers* and*lifestyles.*In*this*instance,*perhaps*societal*evolution,*not*state*intervention,*is* the*appropriate*means*for*affecting*change*in*gender*roles*as*the*limited* opportunities*were*due*to*the*use*of*nonYforce*negative*reinforcements.*
Positive*reinforcements*can*also*be*used*as*a*societal*technique*in* determining*choices;*however,*the*essential*difference*is*that*negative* reinforcements*are*involuntarily*imposed,*forcibly*limiting*opportunities,*whereas* positive*reinforcements*are*noncompulsory*attempts*to*influence*or*direct*choices.*
To*explain*the*use*of*positive*reinforcements,*a*hypothetical*scenario*can*be* constructive.*Let's*say*that*a*society*is*comprised*solely*of*two*groups:*people*with* ten*toes*and*people*with*eleven*toes.*Biologically,*aside*from*an*extra*toe,*these* groups*are*the*same;*however,*they*are*socialized*through*positive*reinforcements* to*have*different*societal*roles.*People*with*ten*toes*are*socialized*to*become* lawyers,*whereas*people*with*eleven*toes*are*socialized*to*become*janitors.*People* with*ten*toes*are*socialized*to*believe*that*the*legal*profession*is*one*that*other* people*with*ten*toes*enjoy,*and*thus*they*may*also*enjoy*it.*Additionally,*they*may* be*socialized*to*have*a*greater*legal*knowledge*if,*say,*one*or*both*of*their*parents* are*lawyers.*Similarly,*people*with*eleven*toes*are*taught*through*socialization*that* they*may*enjoy*the*janitorial*profession*because*other*elevenYtoed*people*also* enjoy*that*profession.*Nowhere*in*this*scenario*have*negative*reinforcements*been*
* * * * 34* used*to*limit*tenYtoed*peoples*career*alternatives*to*law*and*elevenYtoed*peoples*to* custodial*service;*any*tenYtoed*person*has*the*same*options*as*any*elevenYtoed* person*to*choose*a*different*profession.*CGN*Theory*stance*is*that*this*scenario*is* just.*Even*if*99.9*percent*of*tenYtoed*peoples*are*lawyers,*and*99.9*percent*of* elevenYtoed*people*are*janitors,*they*all*were*given*equal*opportunity*to*choose*a* different*career*path.*
A*real*world*example*of*registered*nurses*versus*automobile*mechanics*can* also*be*enlightening.*In*2007,*only*8.8*percent*of*registered*nurses*were*men,*and* only*1.7*percent*of*automobile*mechanics*were*women.*These*professions,*because* of*their*unequal*gender*compositions,*are*considered*sexYtyped.*Supporters*of*strict* genderYneutrality*find*these*sexYtyped*professions*to*be*symptomatic*of*gendered* unequal*opportunities.*I*refute*this*conclusion.*Simply*because*a*man*receives* positive*societal*reinforcement*for*his*choice*to*be*an*auto*mechanic,*does*not*mean* his*opportunities*to*enter*another*profession*are*somehow*limited.*Similarly,* merely*because*a*women*prefers*to*care*for*others*and*is*socialized*to*think*that* she*would*likely*be*good*at*and*would*enjoy*being*a*registered*nurse*does*not* diminish*her*career*alternatives.*Negative*societal*reinforcements*indoctrinate* people*with*the*belief*that*there*will*be*adverse*consequences*if*they*make* particular*choices.*As*long*as*positive*societal*reinforcements*express*the*benefits* of*making*certain*choices*but*do*not*demean*other*selections,*opportunities*are*not* limited.*Therefore,*the*use*of*positive*reinforcements*meshes*with*CGN*Theory* because*it*does*not*infringe*equality*of*opportunity.**
* * * * 35* There*is*a*question*raised*through*this*discussion*of*equality*of* opportunity:*What*about*outcomes?*Even*if*equality*of*opportunity*exists,*could* socialization*still*produce*gendered*inequality*of*outcome?*My*answer*to*this*is:*
Certainly,*but*central*to*CGN*Theory*is*that*inequality*of*outcome*is*not*gender* injustice*if*equality*of*opportunity*is*intact.*If*an*unequal*outcome*arises*as*a*result* of*opportunities*limited*by*negative*reinforcement,*this*is*a*violation*of*CGN*Theory* and*I*find*it*to*be*an*unjust*outcome.*If*on*the*other*hand,*outcomes*are*unequal*but* no*negative*reinforcements*were*used*to*limit*one’s*possibilities,*I*contend*the* situation*must*be*analyzed*to*determine*intentionality*and*the*possibility*of* freedom*of*choice.*By*this*I*mean,*though*only*positive*reinforcements*where*used,* was*there*negative*intention*behind*those*reinforcements?*If*so,*this*cannot*be* accepted*by*CGN*theory,*because*those*positive*reinforcements*are*used*with*the* negative*intent*to*limit*opportunities.*Also,*did*the*inculcation*of*positive* reinforcements*consequently*lead*to*a*lack*of*knowledge*of*alternatives?*If*so,* education*would*be*necessary*to*inform*the*person*of*all*of*their*options.*To* provide*an*example,*let’s*say*a*young*woman*is*raised*in*a*religious*home*where*her* parents*encourage*exclusively*a*woman’s*rightful*place*in*the*home.*Throughout* this*young*woman’s*life,*she*has*received*nothing*but*positive*reinforcement,*but* because*of*her*parent’s*inculcation*of*one*particular*outcome,*she*has*no*knowledge* of*her*other*options,*and*she*may*also*fear*the*loss*of*familial*support*if*she*chooses* a*different*outcome.**In*this*case,*in*order*for*CGN*Theory*to*be*supported,*better* education*would*be*necessary*to*give*this*woman*every*option*to*make*informed* decisions.**
* * * * 36* State*Intervention**
CGN*Theory*asserts*that*state*intervention*is*necessary*to*offset*the*use*of* negative*reinforcements,*which*infringe*equality*of*opportunity.*Additionally,*CGN*
Theory*calls*for*legal*institutions*to*be*in*place*to*appropriately*prosecute*negative* reinforcements*such*as*threat*of*force,*force,*fear,*fraud,*intimidation,*or*coercion,*in* limiting*peoples’*opportunities.*Once*negative*reinforcements,*positive* reinforcements*with*negative*intention,*and*the*inculcation*of*positive* reinforcements*are*diminished,*residual*inequalities*in*outcome*would* predominantly*be*the*result*of*biological*sex*differences*and*socialization*through* positive*reinforcements.*Furthermore,*these*residual*inequalities*that*are*justified* by*CGN*Theory*will*be*lessened*as*the*result*societal*evolution,*which*has*already* begun*as*we*have*seen*through*the*aforementioned*data.*I*contend*that*the*use*of* state*intervention*to*make*corrections*to*provide*equal*outcomes*may*not*be* justified*because*it*would*interfere*with*freedom*of*association*and*freedom*of* contract.*Though*I*concede*that*state*policies*can*and*do*spark*social*change,*in*the* long*run,*perhaps*social*movements*and*societal*evolution*may*be*more*efficacious* than*state*policy*in*producing*gendered*equal*outcomes.*As*Gheaus*confirms*in*
“Gender*Justice”,*“There*are*serious*limitations*to*what*can*be*achieved*by*changing* laws*and*reshaping*institutions.*A*lot*of*change*is*possible*only*if*it*happens*through* individual*transformation*as*well*as*through*individuals’*interactions.*There*are* good*reasons*to*believe*that*the*main*agents*of*gender*justice*are*individuals,*rather*
* * * * 37* than*states*and*institutions.”36**
CGN*Theory*In*Practice:*Rogers*and*Wright*
Mansfield*voices*one*of*the*major*concerns*of*a*gender*unequal*society*when* he*says,*“To*the*woman*always*at*home,*her*husband*is*absent*during*the*day*and* sometimes*longer,*engaged*in*activity*that*is*more*lucrative,*more*interesting,*and* more*important*than*hers*–*while*the*children*remain*with*her,*all*too*present*and* everYdemanding,*a*constant*worry*and*a*constant*occupation”37*Many*feminists’* actual*motive*is*eradicating*the*preponderance*of*women*who*forego*their*careers* in*order*to*perform*most*of*the*domestic*and*childcare*duties*in*their*households.*
Similar*to*Okin,*Wright*and*Rogers*suggest*three*strategies*that*they*believe,*when* utilized*collectively,*would*equalize*domestic*responsibilities*between*men*and* women,*thus*promoting*equality:*pay*equity,*universal*childcare,*and*paid*parental* leaves.*I*will*address*each*strategy*within*the*framework*of*a*contextual*genderY neutral*social*scheme.*
*i.*Pay*Equity*
Wright*and*Rogers*see*two*separate*issues*within*the*discussion*of*pay* equity:*equal*pay*for*identical*work*and*equal*pay*for*equivalent*work.*They* advance*that*implementation*of*equal*pay*for*equivalent*work*is*the*most*pertinent* to*the*gender*justice*discussion*and*would*provide*the*greatest*advancement*in* achieving*gender*equal*outcomes.*They*believe*that*two*potential*consequences*of* ******************************************************** 36*Gheaus*p.*23* 37*Mansfield,*Pg.3*
* * * * 38* equal*pay*for*equivalent*work*support*this*outcome.*First,*it*leads*to*an*eventual* desegregation*of*sexYtyped*occupations,*professional*and*domestic*work*included,* by*encouraging*men*to*pursue*traditionally*female*jobs.*And,*second,*it*would* equalize*men*and*women’s*average*earnings.38**
*I*submit*there*are*several*troubling*issues*with*the*equalization*of*pay*for* equivalent*work.*First,*considering*monetary*reward*as*the*only*benefit*people* receive*from*their*work*undermines*the*reasons*why*people*choose*particular* types*of*work*as*well*as*individual*preferences.*A*study*of*640,000*people’s*job* preferences*showed*that,*“...men*more*than*women*value*earnings,*promotion,* challenge,*and*power,*whereas*women*more*than*men*value*good*hours,*personal* relationships,*and*opportunities*to*help*others.”39*Additional*studies*have*shown* that,*“Worldwide,*women’s*vocational*interest,*compared*with*men’s,*usually*relate* more*to*people*and*less*to*things.”40*To*evaluate*job*satisfaction*only*in*terms*of* remuneration*is*to*ignore*the*many*reasons*people*choose*their*careers.*Second,* though*Wright*and*Rogers*concede*that*there*are*numerous*conditions*under*which* people*in*relationships*make*informed*decisions*and*tradeYoffs*affecting*their* careers,*they*find*that*public*policy*can*be*used*to*correct*what*they*see*as*a*power* play*between*men*and*women*over*who*will*be*the*familial*resource*provider.*
Wright*and*Rogers*concede*that*biological*and*social*factors*influence*peoples’* career*choices,*yet*declare*those*decisions*to*be*completely*monetarily*driven.*In*
******************************************************** 38*Wright*and*Rogers,*pgs.*327Y328* 39*Myers,*pg.*136* 40*Ibid*
* * * * 39* doing*so,*they*are*actually*ignoring*the*biological*sexYdifferentiated*behaviors*that* allow*men*and*women*to*adapt*to*the*changing*conditions*surrounding*raising*a* family.*As*I*have*argued,*the*gender*roles*that*place*women*as*caregivers*and*men* as*resource*providers*are*formulated*by*means*of*longYestablished,*relatively*static* biological*and*social*adapted*processes,*and*it*would*be*unsound*to*attempt*to* override*them*using*public*policy.*It*is*my*belief,*and*the*data*supports,*that*the* evolution*of*society*will*and*in*fact*has*already*begun*to*change*gender*roles,* bringing*society*closer*to*pay*equity*through*voluntary*means.*
ii.*Universal*Childcare*
Wright*and*Rogers*support*a*universal*childcare*system*to*alleviate*the* burden*of*early*childhood*care*for*working*parents.*As*they*argue,*“Without*such* services,*the*responsibility*of*providing*caregiving*to*children*falls*entirely*on*the* family,*and*in*practice*this*generally*means*mainly*on*mothers.*This*burden*of* responsibility*in*turn,*undermines*the*kinds*of*jobs*women*with*families*can*seek* and*the*hours*they*can*work,*and*it*increases*the*difficulty*of*moving*toward*an* equal*sharing*of*responsibilities*within*the*family.”41*I*certainly*support*employers* voluntarily*providing*childcare*services*to*employees*and*see*the*growth*of*such* services*as*evidence*of*societal*evolution;*but*on*the*other*hand,*I*am*unsure*that* forced*provision*of*universal*childcare*is*the*appropriate*response*to*residual* unequal*outcomes.*In*particular,*the*state*enforcement*of*employers*to*provide* childcare*would*violate*their*right*to*contract,*and*it*is*unclear*whether*the*
******************************************************** 41*Wright*and*Rogers,*pg.*329*
* * * * 40* replacement*of*certain*freedoms*with*other*freedoms*can*be*justified.*Also,*Wright* and*Olin’s*claim*that*childcare*is*not*solely*the*family’s*responsibility*confounds*me.*
Excluding*certain*exceptions*(e.g.,*illegal*child*abandonment),*the*norm,*biologically* and*socially,*is*for*the*family*to*care*for*its*children,*or*to*hire*childcare*providers.*I* reiterate*that*seeing*the*responsibility*of*childcare*as*a*burden*and*the* responsibility*of*providing*resources*as*a*benefit*misconstrues*what*men*and* women*truly*value.**Demeaning*childcare*to*the*point*where*children*are*seen*as*a* burden*misinterprets*why*couples*choose*to*have*children.**
Unlike*couples*who*dictate*their*own*familial*responsibilities,*for*single* mothers*childcare*is*disproportionately*burdensome*and*truly*limits*their* opportunities.*This*is*both*an*issue*of*formal*and*informal*equality*of*opportunity,* rather*than*an*issue*in*outcomes.*A*woman*may*be*socialized*into*the*female*gender* role,*in*which*she*does*the*brunt*of*the*domestic*work,*and*then*circumstances*may* create*a*situation*where*her*partner*is*no*longer*sharing*in*the*familial* responsibilities.*This,*in*turn,*creates*a*situation*in*which*single*mothers*may*need* to*engage*in*outside*employment*in*order*to*afford*childcare*as*well*as*the*typical* expenses*of*raising*children.*I*believe*many*causes*of*single*motherhood*–* absenteeism,*death,*or*divorce*–*can*be*addressed*by*legal*actions*capable*of* rectifying*unequal*outcomes.*In*the*case*of*absenteeism,*the*absentee*parent*should* be*legally*required*to*provide*full*and*timely*child*support.*To*address*partner* death,*people*may*acquire*life*insurance.*PostYdivorce*consequences,*including* alimony*and*child*support,*can*be*dealt*with*before*the*fact*using*a*prenuptial*
* * * * 41* agreement*or*as*part*of*an*adjudicated*divorce*settlement.*The*problems*with* these*legal*forms*of*rectification*are*twofold:*either*people*do*not*take*advantage*of* the*formal*remedies*provided*to*them,*or*they*are*not*enforced.*In*the*former*case,* an*unequal*outcome*would*be*the*result*of*individual*preferences*in*deciding*to*opt* out*of*utilizing*these*options.*In*the*latter*case,*legal*settlements*must*be*fully* enforced*to*protect*the*rights*of*those*who*fall*under*those*agreements,*and*to* qualify*under*my*definition*of*gender*justice.*Thus,*were*single*mothers*able*to* receive*equitable*compensation*provided*through*either*child*support,*alimony,*or* life*insurance,*or*the*like,*I*find*this*disproportionate*burden*would*be*greatly* diminished.*Residual*inequity*in*opportunities*may*then*be*then*be*dealt*with* through*state*policy*measures*such*as*the*provision*of*childcare,*but*should*be* specific*to*providing*single*mothers*opportunities*equal*to*coYparents.*** *
iii.*Paid*Parental*Leave*
* Wright*and*Rogers*argue*that*legal*requirements*for*paid*parental*leaves* would*impact*the*gendered*division*of*labor.*They*argue*that,*in*countries*that* currently*provide*paid*leaves,*mothers*take*more*time*off,*but*fathers*are* progressively*taking*more*time*off*as*well.*Paid*leaves,*they*say,*help*parents* balance*familial*and*professional*responsibilities,*thus*increasing*equality.42*I* conclude*that*requiring*paid*parental*leaves*may*not*bring*the*desired*effect.*As*I* previously*argued,*women*are*biologically*and*socially*inclined*to*be*nurturing* caregivers.*As*a*result,*they*are*more*likely*than*men*to*take*parental*leave.*The*
******************************************************** 42*Wright*and*Rogers,*pgs.*329Y330*
* * * * 42* assumption*that,*when*given*the*choice,*men*will*also*take*parental*leaves,* discounts*these*biological*and*social*factors.*That*is*not*to*say*that*all*men*will*be* disinclined*to*take*parental*leave;*nevertheless,*state*enforcement*of*parental*leave* cannot*replace*the*natural*evolution*of*society*in*changing*the*way*men*think*about* their*familial*responsibilities*of*domestic*work*and*childcare.*I*see*that*employers* are*making*progressive*changes*to*implement*better*parental*leave*policies*as*they* seek*to*retain*women*employees.*I*also*see*state*required*paid*parental*leaves*as* circumventing*certain*freedoms*for*others.*By*forcing*employers*to*provide*paid* leaves,*the*state*undermines*employer’s*freedom*of*association*and*freedom*of* contract,*which*I*am*unconvinced*is*permissible*in*exchange*for*attempting*to* create*equal*gender*outcomes.*
CONCLUSION* I*have*argued,*contrary*to*comprehensive*liberal*feminist*belief,*that*strict* gender*neutrality*does*not*provide*the*greatest*level*of*gender*justice.*Rather,*I* have*posited*that*contextual*gender*neutrality,*which*judges*outcomes*in*the* context*of*the*opportunities,*individual*preferences,*and*biological*sexYdifferences* that*influence*them,*provides*the*greatest*level*of*gender*justice.*Furthermore,*I* have*submitted*that*a*biosocial*constructionist*theory*of*sexYdifferential*behavior* provides*the*most*accurate*explanation*of*the*impact*of*both*biologically*evolved* mechanisms*and*socialization*on*behavior*development.**I*then*utilized*this*theory* to*describe*certain*gendered*unequal*outcomes*that*are*observed.*Similarly,*I*have* argued*that*observed*unequal*outcomes*might*be*the*result*of*individual*and* adaptive*choice.*I*have*also*argued*that,*while*CGN*Theory*provides*for*equal*
* * * * 43* opportunities,*opportunities*must*be*analyzed*in*the*context*of*the*negative*or* positive*reinforcements*that*limit*or*direct*those*opportunities.*So*long*as*only* positive*reinforcements*are*present,*CGN*Theory’s*premise*that*unequal*outcomes* can*be*just*is*realized.*In*the*case*that*forceYrelated*negative*reinforcements* suppress*equality*of*opportunity,*the*correct*role*for*the*state*is*to*protect* individual*rights.*If*nonYforce*related*negative*reinforcements*are*present,*or* positive*reinforcements*with*negative*intent,*CGN*Theory*would*require*societal* evolution*and*better*education*as*the*proper*recourse.*Finally,*I*have*argued*that* under*CGN*Theory,*state*intervention*is*necessary*to*protect*individuals*against* force*when*it*is*used*to*limit*opportunities,*but*may*not*be*justified*in*equalizing* outcomes.*Such*state*involvement*used*to*alter*outcomes*would*unjustly*disregard* biological*sexYdifferential*behavior*and*the*efficacy*of*individual*preferences*and* free*choice,*and*would*violate*other*freedoms*such*as*right*to*association*and*right* to*contract.*I*believe*the*more*appropriate*avenue*for*diminishing*nonYforce* negative*reinforcements*with*the*expectation*of*longYterm*change*is*societal* evolution.**Returning*to*the*data*presented*at*the*beginning*of*this*paper,*we*can* see*that*substantial*societal*evolution*has*taken*place*within*the*last*few*decades.*
The*way*that*society*values*genderYspecific*roles*has*changed,*thus*promoting*the* proliferation*of*women*in*the*work*force,*but*many*barriers*remain*that*limit* women’s*career*opportunities*and*can’t*be*explained*away*by*biology*and* individual*or*adaptive*preferences.*These*inequities*in*opportunity*must*be* mitigated*through*state*intervention,*better*education*or*societal*evolution*before*
CGN*Theory*can*be*realized.**
* * * * 44* Though*I*have*addressed*several*of*the*issues*surrounding*gender*justice,* there*is*certainly*an*opportunity*for*further*research*and*theory*formulation.*In* particular,*I*did*not*address*the*subject*of*cost.*Gheaus*argues*in*“Gender*Justice”* for*a*systematic*determination*of*gender*justice*through*the*analysis*of*associated* costs*and*benefits,*not*only*for*individuals*but*also*for*society*as*a*whole.*She* argues*that*gender*norms*make*certain*choices*less*costly*for*women,*such*as* becoming*the*primary*child*caregiver,*and*certain*choices*less*costly*for*men,*such* as*being*the*primary*breadwinners*in*the*family.*Gheaus’*theory*of*gender*justice* follows*the*principle*that,*“gender*justice*requires*that*nobody*should*be*expected* to*carry*higher*overall*burdens,*or*enjoy*lesser*benefits*than*others,*without*due* compensation,*simply*because*of*their*gender.”43*Because*of*socialized*gender*roles,* she*finds*that*costs*are*unduly*imposed*upon*men*and*women,*and*thus*cannot*be* just.*Further*research*could*compare*and*contrast*CGN*Theory*with*Gheaus’*theory* of*gender*justice.**
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* ******************************************************** 43*Gheaus,*pg.*5*
* * * * 45* LIST*OF*REFERENCES*
Anderson,*Susan*and*Phillip*Zimbardo.*(1980,*Nov).**“Resisting*Mind*Control”,,USA, Today,*44Y47.*
Baehr,*Amy*R.*and*Edward*N.*Zalta*(ed.).*(2013).*“Liberal*Feminism.”*The,Stanford, Encyclopedia,of,Philosophy,,Winter*2013*edition.*
Eagly,*Alice*H.,*and*Wendy*Wood.*(1999).*"The*Origins*of*Sex*Differences*in*Human* Behavior:*Evolved*Dispositions*versus*Social*Roles."*American,Psychologist,,Singer,* 54(6),*408Y23.** Eagly,*Alice*H.,*and*Wendy*Wood.*(2002).*"A*CrossYcultural*Analysis*of*the*Behavior* of*Women*and*Men:*Implications*for*the*Origins*of*Sex*Differences."*Psychological, Bulletin,*Singer,*128(5),*699Y727.*
Eagly,*Alice*H.,*and*Wendy*Wood.*(2011).*"Feminism*and*the*Evolution*of*Sex* Differences*and*Similarities."*Sex,Roles,*Springer,*64(9Y10),*758Y67.**
Gheaus,*Anca.*(2012).*"Gender*Justice."*Journal,of,Ethics,and,Social,Philosophy,*6(1),* 1Y24.* Levey,*Ann.*(2005).*"Liberalism,*Adaptive*Preferences,*and*Gender*Equality."* Hypatia,*20(4),*127Y43.* Mansfield,*Harvey*Claflin.*(2006).*"The*GenderYNeutral*Society."*Manliness.*New* Haven:*Yale*UP.** Myers,*David*G.*(2014).*Exploring,Social,Psychology.*7th*ed.*New*York:*McGraw*Hill.**
Phillips,*Anne.*(2004).*"Defending*Equality*of*Opportunity."*The,Journal,of,Political, Philosophy,*12(1),*1Y19.* Thomas*Reuters*Foundation.*(2013,*Nov*12).*"POLL:*Women's*Rights*in*the*Arab* World."* Wright,*Erik*Olin,*and*Joel*Rogers.*(2011).*American,Society:,How,It,Really,Works.* New*York:*W.W.*Norton.*
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