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Post-Soviet jihadism
Garaev, D.M.
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Interviews Danis Garaev
‘Interview №1’: with person who knew Rasulov but wants to remain anonymous; Vienna, 2 October 2015
‘Interview №2’: with Meanna by Internet (September 2015)
‘Interview №3’: with Airat Vakhitov (October 2015, Antalya, Turkey).
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Appendix 1.
List of names
Abuzagir Mantaev (1975-2005) - Dagestan militant, Ph.D. Political science (Diplomatic Academy in Moscow), teacher of Islamic disciplines. He began his career as a scientist, left Dagestan and went to Moscow, where he defended his thesis on the problem of Wahhabism. After returning to Dagestan, he became assistant to Nadirshakh Khachilaev. After the assassination of Nadirshakh Khachilaev, he joined the militants and became a member of the Dagestani terrorist group “Shariah”.
Airat Vakhitov (b. 1977) is a Russian Islamic preacher, militant, journalist and human rights defender, former Guantanamo inmate and prisoner of the Taliban in Afghansitan. In the 1990s, a participant in the military operations in the North Caucasus on the side of the self- proclaimed Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. In addition, he has experience of fighting in the Middle East. In 2016, arrested by the Turkish authorities, the same year he was included on the sanction list by the US State Department and the European Union as a person supporting terrorism.
Alvadi Shaikhiev (b. 1947) - Chechen poet and writer, journalist, member of the Writers' Union of the USSR since 1975. Editor of the first translation of the Qur'an into the Chechen language.
Anzor Astemirov (1976-2010) was one of the ideologists of the jihadist underground in the North Caucasus, Shariah judge of “Caucasus Emirate”, leader of the Kabardino-Balkar Jamaat, a researcher at the Islamic Science Center in Nalchik.
Dalkhan Khozhaev (1961-2000) was a historian, field commander and head of the Department of Archives of Chechnya in the government of Dzhokhar Dudaev. In the Soviet era, after studying at the Faculty of History in Chechen-Ingush State University, he worked in a museum of local lore. He is the author of a book dedicated to the Chechen participants of the Caucasian war of the 19th century.
Dzhokhar Dudaev (1944-1996) - a former Soviet general, Chechen politician, first president of the self-proclaimed Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (1991-1996). Former member of the Communist Party of the USSR. In the early 1990s, he acted as the leader of the secular nationalist movement for separating Chechnya from the Russian Federation. In the mid- 1990s, under the leadership of Dudaev, the gradual Islamization of the Chechen resistance began, and in 1995 the Chechen muftiate announced jihad against the Russian Federation.
Iasin Rasulov (1975-2006) - journalist, researcher, ideologist of the Dagestani terrorist group “Shariah”, a former graduate student of the Dagestani Academy of Sciences. Participant of a number of terrorist attacks against Russian army and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. 258
Khizri Il'iasov (b. 1960) - Doctor of Letters (Philology), a participant in the Lak national movement of the 1990s. Author of scholarly and artistic works on the history and modern life in the North Caucasus.
Magomet Tagaev (b. 1948) is a Soviet dissident, a writer who called for separating Dagestan from the USSR. One of the ideologists of the jihadist movement in the North Caucasus in the post-Soviet period. In 1996 he was proclaimed commander of the Dagestan Insurgent Army named after Imam Shamil, and in 1999 he participated in the invasion of militants from Chechnya into Dagestan. Author of several books about jihad, gazavat and the North Caucasus.
Movladi Udugov (b. 1962) - former press secretary of Dzhokhar Dudaev Minister of Information of Ichkeria, head of the information service of the terrorist group “Caucasus Emirate” (Imarat Kavkaz), creator and editor-in-chief of the main Russian jihadist website “Kavkaz Center”. He is considered one of the main ideologists of the jihadist movement in the North Caucasus.
Nadirshakh Khachilaev (1958-2003) - Dagestani politician, deputy of the State Duma, head of the Dagestan branch of the Union of Muslims of Russia, one of the leaders of the national movement of the Lak people. He is known for his links with the Islamist underground in Dagestan and Chechnya, he is also the author of a number of journalistic and artistic works, including those devoted to the theme of jihad.
Said Buriatskii (Aleksandr Tikhomirov, 1982-2010) was an Islamic preacher, speaker of the terrorist group “Caucasus Emirate”, one of the ideologists of the North Caucasian jihadist underground, leader of the group of suicide bombers “Caucasus Emirate”, one of the organizers of some major terrorist attacks on the territory of Russian Federation .
Shamil Basaev (1965-2006), Chechen terrorist, one of the leaders and ideologists of the separatist and Islamist movement in the North Caucasus. He participated in military operations against Russian Federation in 1991-2006 and was the organizer and executor of a number of resonant terrorist acts. The United Nations, the US State Department and the European Union classified him as a terrorist.
Timur Mutsuraev (b. 1976) is a Chechen and Islamic author and singer of songs dedicated to jihad, Islam, Chechnya and the North Caucasus. Timur Mutsuraev was a militant who fought on the side of the self-proclaimed Chechen Republic of Ichkeria in the 1990s. As the most popular singer in Russia and a musician who propagandizes jihad, he received the status of a “singer of jihad”.
Zelimkhan Yandarbiev (1952-2004), Chechen terrorist, one of the ideologists of Chechen separatist and jihadist movement in Chechnya. Former member of the Communist Party of the USSR. In 1996-1997 he was the second president of the self-proclaimed Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. Under his leadership, in the second half of the 1990s, the so-called Islamist turn of Chechen resistance to Moscow began.
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Appendix 2.
Maps
Map of the European part of Russia (1991-2014). Foto: Library of Congress https://www.loc.gov/item/2003630847/ 260
Ethnolinguistic groups in the Caucasus region. Foto: Library of Congress https://www.loc.gov/item/2005626531/
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Map of the North Caucasus (1991-2014). Foto: Eurasian Geopolitics https://eurasiangeopolitics.com/north- caucasus-maps/
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Post-Sovjet Jihadisme Samenvatting
Het onderwerp van mijn dissertatie is het ontstaan en de ontwikkeling van Russischtalige jihadistische ideologie in de periode vanaf het begin van de jaren ‘90 tot aan het midden van de jaren 2000. Ik analyseer het intellectuele milieu in post-Sovjet Rusland dat propaganda van het militant jihadisme voorbracht, met een bijzondere nadruk op de Noord-Kaukasus. Ik bestudeer hoe de Russischsprekende jihad-ideologen opriepen tot de jihad en hoe zij hun strijd rechtvaardigden. In het selecteren van de hoofdrolspelers, wiens teksten ik analyseer, heb ik getracht om personen op te nemen uit verschillende perioden en generaties en uit verschillende groepen binnen het jihadistisch verzet in de Noord-Kaukasus. Ook heb ik de verschillende educatieve en professionele achtergronden van de activisten meegenomen in mijn overweging, evenals de mate waarin zij bekend zijn geworden bij een breder publiek.
In het eerste gedeelde van dit proefschrift zal de lezer enkele bekende namen tegenkomen, met name de eerste president van het onafhankelijke Tsjetsenië/Itsjkerië, Dzjochar Doedajev (1944-1996) en zijn opvolger Zelimchan Jandarbijev (1952-2004). Evenals Movladi Oedoegov (b. 1962), de grondlegger van het Kavkazcenter, en Sjamil Basajev (1965-2006) die vele jaren Ruslands meest gezochte terrorist was. Deze personen behoorden allen tot wat ik noem de eerste generatie van Tsjetsjeense islamisten. Individueel en als groep gaven zij vorm aan het ontstaan van een moderne discours waarmee de jihad werd gevestigd in Tsjetsjenië en de Noord-Kaukasus. Zij zijn de welbekende figuren van deze beweging in hun tijd en waren eveneens gretige schrijvers die experimenteerden met een praktische en theoretische rechtvaardiging van de jihad.
Het tweede deel van dit proefschrift focust met name op een jongere generatie van strijders die, zoals ik betoog, bij hebben gedragen aan belangrijke veranderingen en innovaties in het discours van de jihad. Voor de casus van Dagestan begint mijn analyse met Nadirsjach Chatsjilajev (1958-2003) die – net als Doedajev, Oedoegov en andere Tsjetsjenen van de eerste generatie – heen en weer bewoog tussen politieke en militaire activiteiten. In de hoofdstukken van het tweede gedeelte van het boek analyseer ik vervolgens in meer detail het leven en de werken van Jasin Rasoelov (1975-2006), die werkte aan een PhD dissertatie voordat hij begon als ideoloog van de Dagestaanse “Sjaria” beweging op te treden; Anzor Astjemirov (1976-2010), leider van de Kabardino-Balkarische jama’at (islamitische 263 gemeenschap) en later shariarechter van het “Kaukasisch Emiraat”; Said Boerjatski (Aleksandr Tichomirov, 1982-2010) als waarschijnlijk de meest prominente woordvoerder van het Kaukasisch Emiraat en tenslotte de jihadistische zanger/songwriter Timoer Moetsoerajev (b. 1976) die nog steeds een significante aanhang heeft in Rusland.
In het laatste hoofdstuk wordt Ajrat Vachitov (b.1977) besproken, een Tataarse islamist wiens jihadistische carrière hem naar Tsjetsjenië, Afghanistan, Guantanamo Bay en Turkije bracht. Vachitov is tevens de enige persoon met wie ik de mogelijkheid heb gehad om een interview af te nemen. Al deze personen hebben door hun geschreven werk en hun acties een hoge mate van bekendheid verworven in Rusland. Allen hebben zij actief geparticipeerd in militaire operaties en bijgedragen aan de verspreiding van gewelddadige ideologieën.
In de afzonderlijke hoofdstukken bestudeer ik eerst het biografische tijdspad van jihadistische ideologen om de sleutelmomenten of gebeurtenissen te identificeren die hun wereldbeeld hebben vormgegeven. Vervolgens analyseer ik hun eigen geschreven werk. Deze werkwijze stelt mij in staat om op bewijs gebaseerde aannames te maken over de ideationele herkomst van hun ideologische interpretaties en om een reconstructie te maken van de intellectuele context waarin deze ideologie is ontstaan.
Het hoofdargument in deze dissertatie is dat de Russischtalige jihadistische propagandadiscours niet alleen het resultaat is van een uit het buitenland “geïmporteerde” mosliminvloed, maar in eerste instantie gevoed werd door binnenlandse post-Sovjet processen die zich ontvouwden in Ruslands culturele sferen. Mijn werk impliceert dat jihadisme in Rusland gezien moet worden als een variant op een breder post-Sovjet radicalisme dat zijn oorsprong vindt in binnenlandse intellectuele trends.
Mijn onderzoek laat zien dat niet veel in het Russischtalige discours van de jihadisten specifiek Islamitisch was. In feite kan worden vastgesteld dat post-Sovjet jihadisten met name refereren naar Russische, Sovjet en Europese auteurs die reeds populariteit hadden verworven onder Russischsprekenden in de late Sovjet periode en post-Sovjet jaren, of aan schrijvers die ooit prominent zijn geweest in officiële of semiofficiële Sovjet narratieven. Eén belangrijke niet-moslim persoonlijkheid, wiens gedachtengoed herhaaldelijk wordt opgeroepen in de jihadistische teksten, is de Russische antropoloog Lev Goemiljov die door velen wordt gezien als één van de grondleggers van het neo-Eurazianisme. 264
Inhoudelijk reflecteert de jihadistische ideologie, in de periode zoals bestudeerd in deze studie, de ideeën en concepten, terminologieën en stilistiek zoals we die ook vinden in teksten van niet-moslim auteurs. Dit is te verklaren met behulp van de Sovjet en post-Sovjet ervaringen en de socialisatie van de eerste generatie jihadisten. Zij misten degelijk Islamitisch onderwijs en in de regel beheersten zij de Arabische taal niet. Echter, zelfs de ideologen die Islamitisch onderwijs hadden genoten, met name de landen in het Midden-Oosten, onthullen in hun geschreven programma’s stijlfiguren, afbeeldingen, discursieve strategieën en expressies die gezien moeten worden als typisch Sovjet of post-Sovjet en gevoed werden door Russische literatuur en Russisch onderwijs.
Jihadistische propagandisten waren ook beïnvloed door niet-moslim auteurs, die populair werden in de Russische cultuur na de val van de Sovjet Unie, en zelfs door Russische tradities van muziek. Deze formerende invloed ging vooraf aan de impact die uitstraalde van jihadistische ideologen in het Midden-Oosten. Het Russische jihadistische discours ontstond en was gevormd door de erfenis van deze niet-moslim auteurs en denkers.
Mijn studie laat zien dat het Russische en Sovjet culturele veld breed en flexibel genoeg was om ook ruimte te geven aan islamitisch radicalisme. Dit roept de vraag op tot welke academische discipline de studie naar het Noord-Kaukasische jihadisme behoort. Traditioneel valt het binnen het veld van Islamitische studies en gebiedsstudies met betrekking tot de noordelijke Kaukasus. Ik betoog echter dat de studie naar eigentijdse islamitische propaganda ook relevant is voor specialisten in de Sovjet- en Russische cultuur.
Post-Soviet Jihadism
Summary
The topic of my dissertation is the emergence and development of jihadi ideology in the Russian language, from the early 1990s to the mid-2000s. I analyze the intellectual environment that gave birth to the propaganda of militant jihadism in post-Soviet Russia, with special emphasis on the North Caucasus. I study how the Russophone ideologists of Jihadism called for jihad and how they justified their fight. The selection of protagonists whose texts I analyze is guided by the attempt to cover personalities of various periods/generations, and of 265 various groups within the jihadi resistance in the North Caucasus. I also take into consideration the different educational and professional backgrounds of the activists, as well as their prominence and the degree to which they have become known to a broader public.
In the first part of this thesis the reader will find some well-known names, in particular the first president of independent Chechnya/Ichkeria, Dzhokhar Dudaev (1944-1996); his successor Zelimkhan Yandarbiev (1952-2004); as well as Movladi Udugov (b. 1962), the creator of Kavkazcenter, and Shamil Basaev (1965-2006), who for many years was Russia's most-wanted terrorist. These men all belonged to what I call the first generation of Chechen Islamists; individually and as a group, they shaped the emergence of a modern discourse that enrooted jihad in Chechnya and the North Caucasus. These are the most well-known figures of the movement in their time, and they all were avid writers who experimented with practical and theoretical justifications of jihad.
The second part of the present work mainly focuses on a younger cohort of actors that, I argue, brought about important changes and innovations in the discourse of jihad. For Daghestan, my analysis starts with Nadirshakh Khachilaev (1958-2003), who – like Dudaev, Udugov and other Chechens of the first generation – oscillated between politics and militancy. The chapters of this second part of the book then analyze in more detail the life and works of Iasin Rasulov (1975-2006), who worked on a PhD dissertation on the local history of Islamism before he gained notorious fame as the ideologist of the Daghestani “Sharia” movement; Anzor Astemirov (1976-2010), leader of the Kabardino-Balkarian jama'at (Islamic community), and subsequently Sharia judge of the “Caucasus Emirate”; Said Buriatskii (Aleksandr Tikhomirov, 1982- 2010), probably the most prominent speaker of the Caucasus Emirate; as well as the jihadi singer/songwriter Timur Mutsuraev (b. 1976), who still has a significant fan community in Russia. The final chapter presents Airat Vakhitov (b. 1977), a Tatar Islamist whose jihadist career brought him to Chechnya, Afghanistan, Guantanamo Bay, and Turkey; Vakhitov is also the only person whom I had the occasion to interview. All of these men gained utmost prominence in Russia, by their writings and their actions. They all actively participated in military actions and contributed to the spread of violence.
In the individual chapters I first study the biographical trajectories of the jihadi ideologists, in order to identify the key moments or events that shaped their worldview; then I proceed to analyze their own writings. This approach allows me to make evidence-based assumptions 266 about the ideational roots of their ideological interpretations, and to reconstruct the intellectual context in which this ideology emerged.
The core argument of the present thesis is that the Russophone jihadi propaganda discourse resulted not only from a Muslim influence "imported" from abroad. Rather, in the first place it fed from domestic post-Soviet processes that unfolded in the cultural sphere of the country. My work implies that jihadism in Russia must be regarded as a variant of a broader post- Soviet radicalism, which had its base in domestic ideational and intellectual trends.
My research demonstrates that there was not much specifically Islamic in the Russian- language discourse of the jihadists. Rather, what could be established is that post-Soviet jihadists make references above all to particular Russian, Soviet and European authors who already obtained popularity among Russian-speakers in the late Soviet and post-Soviet eras, or to writers who had once been prominent in Soviet official or semi-official narratives. One major non-Muslim personality whose thinking is constantly evoked in jihadi texts is the Russian anthropologist Lev Gumilev, who is widely seen as one of the founding fathers of Neo-Eurasianism.
Contentwise, the jihadi ideology of the era under consideration reflects the ideas and concepts, terminologies and stylistics that we also find in the texts of those non-Muslim authors. This must be explained by the Soviet and post-Soviet experiences and socialization of the first generations of jihadists; as a rule, they lacked a proper Islamic education and did not know the Arabic language. But even the ideologists that did obtain an Islamic education, primarily in the countries of the Middle East, reveal in their programmatic writings tropes, images, discursive strategies, and expressions that must be considered as typical Soviet or post-Soviet, and that feed from Russian literature and education. Even Russian musical traditions can be found back in jihadi culture. The Russian jihadi discourse therefore emerged, and was shaped, by these non-Muslim sources.
My dissertation demonstrates that the Russian and Soviet cultural field was broad and adaptable enough to also give room to Islamic radicalism. This raises the question to which academic discipline the study of North Caucasus jihadism belongs. Traditionally it falls into the field of Islamic studies and North Caucasus area studies. I argue, however, that the study of contemporary Islamist propaganda also speaks to specialists of Soviet and Russian culture.
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Постсоветский джихадизм
Резюмé
Моя диссертация посвящена теме зарождения и развития идеологии русскоязычной джихадистской пропаганды в период между началом 1990-х и серединой 2000-х годов.
С этой целью я анализирую интеллектуальную среду в которой появилась пропаганда военного джихада в постсоветской России, в первую очередь на Северном Кавказе. В рамках этого анализа я изучаю как русскоязычные идеологи джихадизма призывали к джихаду и обосновывали свою борьбу. Выбор идеологов, тексты которых я изучаю, обусловлен их принадлежностью к разным этапам и группам вооруженного противостояния на Северном Кавказе, различным образовательным и профессиональным опытом, а также степенью известности широкой аудитории.
В первой части этой диссертации читатель найдет известные имена, в частности, первого президента независимой Чечни/Ичкерии Джохара Дудаева (1944-1996); его преемника Зелимхана Яндарбиева (1952-2004); а также Мовлади Удугова (1962), создателя сайта «Kavkazcenter» и Шамиля Басаева (1965-2006), который на протяжении многих лет был самым разыскиваемым террористом России. Все эти люди принадлежали к тому, что я называю первым поколением чеченских исламистов; индивидуально и как группа, они сформировали возникновение современного джихадистского дискурса в Чечне и на Северном Кавказе. Перечисленные выше лица были страстными писателями; они экспериментировали с практическими и теоретическими обоснованиями джихада.
Вторая часть настоящей работы в основном сосредоточена на младшей когорте джихадистских идеологов, которые, как я утверждаю, привели к важным изменениям и нововведениям в джихадистском дискурсе. Для Дагестана мой анализ начинается с Надиршаха Хачилаева (1958-2003), который, подобно Дудаеву, Удугову и другим чеченцам первого поколения, колебался между политикой и воинственностью. Далее в главах этой второй части книги я более подробно анализирую жизнь и работы Ясина Расулова (1975-2006), который был аспирантом и работал над диссертацией о местных корнях исламизма до того что стал идеологом дагестанского движения «Шариат»; Анзор Астемиров (1976-2010), лидер Кабардино-Балкарского джамаата (исламского сообщества), а впоследствии шариатский судья «Имарата Кавказ»; Саид Бурятский 268
(Александр Тихомиров, 1982 - 2010), вероятно самый известный оратор «Имарата Кавказ»; а также джихадистский певец и автор песен Тимур Муцураев (1976 г.р.), у которого все еще есть значительное сообщество поклонников в России. В заключительной главе представлен Айрат Вахитов (1977 г.р.), татарский исламист, чья «карьера» привела его в Чечню, Афганистан, Гуантанамо и Турцию; Вахитов также единственный человек, с которым у меня была возможность лично провести интервью. Все эти люди благодаря их произведениям и действиям получили довольно большую известность в России. Все они активно участвовали в военных действиях и способствовали распространению насильственных идеологий.
Каждая глава диссертации построена таким образом, что сначала я изучаю биографические траектории джихадистских идеологов, чтобы выявить ключевые пункты, которые повлияли на становление их мировоззрений; затем перехожу к анализу их текстов. Такой подход позволяет мне выявить идейные корни их идеологии и реконструировать интеллектуальный контекст в котором эта идеология появилась.
Основной аргумент диссертации заключается в том, что появление русскоязычного пропагандистского джихадистского дискурса было результатом не только мусульманского влияния из-за рубежа, но в первую очередь результатом внутренних постсоветских процессов, которые происходили в интеллектуальной и культурной сферах страны. Таким образом, на мой взгляд, джихадизм в России был примером постсоветского радикализма, который формировался на отечественной идейной и интеллектуальной базе.
Мое исследование показало, что в русскоязычном джихадистском дискурсе этого периода, собственно говоря, специфически исламского не так уж и много. В основном, мы наблюдаем что постсоветские джихадистские идеологи ссылаются на тех русских/советских и европейских авторов, которые либо приобрели особую популярность в русскоязычной среде в поздне- или постсоветское время, либо были важной частью еще советского официозного нарратива. Джихадистская идеология отражала идеи, терминологию и стилистику этих немусульманских авторов. Это объясняется тем, что имея богатый советский и постсоветский опыт социализации, первые поколения джихадистов не имели мусульманского образования и, как правило, не знали арабского языка. Но даже в текстах тех идеологов, которые имели исламское 269
образование, полученное в странах Ближнего Востока, также чувствовался сильный интеллектуальный отпечаток постсоветского времени.
Влияние немусульманских авторов, которые стали популярны в русской культуре после коллапса Советского Союза, на русскоязычных джихадистских идеологов началось заметно раньше, чем влияние на этих идеологов исламистских пропагандистов с Ближнего Востока. Таким образом, русский джихадистский дискурс формируется и даже рождается из идей и наследия этих немусульманских авторов. Одна из основных немусульманских личностей, чье мышление постоянно проявляется в джихадистских текстах – русский антрополог Лев Гумилев, который общепризнано является одним из отцов-основателей нео-евразийства.
Мое исследование показало, что поле советской и русской культуры оказывается достаточно широким для того, чтобы там нашлось место для исламского радикализма. Значимость русского советского и постсоветского культурных факторов в формировании идеологии джихадистской пропаганды, который я выявил в своем исследовании, позволяет поставить вопрос о том, к предметной области какой научной дисциплины относится изучение джихадистской идеологии на Северном Кавказе.
Традиционно тема джихада и идеологии джихадистских движений в этом регионе в большой степени относилась к предметной области исламоведения или регионоведения Северного Кавказа. Для специалистов же по русской культуре эта тема, как правило, оказывалась за пределами научного интереса. Однако выявленная мною релевантность пропаганды постсоветского джихадизма тем процессам, которые протекали в культурной и интеллектуальной жизни российского общества, демонстрирует, что мусульманская среда Северного Кавказа является богатым и интересным полем для специалистов и по русской культуре.