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: THE CRESCENT MOON… WAXING Jaume Flaquer, sj.

1. Islam, where are you heading? ...... 3 2. What to do today with islamic law? ...... 6 3. Islam, a pluralist world ...... 11 4. The gran : sunni and shia ...... 17 5. The of everyday islam ...... 21 6. The arab civil war ...... 25 7. Much remains to be done ...... 28 Glossary ...... 32 Questions for reflection ...... 32 Jaume Flaquer, sj. a Jesuit, is coordinator of the Theological Area of Cristianisme i Jus- tícia and professor in the Faculty of Catalunya. He has a degree in Philosophy from the Universitat de Barcelona, a degree in Theology from the Centre Sèvres of Paris, and a PhD in from the École Pratique des Hautes Études of Sorbonne with a thesis on the Sufi master Ibn Arabî. His previous publications with Cristianisme i Justícia are Fundamentalism (Booklet 121, 2005) and Itinerant live (Booklet 128, 2007).

Publisher: CRISTIANISME I JUSTÍCIA - Roger de Llúria 13 - 08010 Barcelona +34 93 317 23 38 - [email protected] - www.cristianismeijusticia.net Printed by: Ediciones Rondas S.L. - Legal deposit: B 7639-2016 ISBN: 978-84-9730-373-6 - ISSN: 2014-6566 - ISSN (virtual edition): 2014-6574 Editor: Anna Pérez i Mir - Translated by Joseph Owens Cover illustration: Roger Torres - Layout: Pilar Rubio Tugas Printed on ecological paper and recycled cardboard - March 2016

Privacy Policy: The Fundació Lluís Espinal lets it be known that its data are registered in a file under the name BDGACIJ, legal title of the Fundació Lluís Espinal. These are used only for providing the services we render you and for keeping you in form ed of our activities. You may exercise your rights of access, rectification, cancelation or opposition by writing to the Fundació in Barcelona, c/Roger de Llúria, 13. 1. ISLAM, WHERE ARE YOU HEADING?

Islam, the religion of the crescent moon, is expanding in numbers, and it is everywhere present in the mass media. Islam is in turmoil, however, engaged in a profound internal debate where deadly weapons are the only arguments used by some and where words are like razor-sharp swords. This debate is an ideological civil war which involves an infinity of political, social, and economic components.

Contrary to what we may think, Islam circuiting these intra-Islamic debates, is not waging a war against the West. as can be seen in the disastrous con- Rather, it is primarily engaged in an sequences of the Iraq war, but the real internal debate about how Muslims dilemma is an internal one. Muslims and majority Muslim societies should feel impelled not only to respond to live in the 21st century. Consequently, modernity but to create their own even though religious minorities in the version of it so that it is not experienced Arab world are sorely oppressed and simply as westernization. even persecuted, most of the victims The main question, then, is what of terrorism are Muslims. In the same to do today with medieval Islamic law way that Europe is experiencing an in social contexts that are becoming identity crisis and asking itself what it more pluralist and more interrelated is and what it wants to be —and this with global forces. This question of independently of the desire of the im- Islamic law has political, juridical, and migrant Muslim population to prac- social aspects and is also conditioned tice its religion openly— so Islam as by economic factors. However, this a civilization is experiencing an ideo- question must be given a religious logical crisis even as it expands greatly answer before it will be calmly in numbers —and this independently accepted by a majority of the Islamic of what is happening in the Western community. Given the weight of the world. The foreign policies of the West religious component in these countries, are no doubt influencing and short- the long tradition must be reinterpreted 3 in a way that is inspired by faith does not even begin to move toward and not just or secular the solution. criticism. This is the only way that will The philosopher Abdennour Bidar, allow Islam to assume a modernity who resides in France, recently wrote that is more than just the construction one of the most truthful statements I of skyscrapers and the adoption of have ever read: the most advanced technology, as is happening in the Gulf states. Dear , I am one of your far-off sons who view you from outside. […] And Saying «The Islamic State is what do I see? […] I see you giving birth to a monster that presumes not Islam» is not really to call itself the Islamic State. a solution […] And what have you to say to this monster? You shout: «That is not me! That is not Islam!» You The debate is essentially an intra- refuse to accept that the crimes of Islamic one. The failed Arab Springs this monster are committed in your sprang up when these Middle Eastern name. You oppose the monster’s societies stopped projecting all the usurpation of your identity, and blame for their underdevelopment on certainly you are right in your the colonial epoch and U.S. interven- opposition. […] But that is simply tions. Unable to deny their own share not enough! […] You are content of the blame, the Arab world asked simply with expressing your itself: what if the situation in which indignation, but this moment would we find ourselves is mainly of our have been a truly historic occasion own making? What if the ones most for radically questioning your own responsible are our own leaders? So- state of being. Instead of accepting cieties with dictatorial regimes tend your responsibility, you make to lapse into a psychological infirmity accusations: «You Westerners and which projects the societies’ own defi- everyone who hates Islam, stop ciencies and difficulties outward, onto associating us with that monster! others. Islam will be able to reform Terrorism is not Islam. That is not itself only to the extent that it begins to authentic Islam; the true Islam that acknowledge that it has a problem and wants peace, not war!» […] Is all that it must solve the problem itself. this the fault of the West? How That is why the endless declarations much precious time are you going of Muslim leaders condemning the to keep wasting, my dear Muslim terrorist attacks and proclaiming that world, with this stupid accusation «Islam is peace» sound so empty which you don’t believe yourself to the ears of well-intentioned non- and behind which you hide in order Muslims, even when the declarations to keep lying to yourself? It is now are sincere. Stating that the Islamic time for you to recognize that you State or Al-Qaeda is not truly Islamic have been incapable, especially 4 since the 18th century, of responding the archaic religiosity that turns to the challenge of the West, either your super-wealthy Gulf state because you have childishly and «elites» into complacent victims lethally taken refuge in the past suffering from a worldwide with the obscurantist regression of disease: worship of the money. , which continues to What is admirable about you wreak havoc everywhere within today, my friend? What do you your border —a Wahhabism that have left that is able to arouse the you propagate from the holy places respect of other peoples and other of Saudi Arabia like a cancer civilizations of the earth? […] Who coming from your very heart— are your Mandelas? Who are your or because you have followed the Gandhis? Who are your Aung San worst aspects of the West, making Suu Kyis? Where are the great an idol of nationalism or producing thinkers whose books should be a modernism that is a caricature read around the world, as in those of modernity. I want to talk with times when Arab philosophers and you about all that technological mathematicians were renowned development which clashes with from India to Spain?

5 2. WHAT TO DO TODAY WITH ISLAMIC LAW?

The main problem confronting Islam today is identical to the force that contributed to its splendor in the Middle Ages: Islamic law. It was Islamic law above all that gave Muslim civilization the juridical stability that was essential for every type of economic, social, and cultural development.

2.1. Islamic law: the key to past Today, however, Islamic law consti- success but a drag on present tutes a great limitation in a world that progress has other coordinates. In some coun- tries it is still applied integrally, and The development of law derived from in most countries it serves at least as revelation placed a limit on autocratic the source of matrimonial legislation arbitrariness in juridical matters. This distinguished early Islamic society and as the inspiration for certain laws from other societies. If God had of the penal code. In Morocco, for revealed the law, then caliph, king, and example, homosexuality is punished sultan were all subject to the law; they with prison but not with the death only power they had was interpreting penalty. Leaving the Muslim faith and the law (which was no small power!). proselytizing (by a religion other than Consequently, the subjects of the Islam) are condemned, but people are at least knew the rules of not killed for those offenses. Likewise, play, even if they were not always in stoning of adulterers no longer appears agreement, and they could be confident in the legislation. that the ruler would not change the rules at his whim. This confidence brought about the stability that was 2.2. Law as a «way» that leads to necessary for economic progress and salvation thus contributed to the development of But what is Islamic law? The first the arts and sciences. surprise is that you cannot go to any 6 bookstore and buy a copy of it! In a the activity of the Messenger of God certain sense, Islamic law does not that has been considered normative exist as such; rather, it is a theoretical for Muslims and that has been written concept. As Pakistani reformer Fazlur down in the form of or short Rahman stressed, it is necessary to accounts. distinguish Islamic law () and This distinction between Islamic juridical codes (). What we can law and juridical concretion is one of actually hold in our hands are the the key points of the reformist currents codes, especially those of the 9th and within Islam because it frees Islam 10th centuries, which attempted to give from medieval juridical codes that are concrete form to the divine law that incompatible with many human rights. was revealed. But those codes already One interpretative method used by involve juridical interpretation! They the reformists is that of analyzing the are not the revealed law in itself. It is intentionality of Quranic text in order for this reason that Islamic reformers to «follow the arrow» toward what it are calling for a reopening of the doors would mean for our time. One of the of juridical interpretation which will scholars using this methodology is the allow Muslims to return to the Tunisian Mohammed Talbi. If, as many and elaborate legislation adapted Muslims argue, Islam gave women to the present time. In other words, more freedom and more personal dig- although the revealed law may be nity than they had under , immutable, the juridical formulation that means that it is necessary to keep can never be such. For example, the moving in the direction of greater commandment «You shall not kill» is a freedom for women. basic principle, but then the state must determine whether there are exceptions or attenuating circumstances, and what 2.3. A definitive law that they punishments are for those who synthesizes, invalidates, violate the principle. and tolerates Christianity Islamic law should be conceived as and Judaism a set of principles which jurists need The reformist attempts to legitimize a to discern in order to apply them con- different form of Islam are praisewor- cretely to each time and space. Ety- thy, but the fundamentalist current still mologically, the word sharia means has many apparently valid arguments. «path that leads to a source of water.» According to the theology of revelation Accordingly, sharia is not so much of the Sunni Muslim majority, it was a law as the set of principles which the who finalized believers should follow in order to legislative revelation; it was he who reach the waters of paradise. The perfected, completed, synthesized, and main sources describing this path are universalized the earlier revelation primarily the Quran and secondarily the given to Jews and Christians. Islam Sunna, or the Tradition of the Prophet that, just as God revealed the Muhammad. The Sunna relates all Quran to Muhammad, so also he re- 7 vealed a legislative Book to Noah, to , who held that Abraham, to Moses, and to Jesus. To the God revealed to Moses the Torah, with degree that humankind kept advancing, its image of a severe God and its great God provided legislation appropriate profusion of norms, because it was the for its stage of development. most adequate legislation for humani- In stating that God has given a Law ty in its infancy. When humankind to each of the great , Islam reached the stage of adolescence, God understands not only that God revealed sent Jesus with the Gospel, which to each prophet certain articles of emphasized love and suppressed the faith, certain moral norms, and certain great majority of the Jewish norms. instructions about how God should be With the passage of time, humanity worshiped, but that God has also given reached maturity, and God revealed a them a civil law code that regulates new, synthetic religion which surpassed family matters, economic affairs, and the preceding ones. Just a mature man criminal justice. Islam holds that the recovers the best of his childhood after basic content of faith revealed to every having rejected it during adolescence, prophet is the same, namely, that there Islam recovered the normativity of only one God, that he communicates Judaism but made it less severe and to the world by means of angels and integrated it with Christian love in the form of mercy. Muhammad Abduh prophets, and that he judges each per- taught that the opposition between the son according to his or her works on severe God of Judaism and the loving the Day of Judgment. The precepts of God of Christianity finds a synthesis in prayer and almsgiving are also present the just and merciful God of Islam. No in all the revelations, but the manner doubt Jews could reply that the Muslim of their observance and other concrete concept of mercy (rahma, meaning legal prescriptions are different in each «female womb») is completely Jewish, revealed religion, according to the and Christians might protest at seeing divine will. the commandment of love described Islam does not recognize the con- as a self-centered type of adolescent cept of Covenant (which entails a com- love, but it is vital that we understand mitment by both parties, with rights that this is the way Muslims view their and duties of mutual defense and as- religion: they sincerely believe that sistance), but it does recognize a pact it is less legalist and oppressive than of vassalage by which God’s lordship Judaism and that it avoids the laxity of is acknowledged. God is the only Lord, Christianity. and human beings are his servants or To understand present-day Islam slaves. Since humanity passes through we must appreciate its legalist aspect diverse stages, it requires different types and not consider it a purely negative of legislation. For a Muslim, therefore, characteristic. Muslims believe that Judaism and Christianity are also divine the Jews should have been converted to religions, at least in their original form. Christianity when Christ appeared, and One of the principal leaders of the that Christians should have recognized reformist current was the Egyptian Muhammad as God’s final Messenger. 8 Just as it does not make sense in a not really the last of the prophets and nation to observe a penal code that that the Quran is not the definitive was abrogated in the last reform, so Book. How is it possible to confront Muslims do not understand why Chris- the fundamentalist assumption of this and Jews do not embrace Islam. argument? Out of respect for Moses and Jesus, Islamic law grants a protected status to Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians, 2.4. Legislative revelation closed but it requires them to pay a tax and but juridical interpretation open show proper submission and humility. If the law of Muhammad is definitive, Also, they are expressly prohibited if God is not going to reveal any new from converting Muslims. In a tradi- law, and if all juridical novelty (bida’) tional Muslim nation there can be is condemned, then the only alterna- religious tolerance but not religious tive is juridical interpretation. That is, liberty. Islam in this regard is not original; it simply adopted the Byzan- even though some of the Quran’s verses tine Christian legislation that was lay down specific juridical norms used for Jews and other religious (such as Surah 4, on women), most of minorities. As with other legal dispo- the book is exhortatory and sapiential sitions, these prescriptions of Islamic in nature. An interpretative juridical law are applied only in some countries, effort (ijtihâd) is therefore needed in while in others there persists «only» order to elaborate legislation based on a certain legal inferiority and tacit the Quran. Likewise, the hadith about forms of discrimination against non- the prophet Muhammad need this same Muslims. kind of interpretative effort in order to translate the stories of the prophet’s prohibitions or recommendations into concrete dispositions. This is so be- What authority do human cause claiming that something which beings have to «invent» Muhammad prohibited in one context a new law adapted to should continue to be prohibited in the 21st century? other contexts is already a juridical interpretation. This main work of juridical inter- Given this situation, one can under- pretation was carried out basically in stand how powerful is the temptation the 10th and 11th centuries, but it con- to consider as the «true and tinued for a century or two more. This original» Islam. What is the logic be- effort produced numerous juridical hind this view? If Muhammad came to schools that undertook to translate the bring the definitive Law, what authority Quran and the hadith into codes of law. do human beings have to «invent» a When it is said today that a country has new law adapted to the 21st century? If imposed Islamic law, what is meant in it were true that a new law was needed, reality is that the country has imposed that would mean that Muhammad was one of the schools of those earlier cen- 9 turies. This is true even of the medieval four, thus closing itself off to every Salafi school, which claims that it is effort at juridical innovation and con- not interpreting but taking the original demns itself to an «eternal return» of material in its purest form. the same. Because of the profusion of schools Today the reform movement within of interpretation and the many argu- the Sunni world is calling for Islam to ments among them, Islam decided to open the door once again to juridical limit the number of official schools to interpretation.

10 3. ISLAM, A PLURALIST WORLD

There have always been literalist interpretations of the Quran that do not take context into consideration, but present-day Islamic fundamentalism has some traits that are very modern. Such fundamentalism is basically founded on medieval authors like Ibn Hanbal or Ibn Tamiyyah, who rejected what they called the speculations of reason and advocated returning directly to the Quran, taking it just as it is.

3.1. Fundamentalist Salafism in Spain and France are in favor of this type of Islam. On the face of it, Modern Salafism appeared before the who can deny that wanting to be like colonial era in which Islamic countries the first community of believers is a were subjected to Western powers, and praiseworthy effort? before any awareness of the distance Salafism is not synonymous with that exists between contemporary terrorism although some individuals Islam and the original faith. who embrace it may engage in terrorism. «Salaf» means «ancestor» in Ara- Most Salafists are simply pious ultra- bic. Muslim fundamentalists see any conservatives who preach that Muslims «evolution» of Islam in a negative must avoid becoming Westernized. A light. Such «evolution» means that the good number of them are apolitical; religion has deviated illicitly from its their priority is helping wayward, lax, origins and that it is necessary to return or sinful Muslims to return to the strict to the religion of the community of practice of Islam. The Salafists consider Muhammad’s time. This fundamenta- mainstream Islam to be its primary list current has a neurotic-obsessive enemy. They unreservedly condemn character insofar as it seeks to imitate both «traditional» Islam, which they every aspect of the Prophet’s behavior, believe has progressively deviated even the most prosaic details of every- from its origins, and mystical or Sufi day existence. Opinion polls that ask Islam, which they believe is influenced about topics like polygamy, stoning, by animism and Christianity. Since etc. indicate that 10-15% of Muslims Salafism is a pietistic form of Islam that 11 condemns democracy. Salafists have that certain traditions, prohibitions, no interest in politics and refuse to take and allowances that the traditionalists part in elections when they are held. claim to be important or even essential In some cases Salafism becomes to Islam are actually products of «political» and seeks power by such history. The Salafists and the reformists «illicit» means as democracy, but it want to return to the purity of Islam, does so, naturally, only for the purpose although in different ways and with of suppressing democracy. This is what different results. The former denounce happened when the Salafi party took all innovations, while the latter deplore part in the Egyptian elections after the the lack of rational thought in the faith fall of Mubarak. of Muslims. They also criticize the Finally, there is the jihadist current superstitions of the simple folk and of Salafism, which enters into the the animist or pagan influences in the political realm with such a great sense practice of Islam in some countries. of urgency that it legitimizes violence On occasions reformist (and even as a way of achieving its objectives. Salafist) women denounce traditional The principal exporter of the Sala- Islam’s neglect of certain compensa- fist ideology is Saudi Arabia. For fear tions that were formerly provided that the movement might turn against women by strict Islamic law. In this it, Saudi Arabia defends only the apo- way they defend the rights of women. litical forms of Salafism, even though it also produces very undesirable offspring, like Al Qaeda. 3.3. Reformism The reformist current (islâh) arose mainly in Egypt toward the end of 3.2. Traditional Islam the 20th century, as many Muslims In order to understand contemporary came to realize that Islam had lost its Islam, we need to speak about the preeminent position in the world and mainstream traditionalist positions. had let itself be colonized by the West. There really does not exist any struc- Responding to the crisis, Muhammad tured current that calls itself «tradi- Abduh asserted that Islam had lost its tionalist,» but the concept is a neces- scientific, reasoned approach and that sary one to help us understand the rise the West, by assuming and developing both of Salafism and of reformism. In such an approach, had surpassed Islam. every religion (and in every culture!) This author, after returning from a stay we find traditionalist postures that in France, reportedly declared: «In the strive to maintain rites and customs West I have seen Islam without finding that are considered essential to the Muslims. Here at home I see Muslims, religion’s identity. Both the Salafists but I don’t find Islam.» For Abduh, this and the reformists denounce main- European Islam without Muslims was stream traditionalism as a force that science and reason. Abduh helped to has gradually distorted the original propagate an interpretation of history purity of the Islam. They both assert which taught that the death of Averroes 12 (1198) and the earlier burning of narrating the history of the beginnings his books by the Andalusian caliph of Islam was written in the 9th century symbolized the definitive decline of even though it based its authenticity Muslim culture, whereas the influence on a «sound» chain of transmitters of of Averroes’ work at the University the stories. Since there were literally of Paris marked a new beginning for thousands of stories and sayings intellectual development in the West. attributed to the Prophet, and since it The Muslim world’s return to science was suspected that many of them had and reason during the 20th century has been created by persons who wanted paradoxically combined unconditional to add authority to their own opinions, acceptance of technology with a Islam at a very early stage developed cultural mentality fixed in the past. a «science of hadith» in order to The Gulf states especially are suffering analyze and evaluate their content. from a severe case of schizophrenia. This science also verified the integrity Another strange manifestation of of the lives of the transmitters who this return to science is the abundance had handed on each story orally, from of contemporary apologetic studies the original eyewitness account to the that meticulously dissect every verse moment when it was written down. of the Quran solely for the purpose of Islam canonized seven collections of seeking prophecies of modern scien- hadith which it considered authentic. tific discoveries: the invention of the Muhammad Abduh cast doubt on these light bulb, the theory of the Big Bang, collections, but few other reformist the flatness of the planet at its poles, Muslim writers followed him in casting etc. There is ample literature on these such a wide net of suspicion. The themes today. application of the methods of modern Probably the most significant criticism to this body of texts has yet to current of reformism is the Muslim be undertaken. It is important to note Brotherhood, which was founded in the practical consequences that such a Egypt by Hassan al-Banna and is much procedure could have on Islamic law. more conservative than the spirit that Since a major portion of its norms have guided Muhammad Abduh. Abduh no Quranic support but rely solely on claimed that his project was inspired the corpus of hadith, casting doubt on by the Protestant Reformation: just them means calling into question a as Luther wanted to return to sola large part of Islamic law. Scriptura, thus rejecting all church tradition that had no explicit biblical foundation, so Abduh wanted to main- Reformism calls for a tain the Quran as the only normative book for Islam. We have already seen re-opening of juridical that the sources of Islamic Law are the interpretation Quran and the Sunna, Abduh raised questions about the reliability of the whole textual corpus of the hadith. Reformism calls for a re-opening of We know, in fact, that this literature juridical interpretation in order to 13 create new laws for today’s world. imposing on Jewish adulterers the Such fresh interpretation would be punishment dictated by their own based on the distinction between the Jewish law. The reformists therefore Islamic Law (sharia) as revealed conclude that, given the scarcity of principles and the juridical codes (fiqh) cases and the difficulty of find four as creative human interpretation. This witnesses, the punishment of stoning distinction is the best means reformism was formulated by God to indicate the has for fighting against Salafism. seriousness of adultery but was not to While Salafism may convince many be practiced. Some reformists, such as Muslims because of its «apparent» Mohammed Diakho, go still further. truth, reformism can say: «That God Considering the strange fact that has revealed a definitive, immutable stoning does not appear in the Quran Law is one thing, but the juridical and yet Muhammad ordered people codes (fiqh) were elaborated through to be stoned on several occasions, the efforts of human interpreters, and these reformists conclude that the they are not definitive and immutable.» Prophet was probably just applying Let us take an example. In the the Jewish law until the moment when case of adultery, classical Islamic law the Quranic verse was revealed to him. dictates stoning for guilty persons Accordingly, stoning was effectively who are married and flagellation for abrogated by the Quran and should those who are unmarried (single, di- therefore be prohibited in Islam and vorced, widowed, etc.). For such an replaced by flagellation. extreme sentence to be passed, four eyewitness testimonies are needed, something extremely difficult to get. 3.4. Modernist reformism Unfortunately, in some countries en- Right now there are a great many forcement of the law has resulted in the Muslims who are active in the reformist stoning of mostly women offenders, movement or who are convinced that a considering them guilty even when they reform of Islam is necessary. They are are raped after finding themselves alone especially active in India and Pakistan, in some remote place. In such cases, but also in Egypt, Tunisia, and other Salafists would demand that the penalty countries. be imposed equally, insisting that both There exists still another current the man and the woman be stoned. of thought that seeks to reform Islam, In contrast, the reformists consider but it does by focusing on the need the following elements. First, nothing for modernity, democracy, and human about stoning appears in the Quran. rights. We can call this the «modernist» Second, although Muhammad ordered current of Islam. both men and women to be stoned, Since the focal point of ordinary he did do so on no more than five reformism is fidelity to revelation, occasions according to the hadith. it maintains itself perfectly within Moreover, in several of those cases «.» It seeks reform in order Muhammad was doing no more than to be more faithful to the origins and 14 thus to achieve a «renaissance,» an vation (bida´) that is still maintained «awakening,» or a new «flourishing» by ordinary reformism. If Islam once of Islam in the world. Thus the name succeeded in creating an empire, the of the Tunisian party that is closely modernists argue, it was precisely related to the Muslim Brotherhood is because of its ability to innovate and to Ennahda (=renaissance). adopt what was best in the Byzantine In contrast, modernist reformism and Persian worlds. focuses on the need for religion to respond to the imperative of human rights. These two types of reformism 3.5. : the vivifying spirit agree on many points, but the modernist Although it is situated on a very current is sometimes criticized by the different plane, we must not forget other one for «forcing» the ancient texts the current of Islam called Sufism. in an effort to make them compatible Sometimes called «mystical Islam,» with the modern Western world. The Sufism is an esoteric spirituality that modernist understanding of Islam was born at the crossroads between allows for a true feminist movement the Islamic, Persian, Christian, and and even open acknowledgement of Neo-Platonist worlds. It shares many homosexuality. Its arguments allow coordinates with the Jewish . for reinterpretation of creation; for example, it holds that God did not first create the man and then extract the woman from his side, but rather God created human unity in the world as «the heart of Islam» a reflection of his own unity and then Sufism wants to be dissociated it into male and female. Also, the of the people of Lot is Sufism wants to be «the heart of condemned not as a sin of sodomy but Islam.» Just as a physical body dies as the violation of a guest. without a heart, Sufism seeks to im- Logically, modernism needs to go part life and spirit to the superficial, beyond interpretation based solely on ritualistic, and literalist practice of Is- «the author’s intention.» It needs a lam. In Sufism, a person places himself hermeneutics that conceives of inter- beneath the tutelage of a spiritual master pretation as the «fusion of the horizons» (sheif) who possesses knowledge of the of the author and the reader; even occult and who guides him on his path though separated by centuries of history, of spiritual ascent. author and reader find themselves being Strictly speaking, there are relatively projected mutually toward one another. few Muslims who belong to a fraternity The Egyptian exile Nasr Hamid Abu and have this type of master-disciple Zayd clearly expressed the need to relationship, but there is an important adopt Gadamer’s style of hermeneutics. minority of persons who sympathize The modernist current does away with this spirituality. Sufis may even with the prohibition of juridical inno- constitute a majority in countries of 15 sub-Saharan Africa like Senegal. While understand the suspicions that many Saudi Arabians, and Salafists general- Muslims have regarding Sufism: does ly, call the adherents of Sufism heretics not making humanity a manifestation of and persecute them, ordinary reformism God contradict God’s transcendence? views them with a certain suspicion Despite all this, Sufism declares because of the of some that it is entirely Islamic. of their positions and also because of (d. 1240) explained that he did not some of their practices (such as believe in the . For him, the use of drugs in some groups in the creatures always maintain the status Far East for the purpose of achieving of servants of slaves (‘abd), and God ecstasy). Certain countries, such as never ceases to be the Lord (Rabb). Morocco, support a type of moderate, According to Sufi , creatures reformed, and apolitical Sufism as a reveal God because they «vest» way of struggling against Salafism. themselves with his attributes, but the Despite certain excesses that Sufi garment never affects the essence. In groups have committed in their history, reality, it is not that God «appears» the mystical literature of Sufism is humanized but rather that human a valuable spiritual patrimony for beings «appear» divinized, vested with humanity; its esthetic beauty and its divine attributes. Without that garment profundity produce great peace in the a human being (like a ghost without a soul. In Sufism the profession of faith, sheet) would not appear at all because «There is no god but » becomes human beings in themselves are pure «There is not Other apart from Allah.» nothingness. They are something only In Sufism, Islam’s passion for unity is insofar as they are God. carried to its ultimate consequences: The path of the mystic is a path any affirmation of the existence of of spiritual ascent which follows the something outside of God, any belief steps of the Prophet’s «night journey.» that something has being apart from This journey is both transformative God implies a certain degree of and gnostic (leading to an increase in «associationism» or polytheism. Rather profound knowledge). Little by little than a form of , Sufism is a the Sufi becomes more truly what he kind of pan-en-: everything is in already is, letting his hidden essence God. For the Sufi, the hidden, invisible blossom externally. Since all creatures God appears as a «theophany» in are simply the manifestation of some creatures. The world is the appearance divine quality, the disciple continually of God, who can be seen only by discovers, with the help of his master, covering or veiling himself. Like the what the essence of his soul is, and once light of the sun, which can be viewed he discovers it, he draws on its deepest directly only through thick veils, the qualities and makes them visible in his infinite clarity of God can be seen only attitudes and actions. The One whose through the veils of earthly bodies. essence is to be the All-Merciful irra- The Platonic myth of the cave is still diates all the disciple’s being with completely valid in Sufism. We can mercy.

16 4. THE GRAN SCHISM: SUNNI AND SHIA

This presentation of the various currents of frees us from the idea of a superficial, monolithic, ritualistic religion that has not changed since the Middle Ages. The depth of the discussions among Muslims is something about which most Westerners have little knowledge.

4.1. The conflict over caliph should be chosen from among political-religious leaders the holiest and most virtuous men of the community, while the Shia argued Nevertheless, we must still present the major division in Islam, the one that the leader should come from the between Sunni and Shia. Like Chris- family of the Prophet. claimed tianity, Islam has not only different this dignity for himself since he was currents of thought and spirituality Muhammad’s cousin and was married but also doctrinal differences that are to his daughter. The Shia also claimed important enough to divide the reli- that Muhammad had designated Ali gion into distinct denominations. as his successor. The Sunni, on the There are three main confessional other hand, defended the traditional groups in the Islamic world: the pre-Islamic Arab way, which consisted Sunni, the Shia, and the Khariji (or in having the new leader chosen by Ibadi). According to tradition, the consensus among the tribal leaders. dispute that fractured the community The history of this period still needs to began right after Muhammad died be examined critically. in 632. Differences arose about who In any case, Muslim historiography should lead the community, and the dates the split to the assassination situation became explosive after the of the third caliph, Uthman (d 656). assassination of the fourth caliph. Muhammad’s widow, Aisha, and the The maintained that the governor of Syria, Muawiyah, blamed 17 Ali blamed for the murder. Although millennial culture and with two other Ali succeeded in being named the important religions: Zoroastrianism fourth caliph, he was not recognized and Manichaeism. by his accusers. When war broke out, he peacefully retired to his own city. He and his son Hassan (d. 661) Shiism is were subsequently killed by some of the inculturation their followers who were demanding direct confrontation with Muawiyah. A of Islam in Persia confrontation finally took place in 680 in the battle of Karbala, where Ali’s second son, Hussein, died. Hussein is In fact, primitive Shiism has many remembered even today in a bloody of the same elements that we mentioned celebration that is the principal feast with regard to Sufism. It conceives all of the Shia. From that moment on, the reality in a bipolar, two-dimensional followers of Ali, the Shia, had to live way: hidden and revealed, invisible separately from the Sunni. and visible, esoteric and exoteric, profound and superficial, interior and exterior, spiritual and material. Every 4.2. The primitive and esoteric reality is like a coin with two sides, mysticism of the Shia one looking toward , the other looking toward earth. The memory of this violent confron- The hidden dimension of reality is tation and the persecution of the Shia inaccessible to most people. It requires by the Umayyad caliphs of a special illumination of the intellect, a still feeds the tensions that are felt to- gift conceded to a spiritual elite which day. However, we should not think that allows them to penetrate the superficial these tensions have been caused only aspect of reality and reach what is most by the ambition for power, without profound in it. In Sufism these «gnostics» any ideological, cultural, or religious are saints, and often they serve as background. If we examine the zones spiritual guides for the fraternities. They of Shia influence, we see that they coin- know the souls of their disciples better cide with the areas in which the ancient than the disciples themselves do. In the Persian empire held sway. Moreover, it case of Shiism, those who receive this is surprising and significant that Iran gift are called imam (not to be confused has preserved the Persian language with the «imans,» the ones who guide despite having been Islamized so early. the prayer of Sunni Islam!). The imam The Shia movement claimed its receives illumination from a divine authority in Persia with the help of a Light that is continually transmitted as narrative that asserted that Ali’s son tradition from generation to generation, married the daughter of the last Persian from imam to imam. The divine Light king. The Shia form of Islam, therefore, originates in the Adam of Light, who is could actually be the result of the in- the visible image of the invisible God. culturation of Islam in a region with a This Adam is known in Judaism as the 18 heavenly Adam, he is known in Sufism clerical establishment has the power to as the Reality of Muhammad, and he create jurisprudence since it receives was known in Arian Christianity as the visitations from the angel Gabriel . For Shiism everything has two dimensions, and this applies as well to 4.3. Is a Shia state a betrayal of the Quranic revelation and every other the origins? revelation. When God revealed the text Just as Sunni Islam is rife with different of the Torah to Moses, he also revealed currents of thought, so also Shiism to an imam (whom they identify with experiences intense debates within Aaron) the hidden meaning of the Law. its ranks. The most important debate When God revealed the Gospel to is linked to the political shape that Jesus, he revealed to John the Baptist Shiism has taken in Iran. Even though or to Saint Peter (depending on the it has been especially influenced by the Shia tradition) the esoteric content of Khomeini revolution, the type of Islam this book. Finally, when the Quran was practiced in Iran actually originated given to Muhammad, its inner meaning in 1501, when the Safavid dynasty was given to Ali. established Shiism as the One of the many groups that have official religion of the country. This arisen within Shiism carried this decision put a brake on the Ottoman philosophy to its ultimate consequences, empire, which already controlled asserting that if Ali received the hidden a large part of the Mediterranean. meaning and Muhammad received Many Shia, however, interpreted this the text, and if the hidden meaning is identification of religion with political the essence and the literal text is only power as a betrayal of their religious the appearance, that means that Ali is origins. The Shia community had been superior to Muhammad. This group obliged to live their first centuries by even talked about the indwelling of God using taquiyya or dissimulation since in the spiritual elite. So we can well they were unable to manifest their understand why this form of Shiism beliefs openly. Living in «hiddenness» was condemned by the Sunni! became identified as the very soul of In any case, Ali transmitted his Light Islam. Indeed, Sufism even claimed to to his sons, inaugurating a chain of be the heart of Islam! The Shia accused transmission that lasted seven genera- the Sunni of living at a superficial level tions (for the Ishmaelite Shia) or and restricting themselves to visible even twelve generations (for the Twelver practices and literal interpretations. Shia). The last imam disappeared while Shiism also prohibited its members from still alive and left no descendents; he holding political posts because that would is expected to reappear as a messianic mean dealing with the visible world and figure at the end of history, along with collaborating with persecutors. When Jesus. He is called the «.» the persecutions ceased, this prohibition This theology confers on Shiism naturally became less meaningful, but a strong clerical character, and the some Shia still saw close identification 19 with a regime such as that of Iran as cases has earned a university degree being unfaithful to their roots. in Islamic law. However, he is not a «sacred» person, nor does he have any special participation in . Shiism prohibits the holding He simply exercises a function. The of political posts Sunni iman serves for a time and then changes to another job. Many Islamic countries have a At the same time, even though government ministry of religious affairs Iranian society is largely conservative, which regulates religious practice and the fusion of clerical power and contracts imans to serve as functionaries political power is making many young in public . In order to avoid people adverse to religion, a situation the propagation of Islamist radicalism, similar to what was experiences in many countries (such as Morocco) Spain during the Franco era. have gradually closed down private mosques. In Turkey any person can finance the construction of a private 4.4. Shia clericalism vs. Sunni , but the imans who preside secularism in them must graduate from a public It makes no sense to ask whether faculty of Islamic theology. Shiism is more open and tolerant than Sunni Islam represents about 85- Sunnism, just as it would be hard 90% of all the Muslims in the world. to answer a similar question about Ibadism is significant only in Oman. Catholicism and . Still, at The rest of Muslims are Shia. Most the risk of over-simplification, it may Shia live in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon be said that Shiism is more «Catholic» (Hezbollah), but there are many groups and Sunnism is more «Protestant.» that have split off from the main trunk, Sunnism has religious leaders, but such as the Ishmaelites of Agha Khan, they are not clerics. The Sunni iman, the Zaidi of Yemen, the of who directs the prayers in a mosque, Syria, the Alevi of Turkey, and the is simply someone who knows well of Lebanon. These last two the foundations of Islam because he groups have relatively few elements in has received formation and in some common with the rest of Islam.

20 5. THE MYSTICISM OF EVERYDAY ISLAM

Despite the divisions, all Muslims share some basic pillars that they agree upon.

5.1. «All eyes converge toward those who tore down the walls of the One» Constantinople. Taking the name of God in vain while committing an The first pillar is the profession of faith in the oneness of God and in Muhammad’s assault should be considered much role as the final prophet and legislator. more offensive than simple cartoons. The oft-repeated exclamation «Allâh-u Attacking innocent people while hold- Akbar» defines a that is ing up the Quran should be seen as a removed from all . much greater blasphemy that the act of It should not be translated simply as a crazy American pastor in burning a «God is greater» (which would be Quran, because if there is anyone who «Allâh-u al-Akbar») but as «God is reduces the image of God to his own (always) greater.» It is very similar ideology, it is the terrorist. to the traditional Latin phrase «Deus To this transcendent God are semper maior». God always surpasses attributed all the perfections that Greek any image we can have of him. That is philosophy could imagine; no limitation why Islam prohibits all images of God, can be place on God. The Muslim God but it does not reach the iconoclastic may seem distant or absent, but he is extremes of the earliest Buddhism, a God «who sees everything»; he is a which prohibited even mental images. God who is «closer to man than his own Unfortunately the exclamation jugular vein.» He is a God to whom Allâh-u Akbar has been perverted by can be applied the mystical description being used as a war cry. It is used by of Saint Augustine: «Intimior intimo angry crowds when they feel offended, meo et superior summo meo», «more it is used by jihadists waging «holy intimate to me than my innermost being, war,» and in the past it was used by and higher than my highest reach». 21 God surpasses all creatures both within a kind of ritual prayer, not simple and without; he can never exist at the meditation. It has strict conditions for same level as creatures. Islam express- validity, just as a Christian sacrament ly denounces the Christian concept of does. That is why, when a group or- «God-with-us.» Only Sufism has devel- ganizes some kind of «interreligious oped a mysticism which stresses a uni- prayer,» Muslims never translate it tive, spousal relationship with God. into as «salat». Ordinarily they This does not mean that Islam has would call it «liqâ’» (encounter) a problem with mysticism. Despite its although the most correct term would juridical image, Islam has developed be either «dhikr» (invocation or call- a mysticism of complete and ing on God) or «ta´ammul» (medita- dedication to God. Certainly, anything tion). «absolute» must be discerned carefully in order to avoid totalitarianism, but Islam is capable of generating enormous A Muslim city appears to be acts of generosity in believers. They are an immense monastery moved by their passion for the One, and this passion unites them into a close community. The prayer on Friday, when The opportunity of praying at all believers looks toward the same dawn, at midday, at mid-afternoon, at focal point and bow down together, sunset, and at night offers Muslims produces in Muslims a profound sense the experience of a life completely of communion. Similarly, the coming devoted to God. The One God unifies together of three million Muslims in the the whole day without distinguishing annual celebration of the pilgrimage to the profane from the sacred, just as Mecca is an unparalleled experience, he unifies the social sphere without even from just an anthropological distinguishing the political from the point of view. Although racism has religious. Political life is also religious sometimes existed in the Arab world, life, and that is why Islamic law also the movement of African American affects the political dimension. When a converts in the U.S. known as the Nation society lives entirely by this rhythm of of Islam arose precisely out of their prayer, the city takes on the appearance experience of universal communion, at of an immense monastery. a time when the races were segregated Each period of prayer lasts about in that country. Malcolm X confirmed five minutes so that in most cases that the reason for his conversion was fitting into one’s daily schedule is not seeing all the races united in Mecca. a problem. There is no obligation to go to the mosque except at midday on Friday. During Friday noon prayer, 5.2. Like monks in their everyday the iman delivers a long sermon, in lives which he often mentions events that The second pillar of Islam is prayer happened during the week. Women (salat) recited five times a day. It is are not obliged to go, but if they do 22 go, they stay in back. It is claimed that was inspired by the strict Lenten fast men cannot concentrate if they have a of the Eastern Church, Ramadan is woman prostrate before them. theologically and anthropologically equivalent to the Christian Christmas. According to tradition, this is the 5.3. Alms as justice month when the Quran descended The third pillar is alms (). from heaven. Believers must fast from Islam is a religion for this world. It everything that is not the Quran in does not command things that are order to be filled with its Word. The impossible or that are only for a select companions of the Prophet said that minority. The precept of giving alms he appeared to be a living Quran. is one that can be followed by anyone Fasting in order to receive the Quran who has a minimum of economic from heaven is similar to the gesture solvency. The term zakat literally performed by various Old Testament means «purification.» The faithful are prophets who were told to «eat» the purified by means of their alms, which sacred book. It is also reminiscent of they donate in the mosques at the end the Christian tradition of becoming of Ramadan. In Spain the normal more Christlike by welcoming the des- donation is five Euros per person. cent of the Word, Jesus. The donations are used to propagate Islam and to help the poor. In Islam alms are not simple charity, nor are Ramadan is the equivalent they something that depends just on of the Christian Christmas the believers’ generosity. They are obligatory because they are a matter of justice. Muslims are continually being The month of Ramadan is cele- educated about the need for generosity brated by decorating and illuminating and the need to dethrone money as an the streets, by Christmas-like family idol (even though the Gulf states seem feasting, and by practicing generosity. to contradict this ideal). Many Muslims are very scrupulous in Traditional Islam has a structure for their observance of the fast, believing collection of taxes based on a certain that even the tiniest introduction of percentage of the economic return that liquid into the body, such as eye drops a Muslim has during the year. or mouthwash, breaks the fast. During Ramadan there is a change in the hours of social life. When pos- 5.4. Fasting from everything sible, people try to sleep in the in order to be filled morning and work at night. The prac- with the Quran tice of fasting becomes much more The fourth pillar is fasting (sawm) dur- complicated in non-Muslim countries, ing the month of Ramadan. The people especially when the ninth lunar month take no water or food from sunrise falls during the summer of our solar to sunset. Even though this practice calendar. 23 5.5. Pilgrimage to the center to Mecca, Saudi Arabia has to assign of the world quotas for each country. Meanwhile, Finally, the fifth pillar of faith for all gigantic construction projects have Muslims, including Shia and women, been initiated to increase tenfold the is the precept of making a pilgrimage capacity of the Grand Mosque of to Mecca once in one’s life if health Mecca. The Ka’aba is a cube-shaped and finances make it possible. Over building covered with a black cloth; the course of several days the pilgrims it was venerated even before the birth perform diverse related to the of Islam. It is said that Muhammad life of Abraham, his slave Hagar, and ordered the inside it to be his son Ishmael. The most important destroyed. At the present time the rituals are walking seven times around interior is empty and has marble the Ka’aba, the stoning of some col- decoration of questionable taste. umns that symbolize the devil, and For Muslims the Ka’aba is the the sacrifice of a lamb in commemo- center of the world. The circles they ration of the lamb that was substituted trace around the small building are for the son of Abraham. During those thought to resemble the orbits of the same days the Muslims who have re- planets or even the circling of the mained at home celebrate the Feast of angels around the Throne of Mercy. the Sacrifice by slaughtering an animal. Profound emotion is awakened in the Since it is impossible to welcome at pilgrims by this earthly representation once all the pilgrims who wish to come of cosmic and celestial movement.

24 6. THE ARAB CIVIL WAR

Having presented the foregoing background, we are now in a position to understand better the drama of the Near East. The various Arab Springs have become not only Arab winters but Arab .

6.1. Syria: one drama, were removed easily. The international many actors community (including Arab countries) had too many accounts to settle with The causes of the present situation are manifold: ideological, religious, Gaddafi to refrain from intervening in economic, political.... The invasion of the conflict. If Saddam Hussein had Iraq was certainly the principal cause continued in power, he also would of the chaos now being experienced have been affected by the uprisings. in Syria and Iraq, but the turmoil All the presidents fell, but the kings has also been fueled by religious survived. fundamentalism, political extremism, Turkey completely sealed its bor- and generalized corruption. ders against the passage of Islamists, The rise of the Islamic State has been arms, and petroleum. It initially sup- helped both by the Shia sectarianism ported the moderate rebels, the Free of the Iraqi government installed after Syria Army, but this force was soon the U.S. invasion and by the contagion eclipsed by the entrance on the scene of the Arab Spring in Syria. France and of two other forces: the various armed Turkey believed that Basher al-Assad groups linked to Al Qaeda and to would fall as quickly as had other Arab the Muslim Brotherhood, and more leader: Ben Ali in Tunisia, Mubarak in recently the Islamic State. Because of Egypt, Ali Abdullah Sale in Yemen, the staying power of the Assad regime, and Gaddafi in Libya. The president the disastrous situation in post-Gaddafi of Libya chose resistance, whereas Libya, and the growing power of Al Ben Ali, Mubarak, and Ali Abdullah Qaeda before the Islamic State split off 25 from it, the U.S. and France delayed of military men and ideologues who their decision of to launch an attack were rejected after the Iraq invasion, to overthrow al-Assad after his forces why have they produced such a cruel used chemical weapons. and violent form of Islamism? After all, the Baath party has always tended to socialism and was secular rather Basher al-Assad appears to than religious. be the lesser evil Some important Western thinkers, who favor the fall of al-Assad since they consider him a key piece of the The Basher al-Assad regime has problem, consider the radical Islamism striven to present itself as the defender of the Islamic State to be a pure façade, of the country’s minorities and as the a propaganda device for recruitment lesser evil compared to the barbarities purposes. To be sure, Saddam Hussein, of the Islamic State. That is perhaps before he fell, made many religious the reason why al-Assad at first appeals (as Bush did), but his discourse concentrated his attack on the moderate rang hollow. It is possible, all the rebels. He knew that the growth of the same, that there will be a progressive Islamist threat would, paradoxically, Islamicization of a part of the Syrian give him more possibility of con- army for the sake of gaining greater tinuing in power. If the fear of radical legitimacy. However that may be, Islamism’s taking control of Syria propaganda based on Islamist terrorism were to disappear, the West and with will appeal only to people who already the Gulf States would bring his regime have extreme religious convictions. down. For its part, the Islamic State What is certain that there are has been especially virulent in its fight presently in Syria seven armies all against the Free Syria Army and has fighting against one another, in a not yet sought to launch a frontal attack kind of game of Parcheesi in which to conquer Damascus. Is it because unnatural alliances are formed for gaining such a victory would be very the sake of defeating a third foe. The difficult? Is it because the West would five principal armies in the war are feel obliged to intervene if the “greater the government army, the Free Syria evil” triumphed? Or is because there Army, Al Qaeda (al-Nusra Front), the are obscure ties between these two Islamic State, and the Kurdish army. opponents? Let us recall that the Islamic State was born in Iraq out of the remnants 6.2. What country provides us of Saddam Hussein’s army and secret hope? services. The deposed government had The panorama presented by the other belonged to the Baath party, the same Arab League countries is also disheart- one that Basher al-Assad belongs to. ening. Libya is a failed state with two The puzzling question is this: if the governments, and the one recognized Islamic State was born of the huge mass by the international community is not 26 in the capital. Moreover, the Islamic Tunisia is a country that is dealing State and other terrorist groups control admirably with the serious problems several zones of the country. it is experiencing. Its small size, its Egypt, with President el-Sisi, is ex- secular tradition, and its high education periencing a period of political repres- level compared to Egypt have helped sion that is greater than it was in it to avoid that country’s errors. The Mubarak’s time. Paradoxically, the moderate Islamist party, though close country is being sustained economically to the Muslim Brotherhood, was more by Saudi Arabia. Egypt’s fight against intelligent than the Brotherhood: it the Muslim Brotherhood (which is knew enough to renounce its power, supported by Qatar) is of vital interest thus making a smooth transition to Saudi Arabia since the Brotherhood possible after several politicians were questions the Saudi political regime. A killed. Because of recent terrorist delegation of the Islamic State is also attacks, however, tourism (a key piece present in the Egyptian Sinai. in the economy) has disappeared. In Yemen the civil war continues Moreover, there are terrorist groups between Sunni supporters of the (some coming from the war in Mali) president and an important minority camped on Tunisia’s open borders of the country’s Shia. Even though the with Algeria and Libya, and thousands Shia form part of Zaidism (one of the of Tunisians have gone to fight as first breakaways from Shiism), they jihadists with the Islamic State! When are supported by Iran. Saudi Arabia, they return, they will be extremely for its part, has been providing military dangerous. support to the government. If we continue around the map of Algeria remains calm even though Africa, we see even more reasons for the country has seen confrontations pessimism. Somalia is another failed between Al Qaeda and the Islamic state with a fearsome terrorist group, State. The nation certainly does not Al Shabaab, as well as various bands of want to return to the state of civil war sea pirates. Nigeria is not much better. that it experienced in the Nineties. Its poor governance has allowed Boko Morocco succeeded in curbing Haram (meaning “The book [Western the Arab Spring protests by adopting education] is forbidden!”) to grow, and some reforms, but much still needs to the group has recently affiliated with be done. The country has managed to the Islamic State. keep the Islamists at bay by closing Fortunately, stability reins in many private mosques. It is possible, Senegal despite a level of poverty that though, that attacks against tourists causes many to migrate. Their Islam could hurt the profitable business of is of a tolerant Sufi-animist type and tourism. marks the culture of the country.

27 7. MUCH REMAINS TO BE DONE

Given this situation, what solutions can we propose —or dream of— for the future?

7.1. An immediate international the country since that would mean peace conference turning Baghdad over to Iran, which was then still part of the «axis of evil.» The conflict in Syria will probably The problem today is that the Kurds remain stalemated for a long time. are one of the largest ethnic groups Lebanon’s civil war lasted fifteen without a state of its own. There are years! It is perhaps for that reason Kurds in Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran, that Lebanon is handling its present but none of those countries wants a difficulties well, despite receiving a free Iraqi Kurdistan for fear that the half-million Palestinian and a million Kurds in other countries, especially and half Syrian refugees. Turkey, will want the same. Turkey’s Without a peace conference among passive stance toward the Islamic State the countries involved, it will be very stems from its continuing fight against difficult to find a solution. It must Syrian and Iraqi Kurds. first be agreed that there are serious Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Turkey are problems with the borders established fearful of the consolidation of a great by France and England after World zone of Shia domination, from Iran to War I. Iraq is now exactly divided into Lebanon on the Mediterranean, passing the three parts where borders should through Iraq and Syria. Not only do the have been drawn: the south-central Gulf states resent Shia expansion to part is mainly Shia, the central part the north, but they are fearful that the (now dominated by the Islamic State) important Shia minorities in their own is mainly Sunni, and the northern part territories will rise up and claim their is mainly Kurdish. After the Gulf War rights as well. Saudi Arabia is about there could be no thought of splitting 10% Shia, but the most dangerous 28 situation of all is that of Bahrain with The terrorist attacks on European its Sunni monarchy and a population soil are aimed at stigmatizing Muslims that is 70% Shia. and persuading Europe to consider The forces that are struggling them dangerous. If they have their most vigorously against the Islamic religious liberties restricted, then Mus- State are the Shia brigades of Iran and lims will have to decide either in favor the militias of Hezbollah, the Shia of Europe or in favor of Islam. Many politico-military group in Lebanon. of them will feel obliged to migrate to These groups, however, are not much the Islamic State. In Europe we need more tolerant than the Islamic State! smart politicians and sensible citizens Turkey has finally agreed to join a who will refuse to take part in this coalition to bomb the Islamic State. game of false dichotomies. Already participating in the coalition The rights of Muslims must be are Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Jordan, and recognized concretely and practically the United Arab Emirates. In its search and not just on paper. At the same for other allies, the U.S. has drawn time the Muslim community should closer to Iran. condemn the terrorist attacks une- quivocally (they are already doing this, though the media take little notice) and Military intervention alone should also vigorously oppose this scourge, both at the ideological level will not resolve the problem and in active cooperation with the in the long run intelligence services. Europeans should not doubt that most Muslims firmly reject the Islamic If, as we said, one of the causes State. There are thousands of examples of the conflict has been the Arab that never reach the attention of people’s rebellion against poverty, Europeans. In April 2015 the second corruption, and dictatorship, then mili- Peace Forum of Muslim Societies was tary intervention alone will not solve held in Abu Dhabi, with the presence of the problem in the long run. New 350 Muslim leaders from all over the protests are already occurring in Iraq world; the purpose of the forum was to and Lebanon. Yemen is still considered refute the ideology of the Islamic State. a kleptocracy, a government of thieves. Before that, in December 2014, some 600 Muslim and Christian leaders met in Cairo to condemn jihadist violence. 7.2. Europe’s obligations Also, right after a Jordanian pilot was Europe is experiencing an unprece- burned alive by Islamists, the supreme dented wave of immigration. New religious authority in Egypt declared conflicts are arising around the world that «the Quran dictates that anyone without any resolution of the existing perpetrating such a cowardly act, ones. In all justice, Europe cannot fail which goes against the word of God, to respond. deserved to be executed or crucified 29 or have their arms and legs ampu- Islam of its retrograde elements. It tated.» The sentence could hardly be should develop a theological basis that more decisive, but we have a right gives religious legitimacy to human to ask whether this type of violent rights, an issue that still meets great denunciation does not perpetuate a resistance in Muslim countries. In spirit of violence in the society. many cases tradition has aggravated Careful study of public opinion the dispositions of Islamic law which in reveals that these meetings of leaders their time were fitting but are no longer are representative of people in the so. In early Islamic society, which was street. In October 2014 the Fikra Forum still patriarchal, special compensations of the Washington Institute published were made to Muslim women, but a study on how the Islamic State was these have been forgotten. The laws on viewed in three Arab countries. Only inheritance, for example, were unequal, 5% of Saudi supported it (2% strongly favoring male heirs more than female and 3% moderately). Support in Egypt ones, but compensation was made by was even lower (3%), and in Lebanon making the male responsible for all the it was nil. Despite these extremely expenses of his family. The woman of low levels of support, there are many the family was not obliged to contribute millions of people whose security is to the expenses, not even to her own. potentially at risk. Whatever money the woman could This same study showed that save was kept «safe» in case she should there was significant support for more be widowed or divorced. It makes no moderate Islamist groups. In Saudi sense today to maintain the inequality Arabia 52% supported Hamas, the in inheritance laws while requiring group which controls Gaza, and 31% women to work outside the family and supported the Muslim Brotherhood. In to contribute to household costs. What Egypt 33% supported Hamas, and 35% is even worse is allowing a man to have the Brotherhood. In Lebanon Hezbollah several women whom he puts to work received the support of 92% of the Shia in order to support his children. Muslims, 39% of the Christians, but Likewise, the Quranic verse that only 8% of the Sunni Muslims. allows polygamy has a historical context that has been forgotten: it was originally aimed insuring that no 7.3. Strengthening the reform orphans would be lacking a father to of Islam protect them: «If you fear that you It makes little sense for Saudi Arabia cannot do justice to orphans, marry to be waging a military battle against such women as seem good to you, forces whose ideology has long been two or three or four» (Quran 4,3). fostered by the country. It is therefore Moreover, the same verse goes on essential to examine the religious to say: «but if you fear that you will causes of the conflict. not do justice, then marry only one.» The reformist movement should The tradition (developed by males) move ahead in its efforts to purify interpreted these lines as giving men 30 the right to polygamy and counseling It was only much later that this embryo them simply to treat all their wives developed into the form of Islam we equally. Why has this verse not been know today. Researchers also stress interpreted as giving men the right to other factors, such as the contribution more than one wife only as a way of of Christian Arab communities living fulfilling a strict duty? There are many east of the Jordan, the existence of other examples like this one. Manichaean sources, and the influence of Arab communities in eastern Arabia that were in communication with the 7.4. Future assignment: Persian world. refounding history These studies are still of a very There is, however, another important hypothetical nature; there are no task that even Islamic reformism has definitive answers. Some extreme not yet begun: rigorous study of the theories call into doubt all the history Islam’s beginnings and the history that has been proposed thus far; others of the composition of the Quran. are much more nuanced. Some seek Such study would use all the modern to discredit Islam, while others meet exegetical, philological, rhetorical, every standard of academic rigor. and other types of analysis that have There is no question of proposing an been available since the 19th century. I anti-Islamic apologetic. Our goal must be understand perfectly the fears Muslims to develop knowledge that weakens the have in undertaking such a task. bases of fundamentalist movements like Indeed, Catholicism did not assume Salafism. There is a need to challenge this task for itself until the beginnings those who think they have detailed of the 20th century. There are countless knowledge of the Prophet’s every books that record traditions about gesture and those who have forgotten Muhammad’s life and explain the the (at times insuperable) distance that Quran (the tafsîr), but all of them seem separates us from the origins of Islam. to be based on the same sources that Intellectual humility can do no more were canonized three centuries after than transform the intransigent certitude the Prophet’s death. These sources of the fundamentalists into the confident must be subject to careful criticism. surrender of believers to a God who In Europe at the present time surpasses us all. there are many researchers (including If this task is carried out faithfully, Muslims) who are studying these the future panorama of Islam can be questions. Some scholars point out that completely different even though the «collecting» of Quranic verses could Muslims will still express the same have lasted a very long time and that the passion as always for the unity and Quran of the third caliph (Uthman) was uniqueness of God. If Christianity still not definitive. Other researchers has survived historical and exegetical speak of the importance of a Syriac- criticism, then Islam can do so as well, speaking messianic Jewish group being reborn in a new and purified which created a type of «proto-Islam.» manner. 31 GLOSSARY

Ayatollah. The highest authority in present- Salafism. Anti-traditionalist Sunni current day Shiism. that advocates imitating the life of the first Hadith. Short narratives about Muham- generation of Muslims, down to the last detail. mad’s life and the decisions made by him. Salafism, political. Movement seeking to Attributed to the Prophet’s contemporaries, the impose Salafism on state structures. hadith were transmitted orally until written down Salafism, jihadist. Movement seeking to two or three centuries later. impose Salafism by means of armed struggle. Ibadism. One of the three forms of Islam Reformism. Current that seeks to reform resulting from conflicts among the early Mus- Islamic tradition by purifying it of historical and lims. It exists mainly in Oman. cultural «innovations.» Imam. Enlightened spiritual leader in the Shiism. Islamic confession with a clerical Shia tradition. structure, representing 10% of all Muslims. It Iman. The leader of prayer in the Sunni tra- was developed in Persia by followers of Ali. dition. Sufism. Mystical current of Islam with Islam. The name of the Muslim religion. It close links to the Jewish Kabbalah and Neo- means «voluntary submission» or «dedication.» Platonist philosophy. It is present in most Islamism. Political current of Islam. Sunni countries and is structured in fraternities Jihad. Literally means «effort» or «strug- around a spiritual leader. It is persecuted by gle,» whether against the inner enemy of the Gulf Islam. believer (the passions) or against the exterior Sunna. The normative tradition of the life enemy of the community. of Muhammad and the first Muslim community Modernist reformism. Current of opinion as related in the narratives called «hadith» that seeks to make Islam compatible with hu- (similar to the sayings of Jesus). It is the man rights. normative equivalent of Jewish oral law set Mufti. Jurist who has authority to issue down in the Mishnah. fatwas and give juridical advice. Sunnism. Islamic confession representing Mullah. A person proficient in Islamic law. 85-90% of all Muslims. Muslim Brotherhood. An Islamist asso- Wahhabism. Rigorous current of Gulf ciation originating in Egypt. It seeks to «Islamize» Islam. It is similar to Salafism and the society without reaching the literalist extremism medieval Sunni school of interpretation called of Salafism. Hanbalite.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION

1. Explain the difference between the dif- ing to the development of the present-day ferent currents of Sunni Islam: Salafism, tradi- Islamist groups. To what extent is the West tionalism, reformism, modernism, and Sufism. responsible? To what extent is the Islamic Try to understand their debates by comparing world itself responsible? them to the debates within Christianity. Think 3. What should European policy be with also about the debates within Shiism. regard to refugees and immigrants 2. Discuss the various factors —political, 4. What hope is there in confronting the economic, geostrategic, religious— contribut- challenges presented by this theme? 32