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2018-12-21 Informal Settlement in Lagos State: A Framework for Investigating Housing Quality
Fasakin, Temitope Oluwole
Fasakin, T. O. (2018). Informal Settlement in Lagos State: A Framework for Investigating Housing Quality (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary. AB. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/109406 master thesis
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UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY
Informal Settlement in Lagos State: A Framework for Investigating Housing Quality
by
Temitope Oluwole Fasakin
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN
GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN
CALGARY, ALBERTA
DECEMBER, 2018
©Temitope Oluwole Fasakin 2018 ii
Acknowledgements
It is obligatory on me to express my sincere gratitude to many people who played pivotal roles in encouraging me all along my journey to reach my goal of a master’s degree. Sweet regards to my parents and siblings who constantly pushed me to better myself each day.
Thank you, my supervisors, Dr. Graham Livesey and Dr. Joseph Fadamiro. You have both inspired and supported me from the beginning of my journey into University of Calgary. It was a privilege to work with you.
It was indeed a rare opportunity to meet some great friends I encountered in Calgary. I can’t start mentioning names, but I acknowledge your roles.
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Abstract
Ajegunle is one of the most popular areas in Lagos, Nigeria. Known for its high concentration of poverty and sprawling informal settlements, this area served as the site of analysis for this study.
More specifically, the housing conditions within an informal settlement area of Ajegunle was analyzed in order to assess the quality and durability of the housing structures, the quality of the living conditions in the immediate environment of the neighborhood, and the overall quality of life of the inhabitants in the Ajegunle area. The aforementioned areas were assessed using the guidelines of the UN Habitat (2015), which presents conditions to determine areas of informal settlement. The factors include absence or limited: access to improved water; access to improved sanitation facilities; sufficient living space; adequate structural quality or durability; and security of living tenure. Based on the findings of this study, Ajegunle is an informal settlement area, since it meets the aforementioned criteria listed by UN Habitat (2015). In order to mitigate these conditions, the federal and local governments, with the assistance of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) will need to enact enduring measures that can improve the quality of living of residents in these areas.
iv
List of Abbreviations
CSO Civil Society Organization
GPRS Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy
GDP Gross Domestic Product
IDP Internally Displaced Peoples
IHS Informal Housing Settlements
LCPS Lagos Central Planning Scheme
LEDB Lagos Executive Development Board
LASG Lagos State Government
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
PHCN Power Holding Company of Nigeria
SRI Socio-Economic Rights Initiative
SUD Strategic Urban Development
UN- Habitat United Nation Habitat
UNDP United Nation Developmental Program
UNHRC United Nations Human Refugee Commission
UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
UN MDG United Nations Millennium Development Goals
UNW-DPAC UN Water Decade Programme on Advocacy and Communication
WB Word Bank
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements...... iii Abstract……...... iv List of Abbreviations………...... v Table of Contents…...... vi List of Figures ……...... ix List of Tables………...... x Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background ………....……………………………………………………….…………1 1.2 Research Problem…...…………………………………………………………………...2 1.3 Research Purpose and Objectives ..…………………………………………………….3 1.4 Research Questions...…………………………………………………………………….3 1.5 Delimitations of the Study…...…………………………………………………………..4 1.6 Justification and Significance of the Study ...…………………………………………..4 1.6.1 Definition of terms…..…………….……………………………………………..5 1.7 Methodology .....…………………………………………………………………………8 1.7.1 Framework for Analysis….....………………………………………………….11 1.8 Structure of the Study……...…………………………………………………………..12 Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Historical Context of Lagos State …………..………………………………………..13 2.2 General Description of Ajegunle ……………………….…………………………...15 2.3 Historical Analysis of Housing in Lagos… ...………………………………………….16 2.3.1 Housing Conditions in Lagos Slums…….. ...………………………………….18 2.3.2 Housing Structures and Materials. ……………………………………………21 2.3.3 Efforts to Improving Housing Quality…... ..…………………………………..22 2.3.4 From Informal to Formalized Settlements ..…………………………………..23 2.4 Housing Policy Reform in Lagos… ...………………………………………………….25 2.4.1 The Lagos Central Planning Scheme……. ………………………………..…..25 2.4.2 The Post-Independence Era of Urban Renewal in Metropolitan Lagos .…...26 2.4.3 The Land Use Act of 1978... ……………………………………………………27 vi
2.5 Challenges in Housing Provision… …………………………………………………....28 2.5.1 Climate Change…… ….………………………………………………………...29 2.5.2 Natural Disasters….. ……………………………………………………………33 Chapter 3 Study Framework 3.1 Framework …………………………………………………………………………....35 3.2 Mediating Variable Theory ..…………………………………………………………..36 3.3 Population Dynamics……... ……………………………………………………………38 3.4 Factors Affecting Population Dynamics… ...………………………………………….39 3.5 Lagos Physical Environment and Infrastructure ...………………………………….41 3.6 Impact of Population on Land and Resource Degradation……....………………….43 3.7 Strategies to Mitigate Resource Degradation…… .……………………………...……46 Chapter 4 Case Study: Ajegunle 4.1 Description… ……………………………………………………………….…………...49 4.1.1 Congestion, Poverty, and Crime (Quality of Life) ....…………………………50 4.2 Neighborhood and Environmental Conditions….……………………...…….………52 4.2.1a Commercial Space... ……………………….…………………...... …...53 4.2.1b Community Infrastructure. ..…………………………………………………..55 4.2.2 Interior Space (Insufficient Living Space) ...………………………………….60 4.2.3 External Building Structure……….…………………………….……..……...61 4.3 Accessibility .……………………………….……………………………….…..…..….65 4.4 ‘Ghetto’ Culture…... …………………….….…………………………….…...……..…67 4.5 Summary of Findings…….. …..……………………………………………...….……..69 Chapter 5 Recommendations For Improving Living Standard of Lagos Informal Settlement 5.1 Current Consideration for Urban Regeneration.. ,.………………………………..…71 5.2 The Needs of Informal Settlement Residents…… …………………………………....73 5.2.1 Access to Improved Water ……………………………………………………75 5.2.2 Access to Improved Sanitation Facilities... ..………………………………..…76 5.2.3 Sufficient Living Space…… ….………………………………………………...78 5.2.4 Quality and Durability of Housing Structure…... ..…………………..………80 5.2.5 Security of Housing Tenure ….……………………………………………..….82 vii
5.3 Local Upgrading Initiatives …...………………………………………………….……86 5.4 Global Assessment and Resulting Initiatives…… ...…………….……………………87 5.5 Conclusion… ...... ………………………………………………………………………..89 References…. ....…………………...………...…………………………………………………..91
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List of Figures Figure 1.1: Research Design Flow Chart ...... ……………………………………………………..10 Figure 2.2: Map of Nigeria showing Lagos, the case study site ..……………….…….………14 Figure 2.3: Map of Lagos State and the Greater Lagos Metropolitan Area…….....…………..15 Figure 4.1: Map of Ajegunle……. ..……………………………………………….….……………..49 Figure 4.2.1: Goods store along a dirt road in Ajegunle… ..……………………….…..…………54 Figure 4.2.2: Goods store with brooms for sale in Ajegunle……… ...………………..….….……54 Figure 4.2.3: Large black water holding tanks are prevalent in Ajegunle.. ..………….………...56 Figure 4.2.4: A cracked blue water holding tank renders the water susceptible to being tainted ..……………………………………………………………………………………56 Figure 4.2.5: Refuse is thrown about a walkway, flanked by residences on either side …....57 Figure 4.2.6: Refuse is piled up in still water, likely from previous days’ rain…….……….……57 Figure 4.2.7: A large quantity of refuse has gathered alongside a residence…….. ..……………58 Figure 4.2.8: A public latrine made of corrugated iron sheets that are often used for housing roofs. Refuse is thrown about the area in the background…. ..…………………….58 Figure 4.2.9: A view showing a bad road and abandoned truck used for carrying wastes ……59 Figure 4.2.10: Floor plan of a typical bungalow-style residence in Ajegunle…….. ………...…60 Figure 4.2.11.: External depiction of an intact bungalow style house…….. ..………………….62 Figure 4.2.12: A row of bungalow style houses in various states of disrepair……... ………….…62 Figure 4.2.13: An abandoned bungalow with a partially collapsed roof, now being used as a communal space……. ….………………………………………………….…..………..62 Figure 4.2.14: Two bungalow style homes that are complete and display little signs of Disrepair……. ……………………………………………………………….…………..63 Figure 4.2.15: View showing an entrance of a bungalow building... ….…………………………..63 Figure 4.2.16: View showing buildings that has been isolated due to flood ……………………..64 Figure 4.3.1: A makeshift bridge allows residents to move about Ajegunle without coming in contact with refuse strewn puddles ...………………………………………………66 Figure 4.3.2: Local residents walk past open water areas that are littered with refuse…. .….67 Figure 4.3.3: Typical untarred road littered with refuse. (Source: Field Observation, 2018)…67 Figure 4.4.1: Rear view of a Lexus Jeep in front of a residence in Ajegunle…….. ...……..…..68
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List of Tables Table 1.1: Table of objectives…. ….………………………………...………………………10 Table 2.1: Ways in which climate change impacts urban areas Source .………….……..…31 Table 2.2: Detailed summary of the known effects of weather and climate on urban health 32 Table 3.1: Relationship between the developmental status of a region and the per capita income of that region ………………………………………………………...….41
Running head: SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 1
Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.1 Background
Lagos is the largest city in Africa, with over 20 million residents in its metropolitan area
(World Atlas, 2017). The city’s dense population can be attributed to its attractive location and rich history. The location of Lagos, along Africa’s coast, ensures the city’s economic viability as a hub for trading (Kazeem, 2016). Additionally, as the former capital of Nigeria, administrative buildings and offices are still actively used in Lagos. In total, Lagos contributes to approximately 39% of Nigeria’s overall gross domestic product (GDP) (Olajide, 2015). The possibility of gainful employment has attracted people from Nigeria and other locations to settle in Lagos, which has vastly affected quality of life for residents in the city. As asserted by
Aluko (2010), given that Lagos is the most populated state in Nigeria, the housing conditions of its inhabitants should be researched in order to have a better understanding of the structure of the urban housing market in the region. The scattered concentration of informal settlements are of great concern to researchers, government officials, and other vested parties, as these structures are of substandard quality, which can negatively impact residents in both the short and long term.
Informal settlements having been increasing across Nigeria, which have negatively impacted established or planned settlements in many cities, specifically Lagos. The exponential increase of inhabitants in a city leads to a reduction in the proper functioning in a society, which contributes to a deterioration in infrastructure and subpar service provision by city authorities
(de Sherbinin, Carr, Cassels,& Jiang, 2007). The rise in informal settlements in Lagos has contributed to the deterioration of housing quality, with factors such as overpopulation and inadequate basic amenities plaguing these areas (Majale, 2002). Once the housing quality of a settlement deteriorates, those with the financial means to move are likely to seek a better quality SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 2 of life elsewhere, leaving the settlement susceptible to squatters and even more slum-like conditions.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the informal settlement of Ajegunle in Lagos,
Nigeria in order to analyze the factors that have contributed to the establishment and expansion of this type of housing. Further, information gleaned from this study will be applied when developing a planned action to prevent or reduce the formation of informal settlements in
Lagos.
1.2 Research Problem
According to Morka (2007), over two-thirds of Lagos’ population lives in informal settlements or slums. Statistics indicate that many families live in overcrowded conditions, at an average density of 3 persons per room (Morka, 2007). There are approximately 200 slum neighborhoods in Lagos, which range from clusters of shacks formed underneath highways to entire housing districts such as Ajegunle, Maroko, and Mushin (Gandy, 2006).The overcrowding has not only led to poor quality of life conditions; these neighborhoods are also susceptible to high levels of crime, poor health conditions, and other societal scourges (UN
Habitat, 2016).
The Lagos Executive Development Board (LEDB), which has been overseeing the establishment and maintenance of housing settlements in Lagos for the past sixty years, has been relatively ineffective in its attempts to quell the expansion of informal settlements (Gandy,
2006). Attempts to evict squatters from informal settlements have been ineffective and have contributed to the establishment of informal settlements in other regions (Ilesanmi, 2012). As a result, rather than having impoverished conditions concentrated in one isolated informal settlement area, increased pollution and crime rates are plaguing Lagos as a whole since informal settlement sites are scattered throughout the city. The problem of informal settlements is not just specific to Lagos; rather, it is a worldwide issue. As stated by Lindiwe Sisulu, South SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 3
Africa’s minister of human settlements, “if one out of every seven people in the world lives in slums, then it is a clear and present problem. And it’s not just a present problem: It’s a present, continuous problem” (Bosworth, 2016, para. 2).
There is a need for a comprehensive approach that can diminish or prevent the expansion of informal settlements, as well as ameliorate the resulting outcomes of these living situations.
Currently, there is a gap with respect to research in this area. The current study intends to fill this gap by addressing the underlying issues that contribute to informal settlements as well as constructing a framework for improved housing quality and neighborhood living conditions.
1.3 Research Purpose and Objectives
The purpose of this project is to examine the contributing factors to and the effects of informal settlements in Lagos, Nigeria. The specific objectives include:
o Identify the different areas that are considered informal settlements in Lagos
o Examine how housing in Lagos informal settlements is constructed
o Examine the impact of informal settlements on living conditions in Ajegunle
o Examine potential approaches that can be adopted in order to ameliorate the
living conditions in existing informal settlements, as well as establishing more
formalized housing settlement areas
1.4 Research Questions
The research questions guiding this study are as follows:
o What are the different types of informal settlements in Lagos, Nigeria?
o How are these informal settlements constructed?
o What are the contributing factors that lead to the establishment of informal
settlements in Lagos?
o Which approaches can be implemented in order to facilitate resettlement and
upgrading of informal structures in Lagos? SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 4
1.5 Delimitations of the Study
This study will provide an analysis of the factors contributing to informal settlements in
Lagos, as well as the resulting outcomes of these settlements. The research supporting this study will be limited to reviewing the history and development of informal settlements in Lagos
State. As the most densely populated state in Nigeria, the multiple industries that are concentrated in Lagos lead to a constant influx of migrants seeking a better life. Specifically, the patterns of these settlements, and their characteristics, effects on housing quality, and overall quality of life for their inhabitants, as well as existing strategies being implemented by government and other social service agencies to ameliorate these issues, will be examined.
However, due to insufficient financial resources, insecurity, and limits to accessible information, it is impossible to assess every informal settlement in Lagos State. To minimize these complications, the researcher will focus on the physical environment of Ajegunle as the case study to provide insight into informal settlements in Lagos State. Ajegunle is the most populated slum in Lagos State, comprising of over 12% of the total area of identified slums in
Lagos State (Olajide, 2010). The characteristics of Ajegunle and the sheer volume of societal issues that its inhabitants face provide rich context for this study. Using this neighborhood as a case study will provide an exemplar of many of the informal settlements that share similar characteristics. In the researcher’s future study of this area, interview and questionnaires would be added to the methodology in order to provide deeper understanding of the quality of the inhabitants in Ajegunle.
1.6 Justification and Significance of the Study
Examining the factors contributing to informal settlements, as well as the resulting outcomes of living within these environments, provides insight into the problems that affect millions of people worldwide. Highlighting these problematic conditions can aid in finding long-term, sustainable solutions that will benefit generations of people in the present and the SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 5 future. Understanding the problems faced by inhabitants of informal settlements will aid in the identification and implementation of methods for revitalizing informal settlements without further compounding the stress experienced by residents of these areas.
This research will also consider the potential implications of low-quality housing, which includes negative social, political, economic, and physical outcomes. In order to remedy these foreseeable negative outcomes, preventive measures must be taken; recommendations provided at the conclusion of this study will suggest ways to make these informal settlements more sustainable in the near future. The findings and recommendations will be beneficial to the federal government, state governments, civil society organizations, NGOs, and international organizations concerned with ways in which the lives of people living in informal settlements can be improved. They will also provide parameters of planning which can be taken into consideration when upgrading existing informal settlements, so as to ensure quality when it comes to all housing processes.
1.6.1 Definition of terms
While there are various definitions that can be used to define the concepts below, a unified conceptualization of these terms is important for the sake of this study. This is important because residences in African countries may not subscribe to the same definitions as residences within Western societies. As such, it is important to frame these concepts in a way that maintains the integrity of the study with respect to the chosen location and population.
Urbanization. Urbanization is usually typified as the process of moving from rural to urban areas (Aluko, 2010). When considering an urban neighborhood, there is often the assumption that basic infrastructure such as electricity, plumbing, paved roads, and sanitation services are present. However, in Lagos, many areas that are considered urban lack these urban services because of the geographical locations. Further, there are some areas in the region that are rural by physical description, and rely on an agricultural economy, yet, are considered urban SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 6
(Aluko, 2010). The blurring of the term urbanization with respect to Lagos adds to the complexity of trying to conceptualize what it means to live in this mega city. Nonetheless, urbanization is crucial to some migrants; as postulated by Linard, Gilbert, Snow, Noor, and
Tatem (2012), the interconnectivity and accessibility of a location, with respect to delivering healthcare, distributing resources, and overall economic development, can be a matter of life or death.
Formal Settlements. Formal settlements refer to housing structures in already established neighborhoods that adhere to government laws and the rules of other regulatory agencies. Inhabitants of formal settlements have access to fully functional public utilities such as water and electricity; furthermore, these inhabitants have access to driving water and sanitation services (UN Habitat, 2015). Residents of formal settlements also have means by which they can communicate grievances regarding the quality of living to regulatory bodies, and can rest assured that their grievances will be addressed. Lastly, housing tenure is guaranteed in these settings, unless an extreme event such as a natural disaster poses a threat.
Informal Settlements. Informal settlements are described as settlements that were unplanned, and constructed illegally on public or private land (Aggarwal, 2017). Without legal approval, these haphazardly erected buildings are susceptible to various dangers, such as fires or compromised integrity of the building structure, which could lead to collapse. Most informal settlement lack proper infrastructure, clean water, waste removal, electricity, public services, regulations, police, durable shelters. The nature of establishing an informal settlement is based on a tripartite process, including infancy, consolidation, and saturation.
Since 2003, the coalition of UN member states has uniformly identified an informal settlement household based on the five presenting conditions: 1) no or limited access to improved water; 2) no or limited access to improved sanitation facilities; 3) insufficient living space; 4) inadequate structural quality or durability; and 5) security of living tenure (UN SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 7
Habitat, 2015). Informal settlement can vary in land and population size. This means that a singular informal building can exist in one area, while on the other hand, an entire neighborhood can be identified as an informal settlement.
According to Aggarwal (2017), the infancy stage of establishing an informal settlement begins when a vacant land is occupied by slum dwellers. These areas are typically in undesirable locations such as hazardous areas (i.e. under highways), along river banks, and near road reserves (Aggarwal, 2017). These areas are also on the outskirts of formally established residences. In the next stage, consolidation, there is an expansion of informal settlements, complete with unauthorized construction and an increase in tenancy (Aggarwal,
2017). In the third stage, saturation, outward expansion within the informal settlement area ceases, leading to the upward development of buildings, and a continued influx of tenants
(Aggarwal, 2017). At the point of saturation, overcrowding and worsening living conditions ensue. With little to no regulation of informal settlements, there is no system in place to monitor and ensure the safety of these inhabitants; it does not appear as if there exists any incentive to improve these conditions on part of the government and other regulatory agencies.
Quality of Life. Ilesanmi (2012) conceptualizes quality of life as the livability of a community, as assessed by its inhabitants. Quality of life is contingent upon environmental, economic, health, and social conditions within an area. Housing plays an integral component in one’s perception of quality of life. As postulated by Ilesanmi (2012), “without [an] appropriate dwelling, people can hardly meet their other basic needs and participate adequately in society” (p. 234). If individuals are residing in poor conditions, this will likely have a negative impact on other aspects of their lives. For instance, without proper water or sanitation systems, residents are susceptible to life-threatening illnesses.
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 8
1.6.2 Conceptualizing Informal Settlements in Lagos State
According to Aluko (2010), “Lagos is Africa’s second fastest growing urban centre after
Cairo, being a focal point for regional, national, and international trade and served by significant and often overloaded road, rail, ocean, and air transport facilities” (p. 66). Due to the possibilities of employment and livable wages, migrants seeking to establish themselves in
Lagos often end up living in one of the region’s many informal settlement sites. Crowded, unsanitary, and unsafe living conditions are not enough to deter people who come from regions that are economically destitute. As a result, there are different types of informal settlements scattered across Lagos.
Within its 200 different informal settlements, which can also be considered as slums, inhabitants have taken up residence in clusters of shacks underneath highways or in low-rise, dense developments, such as in Adekunle (Gandy, 2006). The shacks are often made of wood, metal, or other salvaged items, while the housing developments are made of cheaply processed cement (Bosworth, 2016). For the sake of this study, these low-rise structures that are commonly found in Ajegunle will be the informal settlements, or slums, that are referenced.
1.7 Methodology
For this study, the research approach is qualitative. The qualitative approach is used for this study to provide a holistic view of Ajegunle in a way that cannot be quantified. Data for this study is obtained from primary and secondary sources as shown in table 1.1. The case study of Ajegunle utilizes photographic depictions and direct observation of informal settlements, which is used to validate the claims of inadequate housing conditions and other factors that negatively impact the quality of life for those who inhabit these areas. The selected methods are adequate for the physical and environmental characterization of Ajegunle (Merriam, et al,
2015) SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 9
First-hand information is obtained from pictorial depictions and direct observation, unlike the second-hand interpretation from other qualitative research tools like interviews and surveys
(Merriam, et al, 2015). The direct observation makes seeing the site and recording events as they happen in the study area possible (Merriam, et al, 2015). Secondary data will include journal articles, textbooks, books, historical and statistical data, and government publications and gazettes. Information from the study utilized statistics from the Nigerian government, as well and non-governmental organizations that operate within the Lagos greater metropolitan area. This information helps to provide and enriched description to the case study.
A case study is a qualitative approach to exploring a phenomenon, in a holistic way.
According to Harling (2002), there are key elements to a case study:
The phenomenon being studied can be a program, an event, an activity, a problem, or
people. The natural setting provides the context for the phenomenon. The context is
necessary because the conditions of the natural setting are important for the study of the
phenomenon. Together, the phenomenon and the natural setting are a bound system,
which sets up a boundary for time, place, events, and processes that are being observed
within the case study. Case studies that are holistically analyzed are done so through
the collection of in-depth and detailed data, which is rich in content coming from
multiple sources. These sources include direct observation, participant observation,
interviews, audio-visual material, documents, reports, and physical artifacts. (p. 2)
The case study approach was chosen because the rich data that will be collected through direct observation will provide a holistic picture of Ajegunle, and will provide insight into the quality of life of the individuals who inhabit this area. The proposed outcome includes the observation of housing that is uninhabitable, squalid living conditions, and residents who are impoverished navigating these conditions day in and day out. Further, it is expected that the houses and the living conditions in Ajegunle meet the criteria for being considered a slum by SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 10
the UN Habitat (2015), which is based on the following criteria — no or limited access to
improved water; no or limited access to improved sanitation facilities; Insufficient living space;
Inadequate structural quality or durability and security of living tenure.
Research Objectives Methods
Identify the different areas that are considered informal settlements in Literature review
Lagos
Examine how housing in Lagos informal settlements is constructed Literature review, Case study
Examine the impact of informal settlements on living conditions in Literature review/Case study
Ajegunle SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 11
Examine potential approaches that can be adopted in order to ameliorate Literature review the living conditions in existing informal settlements, as well as establishing more formalized housing settlement areas
Figure 1.1: Research Design Flow chart
Table 1.1: Table of objectives
1.7.1. Framework for Analysis
As postulated by de Sherbinin et al. (2007), human population and the environment are
entangled in a complex relationship that is reciprocal, not unilateral. As such, the researchers
assert that there are eight considerations to acknowledge when analyzing this reciprocal
relationship, as follows:
o There is more to population dynamics than population size and growth. A
number of population variables, including age and sex composition, household
demographics, fertility, mortality, and migration are related to environmental
change.
o The “mediating variable theory” states that population dynamics affect the
environment through culture, consumption levels, institution, and technology.
o Population often act in concert with other factors such as local institutions,
policies, markets, and cultural change. Often, these contributions are
intertwined with one another, therefore nearly impossible to tease out in order
to gauge the impact of just one factor.
o How population is analyzed can affect the findings, which may diminish or
overemphasize the role of population dynamics in environmental change. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 12
o There is mixed evidence from previous studies regarding the impact of
population on land and resource degradation because capturing data on an issue
that is not entirely stagnant is quite difficult.
o Levels of resource degradation or depletion are dependent on the existence of
effective management systems rather than population variables.
o Emerging schools of thought regarding complex human-environment systems
are interdependent upon schools of thought that focus on the population and
environment. (de Sherbinin et al., 2007).
Applying the tenets of this framework to this study supports the complexity of the Lagos region, and the multiple quality of life stressors that its inhabitants faces. Considering that the population and environment are intertwined in a cyclical relationship of degradation, from the overcrowding stress on already limited public utilities to the sanitation hazards of refuse on public streets, this analytical framework will help provide further insights for this study.
1.8 Structure of the Study
The thesis will be elaborated upon across five chapters, as follows:
o Chapter one provides an introduction, which is inclusive of a statement of the
problem, study objectives, the scope of the study (including delimitations), and
the proposed methodology.
o Chapter two is comprised of a literature review, along with definitions and
further elaborations of key terms and concept that will be used throughout the
study.
o Chapter three describes the framework of the study.
o Chapter four analyzes the effects of informal settlements in Ajegunle, Lagos
and housing quality through descriptive analysis of these living areas
o Chapter five provides recommendations and concludes the study. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 13
Chapter 2– Literature Review
2.1 Historical Context of Lagos State
Lagos was initially inhabited by the Awori, a subgroup Yoruba people, dating back to the 15th century (Ajetumobi, 2015). The country came under British control in the 19th century.
The area’s location along the coastline has led to a steady economy in the region. Lagos has long been a heavily populated state and city. Due to overcrowding conditions, infrastructure has always been subpar (Gandy, 2006). Newspapers take account of the lack of a sanitation system in impoverished neighborhoods of Lagos, and place blame on colonial administrators
(Gandy, 2006).
Following the independence of Nigeria from British colonial rule in 1960, there was a boon in urban development across the country (Olukoju, 2004). There were various underlying factors that contributed to the population increase in Nigeria as a whole, including an oil boom, neglecting agricultural practices in rural areas, and the construction of office buildings in areas newly designated as state capitals (Ajetumobi, 2015). Lagos City (in Lagos State) experienced rapid development, with its population multiplying from approximately 655,000 in 1963 to over ten million in 2000 (Olukoju, 2004). Other Nigerian states, such as Ibadan and Kano, expanded as well, and their populations reached three million, but cannot be compared to the vast number of inhabitants in Lagos. The heavily populated area led officials to move the state capital from Lagos to Ikeja in 1976, with the hopes of alleviating the overcrowded conditions in Lagos (Olukoju, 2004). This move did little to reduce the volume of inhabitants in Lagos.
There remains a constant influx of people from rural regions who seek better living conditions in Lagos. This has consistently contributed to societal problems such as overcrowding, high cost of living, power outages, traffic jams, and crimes including prostitution and violence (Gandy, 2006). Olukoju (2004) considers the failure of public utilities like water, electricity, telecommunications, and increasing rate of crime to be the most pressing SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 14 concerns of Lagos. To further compound matters, the previous focus on literacy and degree attainment, with limited white collar positions for college graduates, has contributed to high unemployment rates, leaving many to seek informal settlements for housing purposes (Olukoju,
2004). The informal settlements that have been established across Lagos vary in size and structure, however, there are commonalities that exist among these dwellings.
Figure2.2. Map of Nigeria showing Lagos, the case study site. (ResearchGate, 2018).
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 15
Figure 2.3. Map of Lagos State and the Greater Lagos Metropolitan Area (Lagos Link, 2017).
2.2 General Description of Ajegunle
Ajegunle is a neighborhood located in Ajeromi-Ifelodun local government area of Lagos state. Ajegunle is considered a major informal settlement, with the infamous moniker of “jungle city” due to its multi-ethnic population, including people representing Ijaw, Ilaje, Hausa, Ibo,
Urhobo, and Yoruba cultures (Olajide, 2010). Many inhabitants of Ajegunle have at least a basic education, but are employed informally as traders and artisans, while a small minority are formally employed as city servants or farmers (Olajide, 2010). As a result, many inhabitants exist on a limited income, which contributes to the impoverished conditions of the area.
Olajide (2010) characterizes over 70% of the residential buildings in Ajegunle as the
Brazilian type of building, meaning there are many buildings constructed within close proximity to one another, with windows often facing out into narrow alleys, giving residents viewing access into their neighbor’s dwellings. Further, the average number of households per building is 5 to 6, while the average number of people per household is 7 to 8 (Olajide, 2010). SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 16
This means that up to 48 people can reside in one building, and with dozens of buildings erected on a tiny stretch of land, there can be close to a thousand people tightly concentrated in a dense area.
Ajegunle is undoubtedly overcrowded, with a strain being placed on public utilities to accommodate all the neighborhood’s inhabitants. The electricity supply is described as erratic at best, the refuse collection schedule is inconsistent, and there is no central sewage system.
Ajegunle still relies on the antiquated system of cart pushers to remove waste, but the disposal sites are often a mystery, or often times public locations (Olajide, 2010). There are instances in which refuse is dumped in the middle of a busy roadway, which not only affects the flow of traffic, but also places motorists in grave danger.
Furthermore, the public water supply is limited, which leaves residents with little choice but to retrieve water from wells. These wells are often unsanitary or illegally siphoned, which creates further sanitation hazards for those who must consume or bathe in the water. As indicated by the UN Water Decade Programme on Advocacy and Communication (UNW-
DPAC, n.d.), 27% of urban residents in the developing world do not have access to piped water within their residences. As stressed by Olajide (2010), the limited financial capacity of informal settlement dwellers, coupled with an inefficient land administration system, has further marginalized these individuals in Ajegunle from accessing clean piped water. This increases their susceptibility to eviction, disaster, and environmental health issues.
2.3 Historical Analysis of Housing in Lagos
Lagos state has a land area of just over 3,345 square kilometers, making it the smallest, yet most populated state within Nigeria (Olajide, 2010a). Constituting just 0.4% in land mass of the entire country of Nigeria, Lagos state is projected to be a home to over 20 million inhabitants, or roughly 10% of the country’s population (Olajide, 2010a). Lagos state is also the commercial and industrial hub of the country, which has enhanced its attractiveness in terms SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 17 of migration from rural areas. The migration to Lagos has led to a pronounced problem with respect to urban informal settlements, rife with overcrowding, congestion, and inadequate facilities (Olulade, 2016). A multitude of slum areas have been established in the Lagos city metropolis. These areas lack legal titles of ownership, adequate sanitation, and other necessities that are requisite for a housing settlement to be deemed inhabitable.
Nigeria ranks as one of the poorest countries in the world, with nearly 70% of its residents living below the poverty line; many of whom exist on less than a dollar a day (Olajide,
2010). Despite having a highly educated and skilled workforce, large deposits of minerals, gas, and oil, Nigeria has not been able to institute policies and practices that would improve the economy and lift its constituents out of poverty. As a result, many inhabitants of rural areas have migrated to the urbanized Lagos state, in search of improvements to their quality of life.
The origin of Lagos stems back to the 15th century, as an old Yoruba town which served as a seaport and a trade center (Akinwale et. al, 2013). Lagos has always maintained its status as an industrial hub and busy seaport, which makes it a continually highly populated region.
The process of urbanization entails the transition from rural and suburban areas to cities in the pursuit of better work opportunities and improvement to one’s quality of life.
Urbanization is considered an incentive that facilitates wealth creation, as cities are areas in which innovation, industrialism thrives (Olulade, 2016). Simon, Adegoke, and Adewale (2013) estimate that an average of 6,000 people migrate to Lagos daily. The sheer volume of migrants would indicate that Lagos is seen as a beacon of hope. There are, however, challenges that are the result of this mass migration and urbanization as a whole in developing countries. These challenges include congestion, high rates of unemployment and poverty, pollution, environmental decay, and a rampant increase of informal housing settlements (Olulade, 2016).
Though the common belief is that rural poverty can be mitigated by transitioning to an urban area, urban poverty is characterized by specific factors such as inadequate income, inadequate SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 18 or unstable economic assets, inefficient social capital, and the lack of adequate services with respect to infrastructure and housing (Olulade, 2016). In effect, many migrants have left rural farms with the intent of escaping poverty, only to meet a different type of poverty in the city.
2.3.1. Housing Conditions in Lagos Slums
Several studies have been previously conducted to assess the living conditions in areas that are deemed slums in Lagos. Olulade (2016) analyzed the housing conditions in three areas within the Lagos metropolis: Amukoko, Iwaya, and Ijeshatedo. Amukoko is located in the
Ajeromi-Ifelodun local government area, and has a population of approximately 50,000 inhabitants. Ijeshatedo is located in the Surulere local government area and is situated between a canal and an expressway. Iwaya has the smallest population of all three slums analyzed in
Olulade’s study, and is landlocked. Olulade (2016) utilized a questionnaire and direct observation to analyze the conditions in these three slum areas. The demographic information for residents of these areas were similar, respondents were between the ages of 21 to 40, with at least a basic primary education; most residents earn between N19,000 to N38,000, which would place them in poverty (Olulade, 2016). The average household number in the residential dwellings are 5-10 in Amukoko and Ijeshatedo, and higher in Iwaya at 10-20 (Olulade, 2016).
Results from the study found that of the 201 buildings that the residents from the three slum areas inhabited, 172 (85.5%) were bungalow, 25 (12.4%) were flat, and 4 (2.1%) were duplexes (Olulade, 2016). The bungalow style housing structure is common in slum areas, and are commonly referred to as Brazilian-type buildings. In a similar study of the Makoko area in
Lagos, 84% of its buildings are bungalow, with varying material types including plank/bamboo, cement, and brick (Simon, Adegoke & Adewale, 2013). The bungalow housing type accommodates more residents than the other three housing styles. Over 48.8% of the buildings in the three slum areas were built more than 40 years ago; majority of the buildings SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 19 are between 30 and 39 years old (Olulade, 2016). Only a few of the buildings are less than 20 years old. The ages of these buildings are representative of crumbling infrastructure which is similar to infrastructure in Ajegunle.
Olulade (2016) deduces that the age of the infrastructure and poor housing conditions are conducive to low habitability, which has a direct consequence on the residents’ state of health, socio-economic well-being, and emotional stability. Furthermore, the close concentration of the housing set up, combined with the dense population means that activities of daily living all occur in these close quarters. According to the study, over 40% of the residents in the three areas share toilet facilities, and almost 12% of residents have no access to toilet facilities. To further compound matters, many of the shared toilets are not located within the residential buildings. This leaves room for adverse health issues and increased environmental concerns. Similarly, 44% of residents share kitchen facilities, some of which are also detached from the residential buildings. Much like the sanitary concerns of toilet conditions, there are increased concerns regarding kitchen conditions.
The infrastructure and environmental conditions of Amukoko, Ijeshatedo, and Iwaya were found to be as awful as the housing conditions. Olulade’s personal observation of these conditions framed the results with respect to this aspect of the study. The main water supply for these areas is a borehole supplied by a private company, another water supply is facilitated by the local government, but respondents have commented on the inadequate provision by the government. Furthermore, Olulade (2016) insists that the availability of the water supply does not guarantee that the water is of good quality. Poor quality water can increase the risk of water borne diseases.
Likewise, most respondents indicate that the electricity supply, which is provided by
PHCN (Power Holding Company of Nigeria) in the three areas are deemed to be of poor to fair SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 20 quality (Olulade, 2016). The power supply in these areas are antiquated, with noise and air pollution emanating from power generators; which has a further negative impact on the residents’ quality of life. Most of the respondents also shared negative sentiments regarding waste removal services, with over 40% rating waste management services as poor or fair
(Olulade, 2016). Lastly, the many of respondents indicated that the lack of paved roads around their residential dwellings was of great concern. The inability to navigate the terrain without the threat of injury can be considered another threat to a resident’s quality of life.
A study of housing aspiration, conducted by Opoko, Ibem, and Adeyemi (2015), sought to gauge residents’ feelings towards their current housing situation and their desire for improved living conditions. The researchers surveyed 1,151 residents in the Ayobo region of
Lagos regarding their housing preferences. Majority of the respondents resided in rooming houses, occupying one or two rooms; wells and water vendors were their main source of water supply (Opoko, Ibem & Adeyemi, 2015). In addition, the respondents shared toilet and kitchen facilities with their neighbors, which decreased their quality of life. Most respondents indicated that access to healthcare, shopping, education, recreation, paved roads, well-lit streets and other facilities in their neighborhood was inadequate (Opoko, Ibem & Adeyemi, 2015). 73% of the respondents in the study expressed a desire to move elsewhere; 56% of these respondents further expressed an intention to move into self-contained flats (Opoko, Ibem & Adeyemi,
2015). Self-contained flats are living spaces in which individuals and families have their own living space, complete with a kitchen and toilet facility. Further, the preference of the respondents are to living in self-contained flats in smaller neighborhoods that are less populated than the slums. The results of the study conducted by Opoko, Ibem, and Adeyemi (2015) are reflective of previous studies that examined housing preferences of low in-come residents who lived in slum areas. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 21
Opoko, Ibem, and Adeyemi (2015) assert that location is a crucial factor that influences where someone desires to live. Previous research indicates that people desire to live in areas that are safe, secure, and easily accessible to facilities and social networks (Opoko, Ibem, &
Adeyemi, 2015). Other desirable characteristics for housing includes “secure tenure, ease of movement within the dwelling unit, adequate space for household activities, privacy and neighborhood safety” (Opoko, Ibem & Adeyemi, 2015, p. 120). Unfortunately, the current state of Lagos cannot facilitate the re-housing of individuals and families from informal housing settlements, because there are limited viable options. Simply, the supply cannot meet the demand. Further, many of the low-income residents who aspire to move into better living conditions cannot afford to do so. As it stands, it appears that residents of slums are engaged in a cycle of substandard living, facilitated by poor housing conditions and economic factors that keep them in poverty.
2.3.2 Housing Structures and Materials
The materials used to construct the houses in informal settlements are innovative but are not sustainable for a long period of time. Common materials used in non-durable housing include animal skin, cloth, mud, paper, and rusted iron (Walubwa & Shah, 2009). These materials can be scavenged for by residents in slum areas, and may be temporarily useful, but they are not durable in the event of extreme weather. For instance, a settlement in Kibera,
Kenya was 10 ft. by 10 ft. huts that were made of mud and corrugated tin roofing (Walubwa &
Shah, 2009). In Mamelodi, South Africa, shacks are made of corrugated metal sheets, timber, or fibre cement (Peters & Osman, 2005). These types of structures are susceptible to collapse in the event of heavy rainfalls, being lost in fires, or being swept away in floods. These structures also lack insulation, which leads to increased heat during the summer, and decreased heat during the raining months. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 22
While many residents prepare and construct their own materials, some purchase prefabricated materials. Prefabricated walls are sold in some construction yards. The construction process are as follows:
When a house is bought, the prefabricated walls and the roof are transported to the plot
of the new owner, where it is assembled first, then the floor is finished with a sand
cement mix. It lays on the ground surface with no foundations. A simple roof of
corrugated sheeting is nailed on purlins and the gaps between the walls and the roof
sheet are filled in with a plaster mix (Peters & Osman, 2005, p. I-34).
The rates for these types of houses vary based on the size of the structure. A one room house costs approximately 50,000 naira, while a larger, two rooms house costs approximately 90,000 naira (Peters & Osman, 2005). Given that many families may not be able to afford such expenses, they may resort to scavenging for scrap pieces of metal and other materials, to create their own constructed homes.
Durable housing materials include blocks that were made from cement and sand, and cement and bricks (Walubwa & Shah, 2009). These types of structures will be durable in most weather events but are expensive. Many residents are unable to pay for these materials or get a loan to assist with the purchase (Walubwa & Shah, 2009). While these structures allow for more durability, there are unintended consequences including overcrowding conditions. Since blocks can be placed on top of one another, these new structures can have multiple storeys, allowing for families to live atop one another.
2.3.3 Efforts to Improving Housing Quality
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) including the agreement of international authorities and governments to upgrade slum housing by providing durable housing in order to help improve the quality of life for residents (Walubwa & Shah, 2009). One attempt to assist SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 23 in this effort is finding affordable materials that could make housing more durable. One such way includes using stones, corrugated iron sheets, cement, and waste water bottles to create the
‘stones’ for housing (Walubwa & Shah, 2009). Some governments and authorities have also formed partnerships with cement producing companies in order to buy raw materials at a subsidized rate (Peeters & Osman, 2005). The case of Mama Susan provides insight into how someone can benefit from upgrading a home within a settlement with the help of an international organization that helped upgrade the homes in the slums of Nakuru, Kenya
(Walubwa & Shah, 2009). Mama Susan initially lived in a single room house that was made of ragged pieces of timber and corrugated iron sheets; with no plumbing, she bought her water from sellers and shared a latrine with hundreds of others (Walubwa & Shah, 2009). This housing situation was dangerous to her health and in terms of the potential for crime and vulnerability to drastic weather conditions. Working with an organisation called Practical
Action, over time, Mama Susan was able to learn how to create the cement and stone material necessary to build her own house. By doing so, she was able to upgrade her own living conditions. This example of an upgrading dwelling is what organizers and governments would like to replicate in many mega cities, in order to alleviate many of the consequences of living in substandard housing conditions.
2.3.4. From Informal to Formalized Settlements
The successful conversion of informal housing settlements into formal housing settlements is publicized as a goal in Nigeria and other countries which have informal housing settlements in their megacities. One such city, Cape Town, in South Africa, has been actively pursuing strategies to convert these settlements into formalized housing settlements.
Organizations such as Breaking New Ground have been instrumental in transforming informal SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 24 housing into formal housing on land that has been zoned and surveyed legally; additionally, the housing has been legally constructed and adheres to federal housing codes (Mardeusz,
2014). While these constructions bring about improved living conditions and alleviate the pressures of not having adequate plumbing, electricity, or waste services, some residents prefer the illegal housing settlements. Some have lamented that the newly constructed formal settlements were very similar to the informal settlements; in some cases, the newly created formal settlements had smaller living spaces (Mardeusz, 2014). Furthermore, these newly created settlements still did not address the social factors of the residents, such as high rates of unemployment, poverty, and rampant crime.
Worse yet, with the dissolution of the informal housing settlements, the community of that area was disrupted by these projects, even though that wasn’t the intention of the programmes or the governments. These relocation programs enact forced removals, meaning that residents of informal housing settlements must leave their homes, as those illegally-constructed properties will be razed, legally coded and constructed on with legalized formal housing (Mardeusz,
2014). The 2001 forced removal of residents who lived in an informal settlement in
Khayelitsha, Cape Town was criticized, as the residents felt that their quality of lives were not improved after the removal and resettlement. They complained that they did not receive any compensation for their homes that were destroyed, nor were they given adequate materials or preparation for their relocation; finally, the new area they were forced to settle upon had no plumbing, electricity, or schooling for the children (Mardeusz, 2014).
Irouke, Ezezue, and Nzewi (2017) assert that Nigeria has unique housing needs which makes it difficult to adequately provide housing to the residents of informal housing. As suggested by the authors, housing needs in Nigeria is quite difficult to measure because the range and degree of need varies considerably. Housing need requires the provision of a minimum standard housing quality necessary for a given household to meet its physiological and psychological SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 25 needs. It is only the ability to make a good estimation of housing need of a given society that can lead to lasting solution of providing accommodation to the countless destitute and homeless, particularly in the urban areas of Nigeria (Irouke, Ezezue & Nzewi, 2017, p. 65).
Failed government policies at the federal and local levels have also attributed to the inadequate housing provision in Nigeria. In this way, housing reform has been hyped as a priority, however, the progress on realizing such reform still lags behind.
2.4 Housing Policy Reform in Lagos
As postulated by Majale (2002), regulations for housing policies consist of “legal and pseudo-legal instruments, and may include policy documents, laws/legislation, by-laws, regulations (planning, building, financial, audit, etc.), procedures (procurement, design, public works, financial, audit, etc.) and standards (services and products)” (p. 2). Housing policies and regulations can have an impact on the economic, physical, social, and spatial environments of impoverished neighborhoods. Majale (2002) asserts that often times, planning regulations that seek to improve urban areas fail to provide orderly and sustainable urban development schemes. These schemes often ignore the needs and the concerns of the residents of informal settlements, which ultimately lead to failure or unrealized goals.
2.4.1 The Lagos Central Planning Scheme
There have been different waves of housing policy reform in Lagos that have attempted to mitigate problems related to the informal settlement slum areas. In 1951, the Lagos Central
Planning Scheme was created to rehouse approximately 200,000 residents within a period of 5 to 7 years (Simon, Adegoke & Adewale, 2013). The intention was to clear and redevelop 70 acres of land between Board, Balogun, and Victoria streets. There were two main objectives to this housing scheme: the promise of ownership of the newly redeveloped plots of land and the promise to relocate and temporarily house those who needed to move from the area that was SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 26 identified for rezoning. The specific details for these two objectives are outlined by Simon,
Adegoke and Adewale (2013) as follows:
The owners of land who needed to be moved for the redevelopment would be able to
repurchase their refurbished land, with the cost of redevelopment being taken care of
by the government. For instance, a homeowner received 1,000 pound upon being
dispossessed. The cost for purchasing a redeveloped plot of land would cost 1,200
pounds. The owner would also bear the cost of rebuilding their home.
For those who were displaced, a housing estate in Surulere was built, with terraced
bungalows ranging from 1 to 4 rooms; these places were subsidized at a rate of 25
shillings per month.
The scheme was implemented beginning October, 1955 despite protests. Longstanding residents of the neighborhood were concerned that social artifacts would be lost and residents would be negatively impacted by this change. Three mosques were slated for demonstration and there was a pervasive fear that elderly residents were going to be sent to asylums instead of residences (Simon, Adegoke & Adewale, 2013). Nevertheless, the scheme persisted, moving six thousand residents, with 1.4 million in compensation paid out, as well as 90,000 pounds awarded for hardship cases.
2.4.2. The Post-Independence Era of Urban Renewal in Metropolitan Lagos
In the face of numerous slum cases that plagued the metropolitan areas of Okokomaiko,
Ijora-badiya, Bariga, Ajegunle, and Maroko, the Lagos state government moved to solve these problems (Simon, Adegoke & Adewale, 2013). The problems that plagued these areas include lack of basic services, substandard housing units, high crime rates, and filthy conditions. The illegal and unauthorized construction of informal settlements pose a threat the vulnerable residents who seek affordable housing. The demolition of these settlements when deemed SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 27 necessary by the government is also a problem, as residents are displaced, and end up in other areas that are already overcrowded. This was a major problem in Maroko in the early 1990s, which was considered prime land for squatters and the poor. The unorganized relocation of
Maroko informal settlement residents into incomplete government houses in Ilasan and Epe placed these residents into even dire living situations, which was criticized by society (Simon,
Adegoke & Adewale, 2013).
2.4.3 The Land Act Use of 1978
Perhaps, the most significant impact on housing laws in recent history has been the
Land Act Use of 1978. Olajide (2010a) provides a comprehensive overview of the evolution of land policy in Nigeria, as follows:
Prior to 1978, land administration in Nigeria had been predominantly guided by
customary laws. This system recognized the interest of individuals, families, and
communities on land. Therefore, all the people have equal right of access to land,
while the chief or head of the family is the trustee who holds the land for the use
of the people. Acquisition of land for use under the customary law is normally
through a grant by the chief of the community or head of the family…Today, land
tenure in Nigeria is governed by the Land Use Act of 1978 under which all land in
all the states of federation is vested in the Governor. Access to the land is by way of
a ‘right of occupancy’ granted by the government. (p. 131)
The Land Use Act of 1978 abolished the freehold system of land ownership, and replaced it with a nationwide leasehold system, with leases on land that are granted for a maximum period of 99 years (Ogunlesi, 2015). Under this act, the state governor and local government SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 28 authorities have the power to grant statutory rights of occupancy to land dwellers. Land is now secured in Nigeria in two ways: through certificates of occupancy and deeds of assignment.
Certificates of occupancy are issued by state governors and local government officials; these certificates are proof that an individual or family has the statutory right to occupy a specified land for a predetermined period of time (Ogunlesi, 2015). Deeds of assignment details the agreement between the rights to a parcel of land and to whom these rights are being bestowed upon. This information includes the ownership history of the land, a full description of the land, the sale cost, and the dates that the certificate of occupancy is in effect.
2.5 Challenges in Housing Provision
Though the Land Use Act of 1978 was established in order to formalize the process of land ownership, informal housing settlements still persist in Lagos. Olajide (2010a) asserts that only 20% to 40% of the development in Nigerian cities is done so with the formal approval of the government. The bulk of the housing developments are done so informally. It is estimated that informal land settlements account for over 80% of housing in the urban centers of developing countries, but these informal settlements are not officially registered with the government (Olajide 2010a). As a result, there is no oversight with the construction of these areas, nor are there properly electrical and plumbing amenities.
These informal settlements are built by unqualified amateurs who have not legally secured the land upon which these settlements are established. Often, these settlements are built upon land areas that are catastrophe prone due to deep, dangerous sloping patterns or unstable soil (Olajide, 2010a). These hastily and incorrectly structured buildings have a multitude of implications, as postulated by UN Habitat (2015):
People living in informal settlements, particularly in slums, suffer more spatial
social and economic exclusion from the benefits and opportunities of the SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 29
broader urban environment. They experience constant discrimination and an
extreme disadvantage characterized by geographical marginalization, basic
service deficits, poor governance frameworks, limited access to land and
property, precarious livelihoods and, due to informal settlements’ location, high
vulnerability to the adverse impacts of poor and exposed environments, climate
change and natural disasters (p. 2).
There are many considerations with respect to the vulnerability of the residents of informal settlements to poor and exposed environments, climate change, and natural disasters. The poor and exposed environments are the effects of poor infrastructure, crumbling buildings in need of repair, overpopulated dwellings and lack of sanitary conditions. Baston (2015) asserts that the emerging conflict will be in densely populated slums such as those in Lagos. Further, the sentiment expressed by Baston is one of concern for the potentially devastating impact of an unprecedented scale on the inhabitants of these slum areas.
2.5.1 Climate Change
Climate change has resulted in changes to the environment in general, but the impact to informal settlements have the potential to cause mass devastation and destruction. Bartlett et al. (2009) suggest that climate change has the potential to bring about an increased frequency and/or intensity of floods, storms, heatwaves, and disruption to the water supply. It is also postulated that climate change can bring about an increase and expansiveness of extreme events that cannot be adequately prepared for or addressed by local and federal governments. Tables
2.1 below provides an account of the ways in which climate change impacts urban areas.
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 30
Table 2.1: Ways in which climate change impacts urban areas Source: Bartlett et al. (2009)
Change in Climate Possible Impact on Urban Areas
Changes in Means
Temperature increased energy demands for heating/cooling
worsening of air quality
high temperature impacts exaggerated by urban heat islands in
cities
Precipitation increased risk of flooding
increased risk of landslides
distress migration from rural areas
interruption of food supply networks
Sea-level rise coastal flooding
reduced income from agriculture and tourism
salinization of water sources
Changes in extremes
Extreme more intense flooding rainfall/Tropical higher risk of landslides cyclones disruption to livelihoods and city economies
damage to homes, infrastructure and businesses
Drought water shortages
higher food prices
disruption of hydro-electricity SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 31
distress migration from rural areas
Heat or Cold short term increase in energy demands for heating/cooling
Waves health impacts for vulnerable populations
Abrupt climate possible significant impacts from rapid and extreme sea-level change rise
possible significant impacts from rapid and extreme
temperature change
Changes in Exposure
Population movements from stressed rural habitats
Movements
Biological Changes extended disease vector habitats
One of the most direct effects of climate change is the availability of drinking water on urban
areas in developing nations. This problem is especially exacerbated in areas that do not have
an adequate water resource management (Bartlett et al., 2009). Since the water supply in many
informal settlements comes from boreholes and wells, many people can be exposed to diseases
that may warrant medical treatment that is not readily available to the region. There are other
ways in which climate change can impact the health of residents who inhabit informal
settlements. Table 2.2 below provides a detailed summary of the known effects of weather and
climate on urban health.
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 32
Table 2.2: Detailed summary of the known effects of weather and climate on urban health.
Bartlett et al. (2009)
Health Outcome Known Effects of Weather
Heat Stress deaths in older people and people with chronic disease
increase with high and low temperatures
heat-related illness and death due to heat waves
Air pollution-related weather affects air pollutant concentrations mortality and weather affects distribution, seasonality and production of morbidity aeroallergens
Health impacts of floods, landslides and windstorms cause direct effects weather disasters (deaths and injuries) and indirect effects (infectious
disease, loss of food supplies, long-term psychological
morbidity)
Mosquito-borne higher temperatures reduces the development time of diseases, tick-borne pathogens in vectors and increase potential transmission to diseases (e.g. malaria, humans dengue) vector species require specific climatic conditions
(temperature, humidity) to be sufficiently abundant to
maintain transmission
Water/food borne survival of important bacterial pathogens is related to diseases temperature
extreme rainfall can affect the transport of disease
organisms into the water supply. Outbreaks of water-borne SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 33
disease have been associated with contamination caused by
heavy rainfall and flooding associated with inadequate
sanitation
2.5.2 Natural Disasters
Salami, von Meding, and Giggins (2017) assert “the increase in population growth, rapid urbanization, the spread of unplanned land use and consequent effects of change in climate are leading causes of natural and human-made disasters” (para. 1). Extreme weather events such as excessive rainfalls can cause floods and landslides that can be detrimental to densely populated areas with poor infrastructure. These areas are especially vulnerable because there is no contingency safety plan in place for evacuations. The African city of Ibadan provides a clear example of such an issue; this area has suffered through more than 16 flood disasters, which have resulted in over 35,000 deaths (Salami, von Meding & Giggins, 2017). Further,
Ibadan was economically impacted, losing millions of dollars to destruction and reconstruction efforts.
In Nigeria, flood disasters in 2012 affected 32 states, severely impacting nearly 8 million people (Salami, von Meding & Giggins, 2017). These disasters have been exacerbated by the effects of urbanization, including urban growth, unregulated informal settlements in low-lying flood plain areas, and poor waste management and an inadequate plumbing system.
There are different types of floods that have varying degrees of impact on urban settlements: flash floods, pluvial floods, fluvial floods, and coastal floods (Salami, von Meding & Giggins,
2017). Flash floods are the result of a high intensity of rainfall in areas with steep slopes. Pluvial floods occur as the result of intense rainfall that overwhelms the draining system in urban areas.
Fluvial floods are triggered by excessive rainfall within the space of a couple of hours, which SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 34 causes rivers to overflow and overwhelm urban areas. Coastal floods have a direct impact on areas that are established close to the ocean; these areas can suffer through storm surges, especially when seasonal conditions are factored in.
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 35
Chapter 3 – Study Framework
3.1 Framework
The prevalence of informal settlements and the resulting poor living conditions highlight the interconnectivity of the structure of the buildings in the informal housing settlements, population dynamics and the environment. The focus of this study is necessary because there is a direct relationship between the structure of the buildings, the immediate environment and the quality of life of the residents in these areas. The overcrowded spaces of informal settlements places an extra drain on already limited resources, and will have future consequences. Harte (2007) asserts that the long-term consequences of such conditions will create a degradation of natural ecosystems, the inability to maintain renewable resources and ecosystem services. These include the provision of clean water and air, the conservation and regeneration of fertile soil, and the control of floods (Harte, 2007). As postulated by de
Sherbinin et al. (2007), there exists a complex relationship between population dynamics and the environment.
The relationship between population dynamics and the environment can culminate into a positive or negative outcome. In the case of Ajegunle, overcrowding has led to poor living conditions, which has negatively impacted the environment. Using the five-point framework postulated by the UN Habitat (2015), Ajegunle is considered an informal area. The five presenting conditions as per UN Habitat (2015) include: 1) no or limited access to improved water; 2) no or limited access to improved sanitation facilities; 3) insufficient living space; 4) inadequate structural quality or durability; and 5) security of living tenure. These nuances serve as the background for the study and will be explored in detail.
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 36
3.2 Mediating Variable Theory
When trying to understand the population dynamics and the environment, mediating variable theory provides a good framework for comprehension. Mediating variable theory is relevant to the case study because the overcrowding conditions of Ajegunle has perpetuated slum-like living conditions, which has been difficult for local and federal governments to eliminate or minimize. According to MacKinnon (2011), a mediating variable explains the relationship between two other variables. When there are two variables, it is generally understood that X causes Y, expressed as X Y. The mediating variable serves a third variable, so the expression becomes XMY. The mediating variable, then, serves to explain how X and Y are related.
MacKinnon (2011) explains that there are two ways in which mediating variables can be employed in research. First, a mediating variable can be manipulated based on an intervention. The purpose for this is to examine if a change to the mediating variable would have an effect on the outcome variable.
The second way a mediating variable could be used is as an explanatory variable, which explains the relationship between X and Y (MacKinnon, 2011). In this way, using the same example above, the theorist would seek to understand the relationship between migrants and their move to informal settlements. The postulation here is that there is an existing variable that explains why people willingly move from rural areas into overcrowded cities. For this study, the mediating variable will be used in this way, in an attempt to understand the complex underpinnings of living in an informal housing settlement. MacKinnon (2011) suggests there are several reasons why utilizing mediating variables would be useful in a study:
As a manipulation check to ensure the intervention produced a change in the mediating
variables it was designed to change SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 37
To generate information that would identify successful and unsuccessful components
of an intervention
As a means to assess whether the measures of a mediator were reliable or valid enough
to detect changes.
To evaluate the process of change
There exists a strong level of interconnectivity between population dynamics and environmental degradation. With that, there are also many mediating variables that exist when assessing the relationship between these two variables. Piguet, Pecoud, and Guchteneire (2011) suggest that there also exists a relationship between the environment and migration, which would further compound the aforementioned relationship. As a result, a cyclical relationship emerges, in which population dynamics effect the environment, which in turn leads to migration patterns.
Unless there are interventions put in place, this cyclical relationship is likely to persist, and lead to worsened conditions for the population and the environment. As postulated by
Piguet, Pecoud, and Guchteneire (2011) there are two standing arguments that exist when understanding this cyclical relationship:
understanding the role of the environment in migration dynamics implies
analyzing how and why people are vulnerable to climate change, as well as
examining the different strategies they develop to cope with (or adapt to)
environmental stress—migration being one among other such strategies. The
second argument is about the political framework in which such migration flows
should take place and how to treat the people who move in connection with
environmental factors. (p. 3) SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 38
In order to fully understand all of the mediating variables at play in this study, the population and environment of Lagos must be examined. In this way, all of the factors that can negatively impact the lives of those who reside in informal settlements can be fully understood.
3.3 Population Dynamics
Population dynamics play a significant role in the changing environmental patterns. The earth’s population doubled from three billion to six billion people in the roughly 30years span between
1960 and 1999 (Rand Policy Brief, 2000). While some aspects of population growth, such as decreased child mortality rates, increased life expectancy, and better health conditions, have been positive, there are other factors that have been negative. Heightened pollution, acceleration of resource depletion, and climate change occurred. Though a direct link between population and changes in the environment would be too simplistic, significant evidence exists to suggest that a relationship exists.
The distribution of the population across the world can have an effect on the environmental patterns that develop. For instance, high fertility rates in developing regions, in conjunction with low fertility rates in more developed regions equates to more than 80% of the world’s population living in developing nations (Rand Policy Brief, 2000). This means that more people living in a concentrated area will deplete resources and degrade the environment faster than in regions that are not overly populated.
Migration patterns also play a significant role in population dynamics. The youth and elderly populations have increased significantly within the past thirty years, which can be attributed to the increase in fertility, as well as improved health services and dietary patterns that have positively affected life expectancy rates (Rand Police Brief, 2000). Younger people are far more likely to migrate from one region to another than their older counterparts.
According to Hunter (2000), “as recently as 1960, only one-third of the world’s population SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 39 lived in cities. By 1999, the percentage had increased to nearly 47%” (p.xii-xiii). So, younger individuals have significantly contributed to migration from rural to urban areas, which has accelerated patterns of urbanization in some developing regions, such as Lagos state.
Ethnicity has the potential to play a role as a population variable, depending on the region. Due to ongoing disputes between ethnic groups, some regions can be a site for war or other forms of conflict. There is a limited amount of research available regarding the impact of ethnicity on the environment in Lagos. Adebayo and Iweka (2016) conducted a study to assess whether ethnicity and cultural origins played a role in overcrowding conditions in Lagos. The researchers analyzed a sample of residents from the Lagos State Development Corporation apartments, which is a public housing estate. The study sample comprised of respondents from four main ethnic groups: Yoruba, Igbo, Edo, and Hausa Fulani (Adebayo & Iweka, 2016).
The results of the study indicated that there were no conclusive differences between ethnicity and overcrowding conditions with respect to housing. Further, the researchers found that the average household size for the LSDC apartments was between 3 and 5, which they assert deviates from previous research, which cited a higher number of occupants and a cultural acceptance of this phenomenon (Adebayo & Iweka, 2016). It is important to note, however, that public housing has occupancy limits that are subject to routine inspections, even if they are infrequent. Informal housing settlements are not subject to scrutiny, so there may be a difference with respect to occupancy levels.
3.4 Factors Affecting Population Dynamics
In addition to age, income and infrastructure development are significant factors that affect population dynamics. Given that younger adults are more likely to migrate from one region to another, understanding their motivation to do so is important. Hunter (2000) suggests that younger adults are motivated to migrate due to education and employment opportunities. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 40
These opportunities are usually found in cities. This will leave a relatively higher population of older adults in suburban and rural areas. The high concentration of the elderly in these aforementioned areas can also be contributed to what is known as retirement migration. The pattern of retirement migration sees older individuals moving away from urban areas to suburban or rural areas, as they are seeking areas with more environmental amenities such as better weather, less congestion, and other factors that would contribute to an improved quality of life (Hunter, 2000).
Another significant factor that affects population dynamics is income. The relationship between the developmental status of the region and the per capita income of that region is reflective of an inverted U-shape, as seen in Table 3.2 below:
Table 3.1: Relationship between the developmental status of a region and the per capita income of that region. Hunter (2000)
As evidenced in the table above, emissions are very low in regions that have low levels of development and income. In regions that are considered middle-development and going through the early stages of development, emissions are high. In the third region type, which are characterized as more advanced in terms of industry, emission levels are low. However, the SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 41 reasons for the low emissions in less developed regions differ from the reasons why there are less emissions in more developed regions. According to Hunter (2000), environmental pressures ease in more developed regions because:
“dirty” economic sections, such as heavy manufacturing, become less important than
“clean” economic sectors, such as many service industries; very high income
consumers use fewer environmentally degrading technologies; rising incomes are
associated with a greater demand for environmental quality; and resources are limited.
(p. 31)
There are also changes in the types of environmental hazards that exist depending on the type of region. Environmental hazards in less developed nations include limited access to safe drinking water, inefficient sanitation, and indoor pollution. As these regions develop economically, these particular hazards decline, but give rise to other forms of hazards, which are usually technologically driven.
3. 5 Lagos Physical Environment and Infrastructure
Lagos state is situated on the southwestern part of Nigeria; the Atlantic Ocean frames its southern boundary, and it is land locked to the north, east, and west. 22% of Lagos are wetlands (Komolafe et. al, 2014). Much of Lagos is urban, with only approximately 5 % of the state constituting rural areas (Oduwaye, 2009). As a result, Lagos state is overpopulated as an urban mecca. Lagos is also home to Nigeria’s premier commercial center, with over 70% of the nation’s industries concentrated in that area (Komolafe et. al, 2014). This concentration of residences and commercial businesses has created severe congestion. Oduwaye (2009) suggests that a competition for land usage exists between residences and commercial businesses, which has led to narrow and poorly constructed roads, land encroachment, and exposure to atmospheric pollution. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 42
The physical conditions of the informal settlements, or, slums, are substandard. Though these forms of illegal and unregulated housing are common in Lagos, they are barely habitable.
In providing a visual description of a typical slum in Lagos, the Socio-Economic Rights
Initiative laments:
the houses are drab, dirty and reeking with unclean and decaying refuse. Water is scarce
and must therefore, be rationed; excreta disposal is inadequate with litters of human
waste being a common sight in a neighborhood…[there] are also inadequate drainage
facilities with waste water forming mini puddles within the compound where
mosquitoes and insect vectors exercise their reproductive potentials. The degree of
environmental pollution emanating from such high level of squalor can be imagined by
realizing that epidemic of cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery are frequent occurrence
(as cited in Emordi & Osiki, 2008, p. 101).
To further compound matters, pollution worsens the living conditions of slum residents.
Waste dump sites, open incinerators, power generators, vehicle emissions, fossil fuel burning, and chemical waste from industries all serve as air pollutants that greatly effect slum residents
(Komolafe et. al, 2014). This means that these residents are routinely exposed to carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and other pollutants. Constant exposure to these pollutants can lead to respiratory problems, as well as a myriad of other illnesses.
The lure of the urban city can also be explained by infrastructure that is more advanced that its rural counterparts. The advancement of buildings and highways have made transportation to and from Lagos state possible, which has led to great progression in recent decades. With respect to infrastructure in Lagos, Agbola (1997) there are four significant developments that occurred which led to the explosive growth of Lagos city and the surrounding metropolitan area: SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 43
1. the 1895 construction of a railway line that linked the city and port with the hinterland
2. the development of the Lagos harbor between 1906 and 1917
3. the initial construction of Carter bridge in 1900 and its subsequent redevelopments in
1933 and 1979 to connect the island, mainland, and hinterland
4. The construction of the Third Mainland Bridge, which links Lagos Island with
Oworonsoki
The development of the railway, harbor, and bridges were critical for the shipment of goods for commercial purposes, they also made it possible for migrants from rural areas to move into the city. As this influx occurred, Lagos city emerged as “an important commercial/industrial centre in Nigera and West Africa and the seat of government and learning, as well as an important cultural centre” (Agbola, 1997, para. 10).This population explosion, however, has proven to be more than the state and the environment can handle. Though it is understandable that people have migrated from rural regions to Lagos to seek a better life, some have traded the hardships of rural living for the hardships of urban living.
3.6 Impact of Population on Land and Resource Degradation
Severe overcrowding in Lagos has led to degradation of natural resources, as well as degradation of already squalid conditions. Housing materials are made with substandard products, which do not sustain for the long term. To further exacerbate matters, limited plumbing and sewage system leads to exposure to human waste during periods of severe rain and subsequent flooding. Harte (2007) asserts that there are three categories to which contributing factors of resource degradation can be placed: human population size, the per- capita rate of consumption of energy and materials that contribute to our affluence, and the impacts stemming from the technologies used to provide that per-capita rate of consumption.
This is further conceptualized into a formula called the IPAT: I (Environmental Impact) = P SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 44
(Population Size) X A (Affluence) X T (Technology) equation that was conceptualized by entomologist Paul Erlich and physicist John Holdren (Moody, 2011). The formula is expressed as:
I (Environmental Impact) =P (Population Size) X A (Affluence) X T (Technology)
Using Lagos as an example, the extremely large population size, energy and materials that are consumed, and the technologies used would determine the environmental impact.
Previous studies have insisted that the size of Lagos cannot accommodate the sheer amount of residents that have migrated to this region (Komolafe et. al, 2014; Oduwaye, 2009). As mentioned previously, the overcrowding has led to an overuse of resources, which has negatively impacted the urban area, thus relegating much of Lagos state to shanty towns and commercial sites. When considering Ajegunle, about 550, 000 people reside within 8 square kilometers, which leads to overcrowding conditions and overused resources (Asomba, 2013).
Housing conditions are substandard and are not regulated by the local or federal government.
The lack of a reliable plumbing system has led inhabitants to use outside latrines for bathrooms, as well as foraging for water from unsafe sources. The non-existence of a waste disposal system has resulted in garbage strewn all over the urban area. In the event of severe rain storms, which leads to flooding, residents are exposed to the human waste from latrines as well as garbage that has not been properly disposed.
Harte (2007) asserts that the impact of population on land and resource degradation is
more complex than the IPAT equation suggests. According to Harte (2007), “feedbacks,
thresholds, and synergies generally amplify risk, causing degradation to grow
disproportionally faster than growth in population size” (p. 223). The impact of feedback,
thresholds, and synergies play a significant role in the magnitude of environmental events.
These three concepts are explained in further detail as follows: SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 45
Feedback: this occurs when there is a disturbance of the global climate system, an
ecosystem, organism, or any other complex entity. This disturbance causes a direct
response and a secondary response, which is more indirect. As Harte (2007) asserts,
people who live in warmer climate are more likely to use air-conditioning for artificial
cooling, this causes the emissions of carbon dioxide. Alternatively, warmer winters in
naturally colder climates would lead to a decreased use of heating fuel, which leads to
a decrease in carbon dioxide emissions.
Thresholds: Thresholds are the limits to which a system can withstand stress (Harte,
2007). Some systems may be able to withstand small or intermediate levels of stress
but may be significantly impacted by a higher level of stress. An example of the
threshold effect can be found in the Amazon rainforest. Almost one quarter of the rain
forest has been destroyed, causing the extinction of numerous species that depended on
an intact habitat (Harte, 2007).
Synergies: this concept refers to the outcome when two causes produce an effect that is
greater than the effect that would have been produced from those causes separately
(Harte, 2007). For instance, global warming and deforestation are predicted to heavily
stress the biodiversity that exists in the world’s forests. Global warming is projected to
increase drought conditions, which will result in a forest dieback (Harte, 2007).
Deforestation is predicted to cause the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere,
which will lead to further global warming. As a result of these two occurrences,
biodiversity is doubly impacted at a more severe rate than if these occurrences happened
separately.
Lagos has not been immune to the effects of climate change. Ede, Adeyemi, and Joshua
(2015) posit that the state has been impacted by change of weather patterns, rising temperatures, rising sea levels with subsequent land erosion, and intense precipitation that overwhelms the SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 46 already inadequate draining system. As a result, crops are flooding, buildings are damaged, and the poor conditions of infrastructure are exacerbated. It is projected that the Gulf of Benin sea level will rise 3 millimeters annually, which will eventually be 50 meters within the next five decades; this will negatively impact the residents of Lagos, mainly those who live in informal settlements along the low-lying coastal area (Ede, Adeyemi, & Joshua, 2015). Here, the application of Harte’s concepts of feedback, synergies, and thresholds are evident.
Ede, Adeyemi and Joshua (2015) refer to the July 2011 flood in Lagos and another flood nearly a year later in Nigeria to highlight the potential impact of flooding on the nation. In the former incident, Lagos was brought to a standstill for over 24 hours due to intense flooding; in the latter, the Lokoja Bridge and other critical infrastructure were submerged in water, which limited the mobility of those seeking safety from lower to higher elevation. In total, between
2009 and 2011, there were four major flooding incidents, which destroyed approximately 22 buildings in Lagos (Ede, Adeyemi, & Joshua, 2015). It is suspected that the inefficient draining system exacerbated the flooding conditions. The poor drainage system itself is overwhelmed by the overpopulation in Lagos.
3.7 Strategies to Mitigate Resource Degradation
In order to effectively address the challenges related to population dynamics, informal settlements, and environmental degradation, responsible governing bodies will need to understand the needs of the slum residents. Oteri and Ayeni (2016) indicate that the Lagos state government has identified the necessity of enacting governance that regulates the activities of the state water and waste management sectors. The objectives that set the framework for these regulation include:
Efficient production and minimized costs
The allocation of efficient resources, at prices that are within reason SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 47
Sustainable measures that are available, reliable, and will ensure a return on capital
expenditures
Equitable treatment of public and private service providers by the government
Improved access to service and sustained development for all inhabitants of the state
(Oteri & Ayeni, 2016).
Though these objectives appear to be progressive in that improved services would greatly benefit the residents of Lagos state, the actual implementation of these regulations have yet to take effect. This still leaves residents in substandard living conditions. Similarly, there have been proposed improvements with respect to housing, energy efficiency, development of newer, less resource draining technology, and sustainable eco-friendly transportation systems
(Komolafe et. al, 2014). Similarly, improvements on any of these areas have been minimal.
In order to mitigate resource degradation, the Population and Development Working
Group of the Center for Global Development (2005) proposes that research focuses on some key areas in order to assess specific data that can further inform policies and regulations. The group identified four priorities for data collection which is believed to benefit from increased focus and investment:
1. There is a need for improved methods for collecting cross-sectional household
information for current period and retrospective data purposes. Further, the
demographic and economic information needs to be collected during both time periods
to assess for significant changes.
2. The utilization of panel data will allow for the analysis of multiple variables, including
demographic, education, employment, household structure, health, and migration
patterns. It is postulated that migrants from rural areas shift from town to town in urban SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 48
cities, so having an account of those who leave a researched area will serve as a good
point of comparison.
3. The collection of sub-national data is necessary, especially in larger countries.
Collection of this data allows researchers to see trends in subsets of the larger
population. For instance, as this study will focus on the residents of the Ajegunle area,
this data set may capture information that is specific to this subset and may not have
been evident in a study of Lagos state as a whole.
4. The usefulness of random assignments cannot be underestimated. It is postulated that a
study using random assignments may serve as a better understanding of a problem
rather than focusing on a targeted group.
More research can be beneficial for understanding the needs of those who live in informal settlements. Utilizing a case study method will also provide descriptive accounts of the living conditions in informal settlements. The goal of this study is to provide a nuanced account of the city of Ajegunle, in order to advance the research on this region, and inform future policy changes.
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 49
Chapter 4 – Case Study: Ajegunle
4.1 Description
Ajegunle is an area within the Ajeromi-Ifelodun local government area of Lagos State, which is near the southwestern perimeter of Nigeria. Ajegunle is bordered by Park Lane to the north, Liverpool Road to the east, Badagry Creek to the south and west (See Figure 4.1). There are 355 streets in Ajegunle, of which nearly 550,000 residents live, work, and socialize
(Asomba, 2013). Nicknamed AJ City, Ajegunle is dubbed the most notorious slum of Nigeria
(Akanle & Adejare, 2017).
Figure 4.1: Map of Ajegunle. (Source: Google. 2018)
Ajegunle is described in many ways. On one hand, the suburb is viewed as filthy and crime ridden, namely on the streets and roads of Olayinka, Ogbowankwo, Arumo, Iyalode, and
Cemetery (Atuma, 2018). On the other hand, it is viewed as a breeding ground for music and sports superstars. In the Yoruba language, Ajegunle means “wealth has landed here” (Atuma, SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 50
2018, para. 3). The positive view of the region is reflective of the residents’ ability to take pride in their slum dwellings despite the sobering reality of their living situation.
4.1.1 Congestion, Poverty, and Crime (Quality of Life)
Of the more than twenty million residents of Lagos state, approximately 1.9 million reside within the Ajeromi-Ifelodun local government area (City Population, 2017). The local government area is 13.9 square kilometers, which equates to a density of 137,101 residents per square kilometers (City Population, 2017). Historically, Ajegunle was a residence area for workers of Nigeria Port Authority, but over time, it evolved into a congested slum due to the incessant rural to urban migration (Akinwale et al., 2013).
Most residents who are employed have typical work roles. Atuma (2018) indicates that within a family unit, fathers are employed as security guards or drivers. Mothers are petty traders. All of these roles are considered low income, or, in the case of petty traders, varies greatly depending on the number of products sold on a daily basis. Based on 2016 economic data, the monthly living wages for residents in the Ajeromi-Ifelodun local government area is placed in three categories:
Individuals earn from N17,300 (low) to N28,000 (high) monthly
Families with two parents and two children earn from N29,400 (low) to
N49,100 (high) monthly
Typical families, which consists of more relatives under one roof, earn from
N45,700 (low) to N78,900 (high) monthly (Guzi, Kabina & Tijdens, 2016)
Currently the average monthly income of Nigerians is N75,000 and N100,000 and minimum wage of N18,000 (Adewunmi, 2011). Based on these statistics, residents of the Ajeromi-
Ifelodun local government area are considered impoverished. It would take multiple families living in one residence to pool their resources to be considered middle class, and even then, SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 51 they would be on the lower spectrum of the middle-class strata. The cost of living in Lagos is high, which places impoverished families in a precarious position. The monthly cost of food ranges from N5,810 to N10,600 while the monthly cost for housing can range from N5,000 to
N10,000, depending on family size (Guzi, Kabina, & Tijdens, 2016). Transportation costs poses an additional financial burden, as most residents of the area do not have their own vehicles. According to Guzi, Kabina, and Tijdens (2016), monthly transportation costs can range from N3,500 to N7,000.
The high costs of living, coupled with low wages, are significant factors that lead individuals and families to live in this type of informal areas. The rent is cheaper or nonexistent if a family is able to informally claim a parcel of land and build a bungalow. However, the quality of life is greatly diminished in areas like Ajegunle compared to middle to high class metropolitan areas. Unemployment, prostitution, gambling, and criminal activities plague the
Ajegunle area in high numbers. Due to the need for all family members to contribute to the family financially, young boys and girls are susceptible to engaging in illicit activities in order to contribute to the family. These activities are so common within AJ city that they have been normalized. For instance, Ayovo and Ugbede (2015) reported the existence of a
“training school” for jobless youths as armed robbers [in the] Ajegunle area of Lagos.
The said training school…includes planning strategies of co-operation, launching an
attack and escaping with stolen items. Their ages range between eighteen and twenty-
eight years. The training school also conducts interview[s] for the recruit[s]. It was also
revealed that the training school is where the bandits prepare programmes on which
area to raid and plan how to operate different types of fire arms and ammunitions. (p.
42). SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 52
In addition to these training units, gangs that terrorize the area have been rampant. One of the most notorious gangs, the One Million Boys, were known for robbing, raping, and maiming residents (Agha, 2016). Ironically, the group was initially formed by local Ajegunle youths who wanted to rid their neighborhood of the criminal activity of other gangs in the region. The
One Million Boys eventually expanded their reign of terror across the Metropolitan area of
Lagos before a mass incarceration of almost 130 suspected group members in 2012 (Agha,
2016).
While robbery is a crime attributed to young boys, prostitution is rampant among young women. According to Atuma (2018), many young women live in one of the ten known brothels in Ajegunle, such as the Gorilla area and Mary’s Conner by Nasamu Street. Others prefer to be known as business women who work independently, servicing men in various locations. A female prostitute has indicated that being paid to sleep with men is more beneficial to them and their family than sleeping with someone for free under the guise of ‘love’ (Atuma, 2018). The ages of the women engaging in this activity ranges, from barely teens to the elderly.
Despite this, the residents of the area have demonstrated resiliency and dynamism that fosters communal cohesion (Akanle & Adejare, 2017). The residents are in close proximity with one another, and though tensions are high due to subpar living conditions, there is a sense of cooperation that allows the residents to coexist with one another. This is seemingly necessary in order to endure living in poor quality buildings and equally poor-quality infrastructure of the town.
4.2 Neighborhood and Environmental Conditions
For most of the residents of Ajegunle who left rural areas in hopes of a better life in
Lagos, the reality is that they are living in substandard conditions that may not necessarily be considered an improvement from their former dwellings (Agbola, 1997). Instead, many of these SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 53 people are living in squalor, in close proximity to their neighbors, and are faced with dangerous hazards on a daily basis, from unhygienic water to criminal activity. According to IPAT equation, as evidenced in recent extreme weather events, Ajegunle and other informal settlements in Lagos are susceptible to severe flooding, which is further exacerbated by an adequate sewage system and drains that would mitigate the impact of flood waters (Harte,
2007). Using the theory of mediating variables, one would expect migrants to be less likely to move to Ajegunle because of the negative quality of life conditions and unregulated social norms (MacKinnon, 2011). However, the continuous influx of migrants, coupled with the expected growth of the region demonstrates the lack of concern about the negative life factors.
Further, the anticipated expansion of migrants into the Lagos region demonstrates the need for improved housing and local improvements to the environment.
In addition to the local environment, which poses challenges to the residents of the region, the housing conditions for the residents of the area are of major concern. Ajegunle is considered an informal area based on the presenting conditions as per UN Habitat (2015) which include: no or limited access to improved water and improved sanitation facilities, insufficient living space, inadequate structural quality or durability. This is in accordance with previous studies, which have deemed urban areas of Nigeria to have substandard housing conditions
(Bello & Egresi, 2017). Instead of the enactment of improved housing conditions based on these studies, it appears that housing conditions have remained the same, or worsened. The presenting conditions will be elaborated upon through the description of the observed area for this case study.
4.2.1a Commercial Space
Interspersed throughout the observed areas are commercial spaces in which goods are purchased. Since these commercial spaces are along the footpath of most residents, business owners are guaranteed to profit from daily business. Residents of Ajegunle purchase food, SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 54 clothes, and essential items from these spaces, which eliminates the need to travel to larger open-market settings. The commercial spaces are also gathering spaces for the residents of the area. Figures 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 below depict typical goods stores that can be found in the Ajegunle area.
Figure 4.2.1: Goods store along a dirt road in Ajegunle (Source: Field Observation, 2018)
Figure 4.2.2: Goods store with brooms for sale in Ajegunle (Source: Field Observation,
2018) SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 55
In addition to markets that sells goods, food vendors are common in the area. According to
Atuma (2018), in the early mornings, there are long lines of children and adults seeking to purchase food. Emphasizing the preference of residents to purchase cooked food quickly, a resident stated “…it is easy and faster for us. No need to start going through the usual kitchen process. We cook in the evening.” (Atuma, 2018, para. 11). Purchasing meals also eliminates the complexities of sharing communal kitchen facilities; however, it likely places a strain on the finances of already impoverished families. Nevertheless, purchasing cooked food items appears to be done out of necessity.
4.2.1b Community Infrastructure
The community infrastructures of the observed area in Ajegunle are underscored because of some reasons such as: limited access to clean water and sanitary facilities. Large water holding tanks, which are supplied by Water Cooperation Agencies or harvested during rainfall, are prevalent throughout the area. The water is used for different domestic purposes such as washing, cooking and drinking, as evidenced in figures 4.2.3 and 4.2.4 These water holding tanks can be breeding grounds for contamination. According to Mosbergen (2017), 25 young children in the Ajegunle area perished in the summer of 2016; their deaths were attributed to consumption of contaminated water from a large water holding tank. Sadly, the deaths of these children underscore the risk that residents take in order to consume water, which is a basic life necessity. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 56
Figure 4.2.3: Large black water holding tanks are prevalent in Ajegunle (Source: Field
Observation, 2018)
Figure 4.2.4: A cracked blue water holding tank renders the water susceptible to being contaminated (Source: Field Observation, 2018)
Refuse is strewn about the walkways of the living areas, which gives validation to the numerous studies that highlight the poor-quality sanitation system in the area (Olajide, 2010;
Bobadoye & Fakere, 2013; Abel, 2014). Figures 4.3.5, 4.3.6, and 4.3.7 shows the prevalence of trash that are strewn about various settings in the observed area. The unpleasant smell of the refuse that emanates has become an accepted part of everyday living in the slum area. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 57
Figure 4.2.5: Refuse is thrown about a walkway, flanked by residences on either side
(Source: Field Observation, 2018)
Figure 4.2.6: Refuse is piled up in still water, likely from previous days’ rain. A makeshift gate was constructed to keep the refuse from moving up or downstream. (Source: Field
Observation, 2018) SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 58
Figure 4.2.7: A large quantity of refuse has gathered alongside a residence (Source: Field
Observation, 2018)
In addition to limited access to clean water and sanitary conditions, the presence of a latrine in a central location serves as a reminder of the lack of plumbing in the area, as evidenced in figure 4.2.7.
Figure 4.2.8: A public latrine made of corrugated iron sheets that are often used for housing roofs. Refuse is thrown about the area in the background. (Source: Field Observation, 2018) SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 59
Figure 4.2.9: A view showing a bad road and abandoned truck used for carrying wastes
(Source: Field Observation, 2018)
The Socio-Economic Rights Initiative (SRI), as cited by Emordi and Osiki (2008) describe a typical slum found in Nigeria in the following manner:
The houses are plain, dirty and bad with unclean and decaying refuse. Water is scarce
and must therefore be rationed; excreta disposal is inadequate with litters of human
waste being a common sight in a neighborhood…[there] are also inadequate drainage
facilities with waste water forming mini puddles within the compound where
mosquitoes and insect vectors exercise their reproductive potentials. The degree of
environmental pollution emanating from such high level of squalor can be imagined by
realizing that epidemic of cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery are frequent occurrence.
(p. 101)
The conditions of the residences and the surrounding communities demonstrate that their quality of life undoubtedly impacts the residents of Ajegunle. The residents must navigate waste strewn roads, inhale the stench of the refuse along with the stench of human waste. All the while, there is limited opportunity for residents to experience clean, green spaces.
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 60
4.2.2 Interior Space (Insufficient Living Space)
The residential dwellings are often comprised of a long hallway with rooms on either side. In the front of the home is often a living room space for all family members to congregate.
Some buildings are also designed this way so that each room can be used for renting to different families. Figure 4.2.9 shows is a floor plan of a typical bungalow style home for a large family.
The number of persons residing in each room is indicative of whether or not the residence is overcrowded. According to Abel (2014), the national average standard for room occupancy in
Nigerian urban areas is two persons per room. It is not uncommon, however, to observe three or four persons per room in these residences. Based on the floor plan below, if three people resided in each room, then this one residence would house 15 persons. Overcrowded dwellings would also serve as a significant contributor to the degradation of a housing condition.
Figure 4.2.10: Floor plan of a typical bungalow-style residence in Ajegunle (REVIT, 2016)
Ventilation is a key concern based on the construction of these residences. Most residences have one or two small windows in the front and back of the house, but may lack windows on the side (Abel, 2014). This means that some of the bedrooms may not have windows at two sides; thus, attributing to the poor ventilation of air inside the house. Figure 4.2.9 provides a good view of the lack of windows on the side of a dwelling, and a small window toward the SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 61 back of the room. Most of the windows are often obstructed by screens or iron bars. The screens may be in place to prevent insects, while the bars may be in place to prevent burglaries.
To further compound matters, there is no kitchen or bathroom in the home; electricity is scarce in these dwellings as well. Some areas have a communal kitchen space along the road, which is shared by several families. In lieu of a toilet, a pit latrine in a designated area is common (Abel, 2014). This is also shared among members of the neighborhood. Depending on the concentration of residents in the area, as little as five and as much as thirty people can share latrine facilities.
Since there is no proper sewage for human waste, a stench lingers over the latrine area and the houses that are in close proximity. The lack of electricity means that residences are virtually in the dark unless their living space is lit by candle or lamps. At night, the lack of electricity makes the area a breeding ground for crime. As previously mentioned, the dwellings that do have electricity suffer from spotty coverage from the Nigerian electrical power authority, which is often unreliable.
4.2.3 External Building Structure
Building structures along two roads in Ajegunle were observed for this study. The structures were primarily residential, though there were some commercial structures observed.
Most of the residential houses observed were bungalow style with corrugated roofing sheets.
The typical external structure of a bungalow style house is depicted in Figure 4.2.1. The elevations of these houses were low with low slope roofing, which would become problematic during heavy rainfall, causing flooding. During my visit I witnessed flooding caused by heavy rainfall and clogged drainage which does not allow free flow of water. Most houses were in various forms of completion, from incomplete houses, to complete houses that were in disrepair
(see Figures 4.2.2, 4.2.3, and 4.2.4). Some of the walls of the houses demonstrated weakened walls due to multiple attempts to plaster the walls in order to keep rainwater out. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 62
Figure 4.2.11.: External depiction of an intact bungalow style house (Source: Field
Observation, 2018)
Figure 4.2.12.: A row of bungalow style houses in various states of disrepair (Source: Field
Observation, 2018)
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 63
Figure 4.2.13: An abandoned bungalow with a partially collapsed roof, now being used as a communal space. (Source: Field Observation, 2018)
Figure 4.2.14: Two bungalow style homes that are complete and display little signs of renovation. The house in the foreground has a cement block fence to prevent flooding and/or loiterers. (Source: Field Observation, 2018)
Figure 4.2.15: View showing an entrance of a bungalow building (Source: Field Observation,
2018) SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 64
Figure 4.2.16: View showing buildings that has been isolated due to flood (Source: Field
Observation, 2018)
As previously discussed, most of the buildings in slum areas are more than 40 years old. The age of the residences become even more significant when considering the inadequacy of the repairs to these homes and the high density of the residences. Additionally, since many of these structures have been erected informally, there is certainty that many of these houses would not meet official building codes, if formally inspected (Bello & Egresi, 2017).
To further compound matters, since many of these structures were built by unqualified individuals, the materials used for these structures may be below standard and dangerous.
According to Abel (2014), the common materials used to construct an informal housing residence, listed from most to least durable include: blocks of a sand and concrete mixture, blocks created of mud and cement, mud alone or wood for walls; corrugated iron sheets or asbestos are used for the roof. In more developed nations, these materials, especially asbestos, are not permitted to be used in the construction of a residence due to safety hazards. Over time, these materials are bound to deteriorate in quality. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 65
Every house needs routine repairs and upkeep in order to maintain its integrity.
Unfortunately, residents of slum areas do not have the financial capability to maintain the upkeep of a housing structure on a regular basis. According to Bello and Egresi (2017), residences that have been inherited are usually in the worst condition; if a head of the household passes away, the children who assume responsibility of the home may not make repairs for decades. Another reason that may detract dwellers from making repairs unless necessary is the insecurity of the housing tenure. Since these residences are built on private or public land, the true landowners can confiscate the property with little to no warning.
An assessment of the external walls indicates that most of the structures observed for this study had signs of cracks, severe cracks, or were in need of support to uphold the structure.
Most of the walls also lacked paint or had peeling paint (Figure 4.2.11). Very few structures had paint in pristine condition (Figure 4.2.12). Similarly, the roofs of the structures varied in condition, from firm and solid to being loose and flappy. Some structures had partially collapsed roofs (Figure 4.2.12).
4.3 Accessibility
The observed area in this case study demonstrates a bleak way of living for the residents of Ajegunle. As posited by Olajide (2010),
[an] assessment of the infrastructural facilities by the residents [of Ajegunle] revealed
that daily life patterns of the residents are characterized by unpleasant and difficult
situations as majority adjudged that the conditions of the available infrastructural
facilities are poor while some basic ones such as playgrounds, open space, recreational
area, fire station, among others are not even available (p. 834).
Residents must navigate makeshift bridges and walkways that are attempts to cover waste strewn walkways and ponds. Figure 4.3.1 demonstrates the ingenuity of residents to create the SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 66 makeshift bridges, but also highlights the dangers of navigating such walkways that were not formally created. Since they were not formally sanctioned by the government, the pedestrian bridges do not adhere to any proper government codes. This may leave pedestrians susceptible to unforeseen bridge collapses. Nevertheless, crossing the bridge is a more viable option than wading through trash-strewn lagoons to navigate the area. In figure 4.3.2, residents navigate past open puddles and streams that are littered with refuse.
Figure 4.3.1: A makeshift bridge allows residents to move about Ajegunle without coming in contact with refuse strewn puddles (Source: Field Observation, 2018)
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 67
Figure 4.3.2: Local residents walk past open water areas that are littered with refuse. It is not conducive for the residents, but there is no alternative route (Source: Field Observation,
2018)
Figure 4.3.3: Typical untarred road littered with refuse. (Source: Field Observation, 2018)
4.4. ‘Ghetto’ Culture
Ajegunle is home to different cultural groups, including the Yoruba, Urhobo, Ijaw,
Isoko, Igbo, Bini, Igalla, Efik, Ibibio, and the Hausa (Atuma, 2018). In essence, Ajegunle is as diverse as the entire country of Nigeria. The dominant language spoken in the area is Pidgin
English. Having a shared background of migrating from rural to urban areas, the residents of
Ajegunle have formed a community in which all members have developed the resiliency to withstand the challenges of living in the slum areas. The resiliency to live in such an area has enabled some to develop and embrace what Akanle and Adejare (2017) call the ‘ghetto culture.’
This culture has been typified in Nigerian movies such as Omo Ghetto in 2010 (Akanle &
Adejare, 2017).
The embracing of the ghetto culture in Ajegunle has produced sports athletes and entertainers who have gained national and international acclaim. Sport stars such as Samson
Siasia, Odion Ighalo, Taribo West, and Emmanuel Amunike are all from Ajegunle, and have SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 68 inspired the youth of that area to practice football in the hopes of being great players on the international stage as well (Atume, 2018). Atume (2018) further highlights stars such as Daddy
Showkey, Oritse Femi, Daddy Fresh, and Papa Fryo as entertainers who resided in Ajegunle before gaining fame and moving to more affluent neighborhoods. Daddy Showkey gives a nod to his upbringing in the streets of AJ city by proclaiming “if see my mama, Hosanna, tell am sey o…I dey for ghetto…I no getti problem.” (Akanle & Adejare, 2017). Daddy showkey is also an advocator in Ajegunle that has been clamoring for government intervention in the area.
The ghetto culture also facilitates the notion that individuals can exhibit a level of flashiness of material goods while still living in slum areas. The notion that raw talent, not educational attainment, can bring in riches to lift them out of the slums, gives younger residents hope for a way out. Figure 4.4.1 shows a Lexus Jeep on a road in Ajegunle. This price range is beyond the reach of most Ajegunle residents, unless there is engagement in illicit activity.
Figure 4.4.1.: Rear view of a Lexus Jeep in front of a residence in Ajegunle. (Source: Field
Observation, 2018)
The high-end vehicle provides a stark contrast of affluence in the middle of an informal residential area.
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 69
4.4 Summary of Findings
As discussed in Chapter 3, a mediating variable could be used as an explanatory variable that explained the relationship between two other variables (MacKinnon, 2011). For the purpose of this study, the researcher sought to understand why the residents of Ajegunle left their homes in rural or other areas to settle in a known slum that was overcrowded and teeming with negative quality of life factors. As indicated by Agbola (1997), people sought to move to the metropolitan Lagos area in search of improved living conditions, and increased income.
Instead, the increase in population has exacerbated living conditions in the region, which is no more than 8 square kilometers, yet home to over a half a million residents.
The overcrowding conditions in Ajegunle are indicative of the three contributing factors of resource degradation, as postulated by Harte (2007). These factors—human population size, per-capita rate of consumption of energy and materials, and impacts from technologies—are conceptualized through the formula IPAT. The environmental impact of Ajegunle has been underscored by the vivid depictions of life in the area. Residents must navigate garbage strewn, undeveloped walkways, which serve as a detriment to their quality of life. Furthermore, the poor construction of their homes leaves them vulnerable to flooding during heavy rainstorms.
In turn, the still water that remains in puddles following a rainstorm can serve as the breeding ground for air-borne and mosquito-borne illnesses.
The findings of this case study support the findings of qualitative studies, highlighting the many factors that are attributed to Ajegunle’s informal conditions (Akinwale, 2013; Olajide
2010a; Agbola, 1997). Ajegunle fails to meet the formal conditions put forth by the UN Habitat
(2015). First, Ajegunle has limited access to improved water. Residents must access water from large water holding tanks, which have questionable levels of cleanliness. These tanks are highly susceptible to contamination. Second, Ajegunle has limited access to improved sanitation facilities. Refuse is strewn about the area; residents navigate past refuse on a daily basis. As SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 70 seen in Fig 4.4.1, open areas are used as garbage site. This contributes to environmental pollution and thus reduces the environmental air quality. The collection of puddles from prior rain water is also a breeding ground for disease carrying insects, which is a major health concern in an area that lacks adequate health care services.
Thirdly, there is insufficient living space both in the community and within the residences. The informal housing structures are built within close proximity to one another, leaving very little privacy from neighbors. Furthermore, within the bungalow housing, though government guidelines suggest one to two people should reside in a room, but in Ajegunle, three to four people share a room. This leads to cramped quarters and degradation of housing quality and quality of life for residents. Fourth, many of the residences exhibit inadequate structural quality or durability. The houses are made with low quality materials, and repairs are not regularly effected. Lastly, the security of living tenure is questionable. Since the residents have built informal housing on public or private properties, the rightful land owners can evict the informal residents at any point in time.
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 71
Chapter 5– Recommendations for Improving Living Standards of Lagos’ Informal
Settlements
The recommendations in this chapter will be discussed based on the findings and objectives of this research, and the presenting informal conditions set forth by UN Habitat
(2015). Certain areas, as discussed below, will need to be targeted in order to provide informal settlement residents with improved quality of life conditions. The recommendations would help to mitigate factors that affect housing quality and the environment. Furthermore, local and global initiatives will be highlighted to demonstrate how change can be exerted at the micro and macro levels effectively and efficiently.
5.1 Current Considerations for Urban Regeneration
Urban regeneration is a concept that is described as the “comprehensive and integrated vision and action which seeks to bring about lasting improvement in the economic, physical, social and environmental condition of an area that has been subject to change” (Simon,
Adegoke, & Adewale, 2013). In order to regenerate an urban area, a detailed and nuanced approach is necessary. There are several key themes that must be addressed in the urban regeneration process:
the relationship between the physical conditions evident in urban areas and the nature
of the social and political response
the need to attend to matters of housing and health in urban areas
the desirability of linking social improvement
economic progress
containment of urban growth
the changing role and nature of urban policy (Simon, Adegoke, & Adewale, 2013, p.3) SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 72
These themes can be used to facilitate urban regeneration of informal settlements in Lagos. A comprehensive overview of the actions to improve the living standards in informal settlements can be generated by addressing a combination of these themes. In the first phase of regeneration, economic, social, and environmental analyses will serve as inputs for examination of the poor infrastructural and living conditions of these settlements in Lagos. An economic analysis on the structure of the local economy income flow, statistics regarding employment and unemployment, and economic linkages; a social analysis on social stress, deprivation, skills and capabilities, community facilities, and ethnic factors; an environmental analysis examining urban physical quality, the use of environmental resources, waste management, pollution, landscaping and design features, should be conducted and utilized in designing better strategic solutions to tackle the numerous problems posed by informal settlements in Lagos (Simon, Adegoke & Adewale, 2013).
Additional inputs for consideration include external drivers of change, internal drivers of change, and their applications in Lagos’ urban areas. The analysis of the external drivers change will look at macro level trends in the economy, as well as strategies that have been used in other cities (Simon, Adegoke & Adewale, 2013). Examining the application to an individual urban area will entail a city-wide analysis of Lagos, neighborhood statistics, existing plan and policies, specified goals and aims, as well as future requirements for urbanization. An analysis of the internal drivers of change will review existing strategies, availability of resources, preferences of residents, status of partnerships, and potential neighborhood leaders (Simon,
Adegoke & Adewale, 2013).
After an assessment of the factors that are currently impacting the informal settlement, and considering the potential possibilities for change, outputs can be considered. An initial output could include neighborhood strategies facilitating community action, inner area renewal, local social facilities, community led planning, and environmental schemes (Simon, SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 73
Adegoke & Adewale, 2013). Training and education, involving skills enhancement of residents, community training, enhanced research and development, and support for schools and school-based facilities, is equally necessary, especially with education being one of the major determinants of residents’ health (World Health Organization, 2008). Physical improvements, such as improvements to the city center, estate activities, enhanced design to housing and other urban infrastructures, are required to minimize the development of informal settlements in Lagos, if not completely eradicate these settlements (Simon, Adegoke &
Adewale, 2013). Economic development supporting existing firms as well as the development of new firms, improved infrastructure, economic diversification and financial assistance for innovative projects, will positively impact the economic status of these areas (Simon, Adegoke
& Adewale, 2013). The last consideration, environmental action, examines the ways in which waste management, energy efficiency, and the facilitation of urban green spaces can occur.
Opoko, Ibem, and Adeyemi (2015) suggest that in order to put urban regeneration plans into practice, a close partnership between the residents of informal settlements and the government needs to be established, in order to address the infrastructural supply deficit in these areas. This partnership will capitalize on the sense of community and social capital existing within these areas. By enacting community-based partnerships, initiatives for upgrades will include the input of Ajegunle residents. Additionally, the investment in more single-family apartments and self-contained flats is postulated to satisfy the needs of residents, who aspire to move from housing accommodations that are designed like rooming houses (Opoko, Ibem, and
Adeyemi, 2015). Enhancing the living spaces can potentially improve the lives of the Ajegunle residents in these spaces.
5.2 The Needs of Informal Settlement Residents
The formation and continuity of informal settlement vary greatly in size and location
(Huchzermeyer & Karam, 2006). The reason why people prefer informal area and the way SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 74 informal settlements are formed, need to be understood during upgrading intervention in a particular area. Currently, more than half of the urban population across all of Africa live in urban informal settlement; by the year 2050, there is a projected increase from 400 million to
1.2 billion urban dwellers (UN Habitat, 2016). In urban megacities such as Lagos, congestion is already a problem. Poor residents, who live in informal areas in Lagos are faced with substandard living conditions, which will only worsen as more migrants settle into Lagos state.
There is a constant daily influx of migrants from rural areas across Nigeria who are seeking a better way of life, but instead are introduced to overcrowding, poor housing quality, poor community infrastructure, crime, and an overall culture of poverty when they arrive in Lagos
(Akanle & Adejare, 2017).
Ajegunle, like other parts of Lagos, have reached their thresholds, or limits to which the environment can withstand stress (Harte, 2007). For instance, advocates for cleaner water systems have long highlighted the dangers of the overcrowded conditions and poor plumbing infrastructure in the greater Lagos metropolitan area. These synergistic conditions have contributed to a shortage in water supply for Ajegunle residents. The residents of Ajegunle have numerous needs to be addressed. Similar to the findings and recommendations suggested by Adeoye (2015), this study asserts that houses of high quality will lead to a reduction of density or overcrowding and an expressed need for safe, portable water in order to prevent water-borne diseases. There is limited opportunity for mobility out of the informal settlement areas in Ajegunle. Furthermore, based on the cultural attachment that many residents have to the informal settlement areas, leaving these areas is not often a desirable option (Akanle &
Adejare, 2017). The government of Lagos state, with the support of NGOs, should strengthen their efforts to reconstructing informal settlement areas, by providing formal infrastructure such as sanitation waste disposal, paved roads, drains, and recreational facilities for the youth.
There are examples of successful interventions implemented in other informal settlements SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 75 across the world, which can be replicated by local and federal governments, as well as non- governmental organizations to remove residents of Ajegunle from the poor living conditions to which they are currently exposed.
5.2.1 Access to Improved Water
Olanrewaju and Adesanya (2013) indicate that the percentage of households in Lagos that are using unsafe sources to access water has increased from 0.41% in 1995 to 5.3% in
2005. These figures may be more pronounced in informal settlement areas. The unsafe water is being accessed from unprotected well springs, rain water on the ground, streams, ponds, or rivers (Olanrewaju & Adesanya, 2013). Safer ways to access water include from pipes that deliver treated water to residences, boreholes, and protected well springs. Many of these safer methods are unavailable to residents of Ajegunle, though some NGOs are working to ensure that residents receive water that is safe for consumption.
According to UNICEF (2012), there have been some improvements on part of the
Lagos Water Corporation to provide sanitized water to informal settlement areas, though these improvements are slow and have not reached all areas. As it stands, the government entity has an operational capacity of only 57.2%, supplying water to only 40% of the populations of Lagos
State, equivalent to 6.68 million people (UNICEF, 2012). This leaves the rest of the population dependent on boreholes or private water supply, with risk of contamination. Contaminated water can lead to a plethora of medical issues, which would be detrimental to an entire settlement area.
In the face of an already acute water shortage crisis, Nigerian politicians recently hurriedly passed an environmental law that would criminalize the commercial private retrieval of water from sources, either through a borehole, or through exchanges from one household to another (Mosbergen, 2017). If caught in the act, individuals would be heavily fined. Residents SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 76 already face crippling prices for private water. According to Mosbergen (2017), the family average of seven to eight jerry cans of water daily can cost the family N13, 696 monthly. Some water peddlers will drastically increase prices depending on their perception of the family’s desperation for fresh, clean water. Even those who have indoor plumbing in their residences are not guaranteed access to water. The public Nigerian water company has failed to keep up with the maintenance of its own sites. Public water from the city’s two largest water treatment plants is inefficient due to non-functioning pumps and erratic electricity which stumps functionality (Mosbergen, 2017).
According to Water Aid (2018), one in three people in Nigeria, or 59 million, do not have clean water; 123 million people lack access to a proper toilet facility, and nearly 60,000 young children under the age of five die annually due to the poor water and sanitation conditions. Water Aid, a non-governmental organization, seeks to mitigate these problems by providing access to clean water, and establishing more sanitary toilet structures in slum areas.
Water Aid (2018) uses the acronym WASH—water, sanitation, and hygiene—to emphasize the importance of these factors as a fundamental determinant of health and well-being for impoverished residents of low-income urban areas.
5.2.2 Access to Improved Sanitation Facilities
Sanitation remains of great concern for the residents of slum areas. Olukanni et. al
(2014) have suggested that providing good sanitation and a potable water supply at costs that are affordable to residents would be an indication of the first step toward reducing—and ultimately eliminating—impoverished conditions. Adequate sanitation serves as drivers of personal hygiene, public health, and human dignity overall (Olukkani et. al, 2014). Statistics indicate that of all the global regions, Africa has the lowest water supply coverage, and is second to last with respect to sanitation coverage (Olukanni et. al, 2014). More specifically, only 2% of Africa’s total population has access to adequate water supply, while 60% have SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 77 access to adequate sanitation; Nigeria stands out as one of ten countries in the world without a proper drinking water source for its large population (Olukanni et. al, 2014). It is suggested that this has occurred because of the sharp increase in the population, which outpaces the amount of sanitation and water supply facilities that are available. The interrelationship of sanitation and adequate water supply is present because some people, who cannot afford to buy water from safer sources, utilize ground water for their everyday needs, including consumption.
Though the services are inadequate, using the water supply and sanitation services are at a nominal fee for residents in Lagos. A study conducted by Olukanni et. al (2014) about the price of water indicated that water can cost N200 for a can that lasts for 2 days; purchasing water multiple times during the week can quickly become costly. This is a challenge for individuals who are already living on meager incomes in the area. However, they have little to no choice but to pay the fees for potable water, since the Lagos government water corporation is not efficient. Those who cannot afford to buy the water rely on untreated water from boreholes, which carries many health risks. One of the major risks is contamination from refuse on the streets. Olukanni et. al (2014) contend “there is a need for drainage covers so as to prevent persons from dumping waste into the water ways which causes blockage and breeding of mosquitoes in the environment” (p. 37). It is suggested that though there have been some efforts to make the areas clean through innovative waste removal strategies, the ignorance and poor habits of residents have been difficult to counter.
As demonstrated in the case of Ajegunle, refuse is strewn about the common walkways and even in the small puddles and lagoons within the area. The stagnant water in clogged gutters is also a breeding ground for disease carrying insects. The informal construction of the pedestrian bridge is a way to address the challenge of navigating past the refuse and avoiding any illness along the way. UNICEF (2012) conducted a comparison of neighboring slum areas
Akere and Owoyemi and found that Owoyemi had an informal governance structure that led SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 78 to community organization in order to address sanitation issues, while Akere did not. Similar to Ajegunle, Owoyemi created pedestrian bridges to navigate around the refuse that was strewn about the walkways. As a result, UNICEF (2012) deemed Akere to be more environmentally unsafe than Owoyemi. In this respect, the ingenuity of the area’s residents demonstrated an effort to have better living conditions.
Recycling, a practice that is relatively new to Lagos, has been gaining traction as a way to minimize the waste that has been plaguing many slum areas. Recycling companies such as
Wecyclers and West Africa ENRG have recognized the profitability and assistance to the environment by recycling goods that can be repurposed (Sieff, 2017). In addition, recycling programs provide residents of slum areas with formal or informal forms of employment. For example, ground employees of Wecyclers collect recyclable products from registered households on a weekly basis, using a custom-made tricycle that holds the items.
Some residents who collect material that can be recycled are either compensated or given household appliances that are still in good use but may have been discarded by middle to upper class families for aesthetic reasons (Sieff, 2017). Workers also sort recyclable material at sorting plants. Recycling operations have faced challenges with the spotty electricity that hampers the process of turning plastic bottles into exportable pellets (Sieff, 2017). Despite the challenges facing these upstart companies, the recycling initiatives are a step in a positive direction.
5.2.3 Sufficient Living Space
Adeoye (2015) asserts that the quality of a house can be gauged by the flooring; high density areas such as Ajegunle typically have cement concrete floor material, while low density/higher affluent areas may have more ornate flooring such as marble. Adeoye (2015) also noted that the cement floors of high-density areas may often be wet, due to the low elevation of the floors, and the constant flooding during or after heavy periods of rain. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 79
The rising flood waters after heavy periods of rain are a chief concern of residents and government officials. As it stands, since most bungalow style homes are constructed at a low elevation, these structures are susceptible to flooding during rain periods. One way to address this challenge is to construct elevated living spaces that will create “a new form of urbanism which has areas for high-rise and low-rise buildings” (Tshabalala, 2015, para.2). Building up can also provide enough housing to eliminate overcrowding and accelerated degradation of the housing quality.
Sufficient living space is only a part of the problem at hand. According to the UN
Habitat (2014), there are policy matters that must be recognized and addressed, such as:
o Provision of innovative forms of tenure security. For example, easy access to
certificate of occupancy to residents in upgraded settlements
o Capacity development and engagement of non-state actors in dialogue and
project design
o Zoning laws and regulations with feasible land use plans
o Development standards and physical specifications for new housing
developments
o Building regulations and by-laws so that housing development can reflect
current and future needs
o Renewable technologies and sustainable building materials
o Effective subsidies, public land allocations, low interest loans, community
financing programs, and other pro-poor financial mechanisms
In Kathmandu, Nepal, the Kirtipur Housing Project serves as an example of a housing strategy that is the combination of environmentally friendly construction, which incorporates a disaster resilient design with effective land planning, as well as affordable financing mechanisms (UN Habitat, 2014). In consideration of its environment, the buildings that form SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 80 the Kirtipur Housing Project are earthquake resistant, which minimizes an environmental risk to its residents. This form of housing was provided to individuals and families that previously resided in informal settlements that was on the land. Rather than displace the residents permanently, the Nepal government worked with an NGO, The Link Road project on a joint venture (UN Habitat, 2014). The government provided subsidized land to 44 families, who were given interest-free loans with a payback period of 15 years (UN Habitat, 2014). In turn, the Link Road Project constructed the new housing development, using low cost materials such as galvanized iron roofs, steel chairs, and exposed brick walls.
5.2.4 Quality and Durability of Housing Structure
Olantunbosun (2018) suggests that housing means much more than just a shelter; housing is also a way for people to display their standard of living and their place in society.
Furthermore, housing is also a combination of health, convenience, aesthetic, and the emotional and socio-economic well-being of the residents and their neighbors (Jiboye, 2010). As it stands, it is difficult to have a high-quality housing experience if all of these areas are not adequately meant. Using criteria from the Housing Corporation in Britain, Jiboye (2010) outlines the following as indicators for determining the quality of a housing development:
access to basic housing and community facilities
quality of infrastructural amenities within housing neighborhoods
spatial adequacy and quality of design
fixtures and fittings
building layout and landscaping
noise and pollution control
security
Many of the bungalow buildings, which have been constructed more than twenty years ago, need repair or should preferably be pulled down and reconstructed for safety. Houses will need SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 81 to be reconstructed with materials that are safe and meet the required codes of the government.
For instance, the use of materials such as asbestos will need to cease due to its carcinogenic effects (CITE). Using safe, sustainable, and more affordable building materials can yield positive unintended consequences. The use of Compressed Earth Blocks (CEBs) can provide many benefits over lesser materials such as mud and wood, according to Ugochukwu and
Chioma, (2015). CEBs are the result of mixing natural earth with cement or lime; this mixture is then machine pressed to create cinder blocks. It was further noted that:
CEBs have a high compressive strength [that is suitable] for three floor constructions,
but higher potentials can also be attained for up to five floor constructions. These
(CEBs) blocks can be left un-plastered, covered with plaster or can be coated with
watered earth…its facades in comparison to the contemporary urban houses offer a
feeling of a cooler interior and the inside temperature is lower than many cement block
houses (Ugochukwu and Chioma, 2015, p. 47).
The use of CEBs in newer constructions may also pose a solution to the matters of poor ventilation of current bungalow style houses. The ability of this material to be used to build multi-level units will also help in eliminating overcrowded conditions in one-level housing units.
As it is evident that there is a need to address housing infrastructure, certain government and non-governmental partnership organizations work together to find creative solutions to mitigate these problems. For instance, the “Camp of Fire” program in Nairobi was an agreement between slum dwellers and the government which entailed the slum-dwellers’
“promise to build proper houses, schools, and community centers without government money, in return for land on which they have been illegally squatting on for 30 years” (Simon, Adegoke
& Adewale, 2013, p. 12). This effort is expected to reverse a degenerated environment, while SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 82 providing informal housing residents with a path to secure land and housing tenure.
Huchzermeyer and Karam (2006) viewed different informal settlements in Cape Town, which were helped by Development Action Group (DAG) in improving he livelihoods of the residents. Over six informal settlements were helped in the improvement of their housing condition from 1993 to 2006. In Marconi Beam informal settlement, DAG assisted in starting a housing project from 1990 till it was completed (Huchzermeyer and Karam 2006). They further explained that the land was previously owned by Telkom and was declared as a transit area in 1990. After series of negotiations, Joe Slovo’s park housing project with 936 houses was developed with the assistance of DAG, close to the informal area. The houses were constructed with sustainable materials and completed in 1998. Similar practice can be implemented in Lagos informal areas.
5.2.5 Security of Housing Tenure
The insecurity of a tenant’s housing tenure can manifest in myriad ways. Regulations from the government can impact a tenant’s residency, either intentionally or unintentionally.
The Rent Control Edict of 1997 is a demonstration of a misguided measure on part of the government that sought to assist low to moderate income tenants. Forced evictions are measures undertaken by the government to remove tenants from informal settlements, usually with the intent of developing high-rise, expensive dwellings for high-income tenants.
In 1997, the Rent Control and Recovery of Residential Premises Edict No. 6 of 1997 went into effect, which utilized Estate Surveyors and Valuers to determine “the standard rent payable on residential accommodation in each of the zones into which Lagos State has been delineated and stipulated in relations to size of room, number of rooms, facilities provided, and location” (Olawande, Adedapo & Durodola, 2011, p. 63). Based on this designation, Ajegunle was assigned to Zone D, among other areas in the Lagos metropolitan area. The goal of the rent control act was to prevent landlords from increasing rents unfairly, and/or demanding that SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 83 tenants pay their rents monthly or yearly in advance (Olawande, Adedapo & Durodola, 2011).
Though this appeared to be a genuine attempt to protect the rights of tenants, there were unintended consequences.
One of the most significant consequences of the rent control measures was that the edict did not penalize high-income residential communities as much as low- and moderate-income communities (Olawande, Adedapo & Durodola, 2011). As a result, landlords in low- to moderate-income communities were more likely to divest from their properties rather than facing the strict stipulations of the edict. Upon divesting from properties, the buildings fell in disrepair, leaving tenants to suffer in substandard conditions while needed repairs and maintenance is not taken care of by absentee landlords. There are limited options for tenants who are faced with living in substandard conditions.
The formal housing market is too expensive for the impoverished residents of urban slums. Olajide (2010) describes the allocations of land from the government to be rife with bureaucratic red tape, and ultimately insufficient. In Lagos in particular, the land tenure system is only legally carried out in 20 to 40 percent of the land (Olajide, 2010). As such, this means that the informal settlers are living on land without a certificate of occupancy, which leads to matters of insecurity with respect to land tenure. Some residents who may have validly acquired land through landowners who actually hold a certificate of occupancy may run into problems when matters of land inheritance occur.
The major response of the local and national government in the regulation of urban life has been to enact policies that appear to be punitive to informal settlement residents, though government officials believe they are being helpful. According to Akanle and Adejare (2017), government efforts have been categorized in four ways: forced evictions, clearance and relocation, clearance and on-site redevelopment, and upgrading. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 84
Forced evictions is essentially the demolition of large slum areas with no alternative housing options for the displaced residents (Akanle & Adejare, 2017). Forced evictions are commonplace in Nigeria and have impacted over 5 million slum residents on an annual basis
(World Bank, 2013). Forced evictions are conducted under the guise of urban renewal, but truly isolate the population that needs the most assistance. Worse yet, these forced evictions are often violent, leading to death. According to a witness account of the 2016-2017 eviction of residents from the Otodo-Gbame community,
at midnight…police and unidentified armed men chased our residents with gunfire and
teargas, setting homes on fire as bulldozers demolished them. Panicked residents tried
to run to safety amid the chaos…some drowned in the nearby lagoon as they ran away
from gunfire (Amnesty International, 2018, para. 5).
Furthermore, Amnesty International (2018) posits that nearly 5,000 displaced residents of the community who stayed behind after houses were razed and forced to sleep in canoes or in the open, shielding themselves with plastic sheets during periods of rain. Violent forced evictions are detrimental to the physical and psychological well-being of a community that has already endured horrible life conditions. Emordi and Osiki (2008) contend that though there is an imminent need to improve the housing conditions in urban slums, demolishing the informal housing areas is not the complete answer. Impoverished individuals and families will continue to reside in urban megacities, so there must be a solid effort to rehabilitate informal areas or there will just be an emergence of informal settlement areas in new locations.
Clearance and relocation and clearance and on-site redevelopment serve two distinct purposes. The former action removes slum residents from urban areas and relocates them in newly, formally developed areas that are outside of the urban megacities (Akanle & Adejare,
2017). Those desolate areas pose challenges in the form of lack of employment, which causes SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 85 some resettled residents to return to city centers as squatters in other informal settlement areas.
The resettlement sites, such as Abuja and Kubwua, offer amenities that are not available in slum areas, such as electricity, sanitation services, and indoor plumbing. The old slum areas that have been cleared out will be repurposed for higher-end residences. Clearance and on-site redevelopment, on the other hand, temporarily remove informal housing residents from the slum area in order to redevelop the area with suitable formal housing (Akanle & Adejare,
2017). The goal is to resettle the residents into these areas again, though this approach is fraught with its own set of challenges. The biggest challenge is finding suitable temporary accommodations for residents and ensuring that all former residents of the area have an opportunity to move back into the newly renovated area. Huchzermeyer and Karam (2006), described an effort made by informal settlers at Freedom Park in securing a vacant school site in Tafelsig, Mitchells, South Africa. The agreement against eviction by City of Cape Town was assisted by Legal Resources Centre (LRC). DAG also assisted in developing the community in
2000. After some years, the city of Cape Town eventually agreed to develop the area. The informal settlement had about 300 households living in the area (Huchzermeyer and Karam,
2006). The city of Lagos and NGOs that have vested interest in housing development, can help in developing informal areas in Lagos state instead of evicting the informal residents.
According to Akanle and Adejare (2017), the upgrading method appears to be the best approach to the challenges of slums. This method is essentially the improvement of the existing housing and sanitation infrastructure within the slum areas. Moving the infrastructure from substandard to satisfactory is the most humane way to assist the millions of residents who reside in informal areas.
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 86
5.3 Local Upgrading Initiatives
Community efforts to embark on community regeneration are borne from local community residents’ desire to see a change, and the availability of non-governmental organizations (NGO) who have the funds and man-power allocated to exact tangible change.
One such organization is Clean-Up Nigeria. Clean-Up Nigeria focuses on cleaning up the refuse that is strewn about Ajegunle. Unemployed youth from the area are tasked with assisting in the clean-up initiative for a nominal fee. Bobadoye and Fakere (2013) describe the Ajegunle area and the initiatives of Clean-Up Nigeria as follows:
Most of the ghetto…lies in the swampy estuaries of the Lagos lagoon with a major
canal running right through the slum. It lacks proper sewage and garbage collection
systems so human, household and vegetable wastes are passed straight into the brackish
waters of the lagoon. Several toilets and bathrooms facilities were constructed for the
community, the management of which was given over to some of the youths who
participated actively throughout the project. They usually charge money for use of the
toilets and bathrooms, a percentage of which they pay into the Clean-Up Nigeria Waste
Management Co-operative Thrift and Credit Society (p. 48).
Similar initiatives have been undertaken in other slum areas in Lagos, which have yielded positive results. In 2001, in the Makoko slum area, a project funded by the World Bank and managed by the Lagos Metropolitan Development and Governance Project provided waste management services, delivered a potable water supply, drainage services, road construction, and housing rehabilitation support (Bobadoye & Fakere, 2013). In 1998, an urban renewal plan in Ibadan resulted in the implementation of street lights, public toilets, specific sites for refuse disposal, and tarred roads to ease navigation by foot and automobile (Bobadoye & Fakere,
2013). SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 87
Targeting the unemployed youth for job training is another way to help improve the plight of impoverished residents. Many individuals face limited opportunities for employment upon completion of high school. As previously mentioned, unemployment is a driving factor for youth who engage in criminal activities in the Ajegunle area. Paradigm Initiative Nigeria addresses the unemployment and criminal activities in Ajegunle through the Ajegunle L.I.F.E.
(Life skills, ICT, Financial readiness, Entrepreneurship skills) project. The project targets 40 youth per quarter who have graduated in the high school and have no employment prospects, and are at high risk to become involved in a life of crime (Center for Education Innovations,
2018). The program structure is as follows:
A voluntary staff of 13 coordinate trainings on basic computer and ICT skills. This is
done with the aim of providing promising youth with a lower barrier to self-sustenance
and eventual self-employment. As part of the Ajegunle L.I.F.E. training methodology,
graduates are connected to internships and small businesses which result in full-time
engagement that improves their livelihoods and allows them to serve as role models to
other youth. Most of the youth who have taken part in this project have gone on to grow
their businesses or to gain meaningful employment in ICT related fields. The Ajegunle
Innovation Center serves as a knowledge hub where more youth from the community
can be empowered for the world of work. (para 2)
This training model is of no cost to participants and offers the opportunity for work placement and community assistance by volunteering their time to train future participants. Training for employment serves as a positive alternative to reduce their engagement in a life of crime.
5.4 Global Assessment and Resulting Initiatives
Though the informal areas are prominent features of Lagos, there are more prosperous areas that serve as a counterbalance of sorts. Overall, these seemingly split factions that make SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 88 up Lagos demonstrate the plight of the city’s most poor, but also highlight the possibilities of a better city through its middle and upper classes. In 2015, UN Habitat released The City
Prosperity Initiative, which identified the rankings of major cities around the globe based on several key dimensions. These rankings were indicative of whether or not the city was on the right path to reach prosperity. The dimensions include: productivity, infrastructure, quality of life, equity and social inclusion, environmental sustainability, and governance and legislation
(UN Habitat, 2015).
Out of the 60 global cities included in the study, Lagos ranked 56th. Based on the City
Prosperity Index (CPI), overall, the city is performing near satisfaction in the domains of quality of life, sustainability, and governance. However, the city is yielding a negative rating in the domains of productivity, infrastructure, and equity. According to the UN Habitat (2015),
“the production of goods and services is too low, and reflects underdevelopment; furthermore, the historic structural problems and chronic inequality of opportunities are critical factors that negatively impact the degree of urban prosperity of the city” (p. 13). The goal of the UN Habitat study is to support the informed decision-making practices of policy makers when considering interventions for informal areas, metropolitan strategies, and creating urban policies.
Following this report, Lagos administrators sought to amplify the positive changes that have been happening in areas around the cities that were not or were formerly considered informal areas. In the article “Lagos now wears a new look”, Ighobor (2016) emphasizes the positive changes of the city, including the overall reduction in crime, congestion, and poor sanitation. The impetus of such changes is attributed to infrastructure developments, namely the development of upscale waterfront properties on the site of former informal areas. One of such area is Eko Atlantic on Victoria Island, which has been dubbed the “Manhattan of Africa”
(Ighobor, 2016). The development is expected to attract a viable business district. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 89
Furthermore, Ighobor (2016) emphasizes the enhanced logistical support by the federal government as a contributing factor to the reduction in crime. The establishment of security cameras, along with youth programs that target high risk individuals who would likely engage in criminal activities, have mitigated crime occurrences in Lagos. In his description of the demolition of a once infamous gathering site, the Oshodi market, Ighobor (2016) asserts that eliminating the market was necessary in order to eliminate criminal activity, traffic congestion, and other factors that are detrimental to the quality of life of Lagos residents. The anticipated operation of a citywide light rail system as an additional method to cut down on traffic congestion was also discussed as a means to improve the overall quality of life in the city.
5.5 Conclusion
Lagos is one of the world’s megacities. Estimated at having over 20 million inhabitants, with an influx of 6000 incoming migrants on a daily basis, the city is poised for a huge expansion by the year 2050. Most migrants arrive from rural areas with the hopes of finding riches and an improved way of living compared to their agricultural roots. However, they are often met with the realities of urban living. These realities include high rates of unemployment and rampant poverty. The inability to live in more prosperous areas of the city leaves migrants with no choice but to settle in informal areas, which are the basic reasons for the occupants of
Ajegunle. These areas offer substandard living conditions, and substandard housing materials which lead to numerous medical conditions and entrap many residents in a culture of poverty that is hard to escape. The photographs and other information presented from this case study demonstrate the daily blight faced by residents of the Ajegunle informal area. Residents live in substandard housing conditions, which include overcrowding, shared toilets and kitchens, and refuse dispersed all over the common areas. SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 90
Initiatives at the local and global levels have been undertaken to mitigate many of the challenges faced by the informal residents. NGOs have established assistance with access to clean water, waste and sanitation management, employment training and referrals, and building more secure housing structures. However, the sustainability of these initiatives is threatened by ineffective bureaucracy and the incessant flow of incoming migrants from rural areas.
SETTLEMENT IN LAGOS STATE 91
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