ABSTRACT ARMENIANS IN BRITISH INTELLIGENCE DURING WORLD WAR I: A CASE STUDY OF THOMAS MUGERDITCHIAN The role of Armenians in British intelligence has been largely neglected by historians of World War I. My thesis will explore the multifaceted identities of Armenian dragomans, vice-consuls, and intelligence officers in British service through the careers of Thomas Mugerditchian, Thomas Boyajian, and Arshak Safrastian. These Armenian agents inhabited a unique middle-ground between the East and the West as Christians living in an Islamic Empire. They manipulated their identities to navigate both European and Ottoman circles, making them effective as intelligence officers. Before World War I, Armenian dragomans and vice-consuls were important intermediaries between British consulates in the Ottoman Empire and local populations. When the Ottoman Empire joined the war on the side of the Central Powers, Armenian agents remained important to the British Empire as intelligence officers and translators. My thesis will explore the role of Armenian agents in the British war effort and how their service affected their complex identities, both how they perceived themselves and the extent to which different levels of the British government accepted them. Michael John Rettig December 2017 ARMENIANS IN BRITISH INTELLIGENCE DURING WORLD WAR I: A CASE STUDY OF THOMAS MUGERDITCHIAN by Michael John Rettig A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History in the College of Social Sciences California State University, Fresno December 2017 APPROVED For the Department of History: We, the undersigned, certify that the thesis of the following student meets the required standards of scholarship, format, and style of the university and the student's graduate degree program for the awarding of the master's degree. Michael John Rettig Thesis Author Bradley Jones (Chair) History Frederik Vermote History Bradley Hart Media, Communications and Journalism Barlow Der Mugrdechian Armenian Studies For the University Graduate Committee: Dean, Division of Graduate Studies AUTHORIZATION FOR REPRODUCTION OF MASTER’S THESIS X I grant permission for the reproduction of this thesis in part or in its entirety without further authorization from me, on the condition that the person or agency requesting reproduction absorbs the cost and provides proper acknowledgment of authorship. Permission to reproduce this thesis in part or in its entirety must be obtained from me. Signature of thesis author: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the support and guidance of my thesis committee. I had the unique privilege of working closely with each member of my committee as if I had three Chairs rather than one. I would first like to express my gratitude to my Chair, Dr. Bradley Jones, whose conversations and advice spurred me on to think more deeply about my research. His guidance helped produce a more interesting and nuanced thesis. Dr. Bradley Hart and Professor Barlow Der Mugrdechian were similarly instrumental to my project from its earliest stages. They were the first to believe in this topic and encourage me to pursue it. Professor Der Mugrdechian and Dr. Hart invested countless hours reading drafts and providing valuable feedback through every step of my graduate career. I could not have asked for a better thesis committee. Ara Sarafian also kindly read an early sample of my work and provided me with important advice. Any mistake in this thesis is solely my own. The faculty of the History Department at Fresno State played an important role in fostering within me the skills necessary to write history; specifically Dr. John Farrell and Dr. Maritere López, who inspired me to be a better version of myself in the classroom. Dr. Lori Clune, Dr. Mark Arvanigian, Dr. Blain Roberts, and Dr. Jones also contributed to my formation as a historian through the courses they taught and teaching opportunities they provided. As a descendant of Thomas Mugerditchian, I have benefitted from access to his personal papers with the help of my family. I am indebted to my grandmother, Doreen Rettig, for preserving the family photos, letters, and documents of her grandfather Thomas Mugerditchian. It was these documents that first sparked my interest in Armenian intelligence officers. My aunt Linnette Bommarito has been v v my partner in cataloguing and archiving this material after my grandmother passed away. I am grateful to her for the hours she spent scanning the numerous Mugerditchian family photographs, some of which appear in this thesis. I am similarly indebted to Roberta Clark, another granddaughter of Thomas Mugerditchian, for graciously providing me access to the family papers she inherited and has so diligently preserved. They were invaluable to my research. Other relatives who contributed to my thesis include John and Peter Tashjian, Robyn Rene Millheim, Sona Dombourian, and Christine Dombourian Rinck. Though I can read printed Armenian text, I am not yet able to read Mugerditchian’s handwritten Armenian script. For this, Mary Avetisyan has been instrumental in meticulously deciphering and translating my great-great grandfather’s Armenian writings, for which I am deeply grateful. My research in the National Archives at Kew and the Churchill Archives in Cambridge would not have been possible without a generous research grant from the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. Lastly, I would like to thank my parents, John and Cindy, for their constant support of my education and for the countless opportunities they have provided me throughout my life. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................ vii INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1: REVERENDS, SPIES, AND DRAGOMANS IN THE PERIPHERY ............................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER 2: WITH LAWRENCE IN CAIRO .................................................... 44 CHAPTER 3: NAVIGATING A POST-WAR WORLD ...................................... 67 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 85 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 88 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................ 96 APPENDIX A: LIST OF ARMENIAN AND NATIVE DRAGOMANS IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE ........................................................................ 97 APPENDIX B: LIST SHOWING SERVICE PERIOD OF BRITISH VICE CONSULS AT DIARBEKIR ...................................................................... 99 LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: Thomas Mugerditchian and Arshak Safrastian in Bitlis 1907. ............... 18 Figure 2: Thomas Mugerditchian with teachers and students from Euphrates College, circa 1880. ................................................................................ 20 Figure 3: Thomas Mugerditchian as he appeared before European diplomats and Ottoman officials .............................................................................. 36 Figure 4: The Mugerditchian family dressed as Kurds to flee Kharpert in 1916 .. 47 Figure 5: Thomas Mugerditchian at a social gathering in Cairo 1915. .................. 53 Figure 6: Thomas Mugerditchian with unknown soldiers. .................................... 60 Figure 7: Thomas Mugerditchian with a British officer in Cairo 1917. ................ 64 Figure 8: Thomas Mugerditchian at Camp Ludd, Palestine 1918. ......................... 65 Figure 9: Thomas and Esther Mugerditchian with some of their children and grandchildren in California 1923. ........................................................... 78 INTRODUCTION At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Thomas Mugerditchian, a Protestant Armenian minister, found himself fleeing the Ottoman Empire. Turkish authorities had sent orders to the governor of Diarbekir to execute Mugerditchian for allegedly spying on behalf of the Entente Powers.1 Mugerditchian was targeted for his service to the British Empire as a dragoman (translator and cultural liaison between Western and Eastern cultures) and as the vice-consul for the Ottoman province of Diarbekir. His wife and six children faced an uncertain future as the Turkish authorities used the coming war to carry out genocidal policies against their Armenian population. Before the war, it was common for British consulates to employ Armenian dragomans to gather intelligence and act as intermediaries with local Ottoman populations. Out of the many Armenians who served as dragomans, three were solely entrusted to protect British interests in their provinces as Acting Vice- Consuls: Mugerditchian, Thomas Boyajian and Arshak Safrastian. After British consuls were expelled from the Ottoman Empire at the outbreak of World War I, Armenians remained useful to the British war effort as intelligence officers and translators. Though historians have explored the roles of major British actors, such as T.E. Lawrence, Mark Sykes, and George Lloyd, the roles of Armenian dragomans, vice consuls, and intelligence officers have been largely neglected. Through the course of their careers, Armenians in British intelligence manipulated their fluid identities to navigate Western and Eastern societies, making them ideal agents