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Plant Protection Product Risk Assessment for Aquatic Ecosystems

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Plant Protection Product Risk Assessment for Aquatic Ecosystems Plant protection product risk assessment for aquatic ecosystems Evaluation of effects in natural communities Alessio Ippolito Plant protection product risk assessment for aquatic ecosystems Evaluation of effects in natural communities The research presented in this thesis was carried out at the department of Environmental and Landscape Sciences (DISAT), Università di Milano- Bicocca, Milano, Italy. Cover image : observed by far, the figure is the outline of a stonefly (Agnetina capitata ), however, by a closer look, it is also a long string of values, representing the codification of the organism traits. The same happens with ecology and ecotoxicology: a holistic, comprehensive view is needed to understand what is the meaning and the overall relevance of any process, but a reductionist approach is often appropriate to get a mechanistic understanding. The challenge proposed by this thesis is to achieve a correct balance between holism and reductionism, finding the right distance to see both the stonefly and the string. UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI MILANO-BICOCCA Facoltà di Scienza Matematiche, Fisiche e Naturali Dottorato di ricerca in Scienze Ambientali XXIV ciclo Plant protection product risk assessment for aquatic ecosystems Evaluation of effects in natural communities TUTOR: Prof. Marco Vighi DOTTORANDO: Dott. Alessio Ippolito Anno Accademico 2011/2012 A Dino CONTENTS 1 General introduction ............................................................................... 11 1.1 Ecological Risk Assessment for chemicals ......................................... 11 1.2 Site-specific risk assessment: the new frontiers of ERA .................... 12 1.3 Outline of the thesis ............................................................................ 15 1.4 References ........................................................................................... 16 2 Ecological vulnerability analysis: a river basin case study .................. 19 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 20 2.2 Vulnerability of ecosystems: definition and specific elements ........... 21 2.2.1 Community vulnerability ............................................................. 22 2.2.2 Habitat vulnerability assessment .................................................. 23 2.2.3 Vulnerability assessment and ecological quality ......................... 24 2.3 Methodological approach .................................................................. 24 2.4 Application to case study (River Serio - River Trebbia) .................... 30 2.4.1 Characterizing different river typologies, from spring to mouth . 30 2.4.2 Finding reference water body ...................................................... 31 2.4.3 Community characterization ........................................................ 31 2.4.4 Stressor characterization .............................................................. 33 2.4.5 Evaluating vulnerability ............................................................... 33 2.4.6 Validation of vulnerability assessment through macrobenthos data .............................................................................................................. 35 2.5 Discussion and conclusions ................................................................ 40 2.6 References ........................................................................................... 43 3 Sensitivity assessment of freshwater macroinvertebrates to pesticides using biological traits .................................................................................. 47 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 48 3.2 Materials and methods ........................................................................ 50 3.2.1 Toxicity database ......................................................................... 51 3.2.2 Trait database ............................................................................... 55 3.2.3 Statistical analysis ........................................................................ 60 3.3 Results ................................................................................................. 62 3.3.1 Trait-based vs. phylogenetic taxonomy ....................................... 62 3.3.2 Selected substances ...................................................................... 64 3.3.3 Regression models ....................................................................... 65 3.4 Discussion ........................................................................................... 71 3.5 References ........................................................................................... 75 4. Evaluating pesticide effects on freshwater invertebrate communities in alpine environment: a model ecosystem experiment ........................... 81 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 82 4.2 Materials and methods ........................................................................ 84 4.2.1Experimental system ..................................................................... 84 4.2.2 Experimental design..................................................................... 86 4.2.3 Water analysis .............................................................................. 90 4.2.4 Endpoints measured ..................................................................... 90 4.3 Results ................................................................................................. 92 4.3.1 Water analysis .............................................................................. 92 4.3.2 Univariate Community endpoints ................................................ 94 4.3.3 Principal Response Curves (PRCs) .............................................. 99 4.3.4 Community response to the toxicity of the mixture ................... 101 4.4 Discussion ......................................................................................... 104 4.5 References ......................................................................................... 109 5 Site-specific pesticide risk assessment in a small Alpine catchment: a multi-level approach ................................................................................. 115 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 116 5.2 Materials and methods ...................................................................... 118 5.2.1 Experimental area ...................................................................... 118 5.2.2 Experimental design................................................................... 120 5.3 Results ............................................................................................... 126 5.3.1 Exposure characterization .......................................................... 126 5.3.2 Theoretical risk assessment ........................................................ 130 5.3.3 Suitability of Reference system ................................................. 131 5.3.4 Biological community ................................................................ 132 5.3.5 Biomarkers ................................................................................. 133 5.3.6 Linking exposure and effects ..................................................... 134 5.4 Discussion ......................................................................................... 135 5.5 References ......................................................................................... 140 6 Pesticide risk in surface waters: a global map .................................... 145 6.1 Main text ........................................................................................... 146 6.2 Methods summary ............................................................................. 154 6.3 Supplementary methods .................................................................... 154 6.3.1 Variables .................................................................................... 156 6.4 Supplementary discussion ................................................................. 160 6.5 References ......................................................................................... 161 7 General conclusions ............................................................................... 165 7.1 Ecotoxicology has come to a turning point. ...................................... 165 7.2 References ......................................................................................... 167 1 General introduction 1 1.1 Ecological Risk Assessment for chemicals Ecological risk assessment (ERA) is defined as a process that evaluates the likelihood that adverse ecological effects may occur or are occurring as a result of exposure to one or more stressors (U.S. EPA, 1992). Particularly, chemical risk assessment requires a multidisciplinary approach, integrating environmental chemistry, classic toxicology and ecology. The high number of variables and many trade-offs make this kind of evaluation extremely complex. For this reason current regulations are based on simplified procedures. In the European Union (EU), these official procedures are reported in the Technical Guidance Document (TGD) in support of Commission Directive 93/67/EEC, Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1488/94 and Directive 98/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the
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