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A FRIENDSHIP TWO CENTURIES OLD : THE

AND THE SULTANATE OF

£183,8 Q A BOOS CENTER °45 THE INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C E36 _ 1990 1990

A FRIENDSHIP TWO CEN TURIES OLD :

THE UNITED STATES

AND THE SULTANATE OF OMAN

Printed in Honor of the 150th Anniversary of the Arrival in New York in 1840 of the Omani ship

FRONT COVER: "Omani ship Sultana under full sail" (Painting by Dr. Kaman) A FRIENDSHIP TWO CENTURIES OLD: THE UNITED STATES AND THE SULTANATE OF OMAN

by Hermann Frederick Eilts Boston University

Introduction

The year 1990 commemorates two significant events in the annals of Omani-United States relations. Taken in order of historical sequence, on an indeterminate date in early September, we celebrate the bicen­ tennial of the arrival in of the first American vessel, the Boston brig, Rambler, Captain Folger, ship's master. Similarly, April 30 of this year marks the sesquicentennial of the arrival in New York harbor of the Omani vessel, Sultana, sent by Sa'id bin Sultan, ruler of Oman and much of the East African littoral, with an official rep­ resentative aboard, on a goodwill and commercial mission to the United States. Regrettably, whatever records Rambler's master left of his inaugu­ ral visit to Muscat are lost. In happy contrast, Sultana's three-month long visit to New York, which elicited widespread American public interest, remains indelibly engraved in the historical lore of New York City. Indeed, a portrait of the Omani envoy, bin Na'aman, painted by the celebrated contemporary American artist, Edward Mooney, still graces New York's City Hall.

2 Oman-U.S. First Contacts

Despite the thousands of miles that Arabian tribesmen were harsh. As they physically separate Oman and the United entered regions under the control of the States, the two soon discov­ Sultan of Muscat, however, notably in ered they had common interests. Both the great Wadi Halfain, they were better Oman and the fledgling American re­ treated by villagers and townsmen and public, at least in their coastal areas, had finally reached Muscat. There they were seafaring traditions. Each was a mari­ welcomed by the Sultan's representative time trading society. Omani vessels out and other local officials and able to re­ of Sur, and Muscat had for cen­ cover from their ordeal. All but one turies plied the , visiting proceeded by English ship to Bombay the ports of , , the East and on to the United States. He who Indies and even in search of trade. remained was Valentine Bagley of With the advent of American independ­ Amesbury, Massachusetts, who worked ence in 1783, after its war with Great for two years as a carpenter's mate aboard Britain, American merchant vessels an Omani-owned vessel before he, too, quickly followed into these eastern seas returned home. for the same purpose. The voyage of For the next quarter century, Ameri­ Rambler to the Indian Ocean in 1790, can merchant vessels occasionally including her visit to Muscat, was touched at Muscat. As a rule, their car­ undertaken during the presidency of goes were not of American origin, but George Washington, a scant seven years consisted of sugar, tea, spices, and other after American independence had been products of the East Indies. American attained. shipmasters, engaging in the so-called Two years later, in 1792, under less "coastal trade," transported cargoes to propitious circumstances, another group Muscat because of its importance as an of Americans made their way to Muscat entrepot for Arabian Gulf commerce, a — this time afoot, over the grueling position it had enjoyed for many years. mountains and deserts of south and Political turbulence in the Gulf, and central Oman. They were the survivors the constant threat of piracy at the hands of the ill-fated Boston ship, Commerce, of Qawasim freebooters in the first two bound for Bombay, whose master had decades of the 19th century disrupted erred in his navigation and wrecked her Muscat's entrepot position. These devel­ on the as yet uncharted south Arabian opments, coupled with President Tho­ coast near Cape Chancely (: Ras mas Jefferson's embargo on all American Sharbithat), notorious for its hidden shipping from 1807 to 1809, a war with shoals, monsoonal winds, and treacher­ Great Britain from 1812 to 1814, and clo­ ous currents. sure of Isle de () to Of the ship's complement of 16 Ameri­ American ships after British seizure of cans, only eight survived the harrowing that island in 1819, reduced the number 805-kilometer overland trek to Muscat. of such ship visits to ports in the northern Their experiences at the hands of south Indian Ocean , including Muscat. to Dhofar in and along the East African littoral from Cape Guardafui on the to Cape Delgado, on the northern border of Portuguese- held , and included the island of . In a period when Americans were ill- informed about , and when their sparse contacts with Arabic-speaking peoples of were often con­ tentious, Sayyid Sa'id enjoyed an unri­ valed reputation for forceful leadership, decisiveness, friendship, and commer­ cial probity. For the better part of a quarter-century, he maintained close personal and commercial relationships not only with American consuls, ship­ masters, and supercargoes who resided H. M. Sultan Sayyid Sa 'id (Peabody Musetn of Salem) in or visited his domains, but also with American merchants who had never left Sayyid Sa'id the United States and knew him only through correspondence. Many an American shipmaster benefited from his Nevertheless, American shipmasters personal benevolence. Whether to re­ recognized that they were in maritime place lost anchors, to advance funds, or competition with the substantial Omani to provide other services, he sought to fleet of Sayyid Sa'id bin Sultan A1 Bu be of help. Rarely has an Arab leader, Sa'id, the great- great- great grandfather anywhere, made so positive an impres­ of H is Majesty, Sultan Qaboos bin Sa'id. sion upon Americans. When not engaged in naval operations against Qawasmi pirates or rebellious East African subjects, many of his ves­ sels regularly were sent on trading mis­ Edmund Roberts sions to East African and Indian ports. It is eloquent testimony to the vision On the American side, it was Edmund of Sayyid Sa'id that, despite the element Roberts, a native of , New of seaborne competition between Omani Hampshire, to whom credit is due for and American merchants, especially in reviving trade between the United States the "coastal trade," he still encouraged and the domains of Sayyid Sa'id, and greater American commercial interest in who negotiated and signed the 1833 his realm. Few Arab rulers of a ny time treaty. Born in 1794, hence only six years period were as well-known to and re­ younger than Sayyid Sa'id, Roberts was spected by Americansas wasSayyid Said orphaned at an early age. His adoles­ during his long reign (1804-1856). Popu­ cent years were spent in the home of an larly styled "The " by Americans uncle, a prominent American merchant and Europeans who knew him—al­ who lived in Buenos Aires and later in though he himself eschewed the — London and Paris. On reaching ma­ his domains ranged from Oman proper turity, Roberts found that his share of his

4 uncle's business had shrunk considera­ either the British or the French, the United bly, due to Anglo-French trade restric­ States had no territorial ambitions abroad tions imposed during Napoleonic wars and was solely interested in mutually and by the depredations of French and beneficial commerce. Roberts proposed Spanish privateers. Hearsay reports, that Sayyid Sa'id entrust him with dis­ rather than direct information, stirred patches to the of the United his interest in Sayyid Sa id's domains. In States, setting forth the terms under an effort to recoup his fortunes, he which American merchant vessels might chartered a ship in 1827 to explore their be received in ports under the Sultan's commercial possibilities. In the ensuing control. Might it not also be useful, he eight years, Roberts engaged in three suggested, if a commercial treaty were separate rounds of talks with Sayyid concluded between the two govern­ Said: the first ina purely privatecapacity, ments? Should this be agreeable to His (although Roberts let it be known that Highness, as Sayyid Sa id was called, he he had once been named American consul promised to have a warship, with an to Demerara, ); the other two in American envoy aboard, visit the ruler's the capacity of official representative of domains in the very next year to nego­ the government of the United States. tiate such a treaty.

Crowningshield's Wharf, Salem, Massachusetts IPeabody of Salem)

Trade Talks Sayyid Sa'id was interested. Not only did Roberts' proposal offer promising trade opportunities, but—as Roberts later His initial discussions with Sayyid recounted—His Highness saw in it po­ Sa id took place in early 1828, in Zanzibar, tential opportunity to obtain needed where the ruler of Oman had arrived military equipment that might enable shortly after Roberts' vessel. Believing him to drive the colonialist Portuguese that American commercial ties with the out of Mozambique. Before Roberts' de­ Sultan's realm suffered disadvantages, parture, Sayyid Sa id affirmed his desire Roberts urged that American traders to place official and commercial rela­ receive the same treatment extended to tions with the United States on a firm Englishmen. The English, he noted, al­ treaty basis. ready enjoyed treaty status of sorts with Following his return to Portsmouth, Oman and thus were accorded a favored Roberts enlisted the aid of a relative position. Moreover, he added, unlike

5 through marriage, Senator Levi Wood­ these states, in large measure due to the bury, chairman of the powerful U.S. persistence of Roberts and Woodbury. Senate Commerce Committee, to bring Their campaign was reinforced when the matter to the attention of appropri­ His Highness sent a letter to President ate U.S.au thorities. Although interested, Jackson, delivered through a Salem mer­ Woodbury observed that little was cantile firm, confirming a commercial known about Sayyid Sa'id's dominions. agreement with the United States. After the enthusiastic Roberts provided all the information at his disposal, Wood­ bury discussed the matter with execu­ Treaty Negotiations tive and legislative branch colleagues and subsequently predicted that an Through Woodbury's influence, the "agent" would probably be sent to Muscat Secretary of named Roberts as in the next year to negotiate a treaty. Special Agent and instructed him to Despite this optimism, the project was proceed aboard the American warship, slow to mature. President Andrew Peacock, to various East Indian and Jackson, who assumed office in January Arabian ports to conduct treaty negotia­ tions. Fearing that the British might seek to disrupt his mission, Roberts was nominally carried on the warship's rosters as "captain's clerk," a ruse that fooled no one and was hardly consistent with the emissary's personality. After visiting Cochin China and Siam and signing a commercial treaty with the latter, Roberts aboard Peacock, with another American naval vessel as escort, proceeded by way of Mokha to Muscat, arriving on September 18,1833. The next day, Roberts paid a courtesy call on Sayyid Sa'id and delivered a warm letter from President Jackson responding to Edmund Roberts His Highness' earlier correspondence. () Roberts then outlined American ideas for a commercial treaty, based upon a 1829, was preoccupied throughout much standard draft agreement drawn up in of his first with domestic Washington prior to his departure. At a issues. Not until Woodbury became second meeting two days later, he for­ Jackson's Secretary of the Navy in 1831, mally presented the draft agreement to and convinced the President to mount Sayyid Sa'id and his advisors, and its a naval expedition against Japanese various articles were orally translated pirates who had attacked an American into Arabic by the ruler's interpreter, Sa id merchant ship, did Jackson agree to try bin Khalfan, a former Omani naval of to place American commerce with all ficer. Sayyid Sa'id, Roberts later recalled, potential trading partners in the Indian accepted the document with only minor Ocean on a sound treaty footing. Sayyid modifications. Sa'id's domains were prominent among Attesting to the ruler's magnanimity

6 all accounts, a festive occasion. Sayyid Sa'id's generous desire to send presents for Jackson was respectfully de­ clined on the grounds that acceptance would violate the U.S. Constitution, but Roberts carried with him a cordial letter of appreciation from the ruler to the President.

A Return Voyage

After Senate advice and consent had been obtained, the treaty was duly rati­ fied by the President of the United States on 30, 1834. Shortly thereafter, Roberts again was named special diplo­ , 7th President of the United States matic agent, this time to exchange treaty (Brown Brothers, Sterling, PA) ratifications with Oman. He departed on and greatness of spirit, he insisted that March 25,1835, once more aboard Pea­ the treaty article pertaining to the treat­ cock. En route to Muscat, in the early ment of ship-wrecked American seamen hours of September 25, Peacock ran be amended to specify that Oman bear aground on a coral reef near Masira any expenses incurred in supporting and Island. Unable to float free, and fear­ returning them home. Such treatment, ing the tribesmen gathering on the shore, heasserted, was mandated by Arabusage the commander sent the ship's cutter, and rights of hospitality. It was agreed with Roberts and seven crewmen, to seek that the date of the agreement should be help. Four days later, after a dangerous September 21, 1833, and that the docu­ trip in their small along the south ment would be signed in English and Arabian coast, they arrived in Muscat. Arabic versions. Sayyid Sa id immediately dispatched one During the next few days, Sa'id bin of his ships, Sultana, and sent orders Khalfan prepared an Arabic translation overland to his to provide any in consultation with Sayyid Sa'id and necessary assistance. Near Ras Al-Hadd, Roberts. Actual signing took place on Sultana encountered Peacock, whose October 3, 1833, with the English and captain had finally managed to get his Arabic texts in parallel columns. One ship off the reef, but only after jettisoning copy of the signed treaty was left with her heavy guns. Sayyid Sa'id; Roberts took the other for With Peacock s afe in Muscat, formal ratification by the U.S. government. On ratifications were exchanged on Septem­ October 4, the day after signing, Sayyid ber 30, 1835. Asked by Sayyid Sa'id Sa id, accompanied by a large retinue, when the treaty should go into effect, paid a formal visit to Peacock. The yard- Roberts proposed June 30,1834, the date arms of both warships were manned and on which U.S. ratification had taken place. the vessels fired a 21-gun salute in honor Sayyid Sa'id graciously accepted, al­ of His Highness. Their salutes were though this ex post facto arrangement returned by the Muscat forts. It was, by meant that a number of American ship­

7 masters, who in the intervening period a few days later in Macao's East India had paid more than the five percent Company cemetery. import duty stipulated by the treaty, could claim reimbursement. After a further round of calls, Peacock, with a Merchant Consuls gratified Roberts on board, departed for Once word was received in Washing­ Bombay to undergo needed repairs. ton that treaty ratifications had been ex­ As a further token of friendship, changed, arrangements were made for Sayyid Sa id returned the American the posting of American consuls toSayyid vessel's guns which had been retrieved Sa id's domains. Richard Palmer Waters, by Omani divers. an associate of the firm of J ohn Bertram Small wonder that Sayyid Sa id re­ and Michael Shepard of Salem, Massa­ ceived the accolades of American presi­ chusetts, was sent to Zanzibar in 1837 dents, merchants and seamen alike. and accredited to Muscat as well. Con­ Indeed, his exceptional friendship for sistent with American consular practice the United States in aiding the distressed of the time and many years thereafter, Peacock, a nd returning her jettisoned Waters was a merchant consul. Such guns, was reported to the Congress by officials performed consular duties for President Jackson and his successor, the government of the United States and , with a proposal that private trading activities on behalf of a suitable gesture of gratitude be made. Roberts, who had worked so prodi­ their commercial principals. Waters was giously for the treaty, did not live to see warmly received by Sayyid Sa'id, who its results. He died in Macao on June 12, since 1828, had alternated his seat of resi­ 1836, reportedly of fever contracted in dence between Muscat and Zanzibar, the Siam after leaving Muscat. He was buried two termini of his extended domains. American commercial interest in Mus­ Crave of Edmund Roberts - Portuguese Macao (Photo ty Hermann F. Fills. 1987) cat soon quickened. Henry P. Marshall of the New York City firm of Scoville and Britton was named American consul to Muscat and arrived there on October 14, 1838. A combination of bad health and bankruptcy of his company forced him to leave ash ort time later. Before Marshall left, however, he named Sa'id bin Khalfan, translator of the 1833 treaty, as acting consul, an appointment subsequently confirmed in 1843 through the lobbying efforts of Bertram and Shepard. Sa id bin Khalfan provided a variety of consular Cr*» services for visiting American shipmas­ Vt_-*«C4S «€oArr^To"i ters, as well as serving as the principal *n«l «»|' Omani merchant and broker for Ameri­ can supercargoes, until his death in 1845, whereupon jurisdiction over the Muscat consular office reverted to the American consul in Zanzibar.

8 For the next 20 years, the Salem firm of Bertram and Shepard virtually mo­ nopolized American trade with Muscat. Each year it sent one, two, or three vessels to Muscat laden with cargo. These vessels usually included Zanzibar, several East African ports, Mokha, and Aden on their itineraries. Occasionally, a New York or Provi­ dence merchant vessel might also visit Muscat, but such visits were too infre­ quent to permit their supercargoes to develop an extended knowledge of the intricacies of doing business there. Even after Sa id bin Khalfan's death, and despite the prolonged absence of a resident American consul, American ships regularly visited Muscat and conducted their trading activities with­ Ahmad bin Na 'annul, the Sultan '$ special out the slightest hindrance. Occasion­ representative to New York in 1840 ally, an American whaling ship out of (Peabody Museum of Salem) New Bedford, Massachusetts, or another important of all, Omani fard dates. New whaling port would put Some of the cargoes bought in Mus­ into Muscat for supplies. On less fre­ cat, like coffee and gum copal, were not quent occasions, an American naval of Omani origin but reflected Muscat's vessel, bound for the East Indies, would continuing status as a regional trading transit Muscat, where its officers could center. Through the intercession of pay respects to the Sultan or his gover­ Sayyid Thuwainia, son of Sayyid Sa'id nor. and of Oman, and under the In addition to specie, American mer­ helm of a skillful Omani navigator chant ships primarily brought cotton identified only as "Nuri" in American sheeting, shirtings, and drills. These ship rosters of the period, many Bertram cotton products, because of their sturdi- and Shepard vessels also sailed to ness in withstanding the rigorous Omani , on the opposite coast dyeing process, were highly prized in and still underOmani jurisdiction, where Muscat and throughout the Indian Ocean their supercargoes purchased high-qual­ littoral. In Oman, along the Arabian ity wool. Peninsula, and in East Africa, they were popularly dubbed "mericani," a term clearly derived from their source. Other Expedition to Nezv York products imported in smaller quantities were tobacco, soap, sewing twine, resin, As Sayyid Sa'id welcomed American all kinds of ship supplies, shot, powder, vessels to his ports, he also pondered the and assorted other goods. In return, utility of sending Omani trading vessels American supercargoes bought salted to the United States. Such direct trade, goat and sheep skins, wool, gum Arabic, he hoped, might enable him to obtain gum copal, aloes, Mokha coffee and most American products more cheaply than

9 Then Via President George Bush and H.M. Sultan during the Vice President's visit to

10 President Ronald Reagan and HM. Sultan Qaboos bin Said during the Sultan's state visit to the United States, April 1983.

J I

Oman, April 1986 Then-Vice President Bush reviewing honor guard with H.H. Sayyid Thuwainy bin Shahab, personaI representative of H.M. Sultan Qaboos. (Photo by David Valdez. the White House)

ll through exclusive reliance on American Zanzibar. All of the items were con­ shipping. signed to Scoville and Britton. Since the During initial treaty negotiations, ac­ firm had gone bankrupt shortly before cording to Edmund Roberts, Sayyid Sa id the ship's arrival, Ahmad had to request suggested that the American represen­ to go to another New York firm, Barclay tative sail on one of his ships to the United and Livingston, local agents of Ll oyd's States. Roberts' official status precluded of London, to hand lesal es and purchases. his doing so. Subsequently, during Various New York merchants bought Roberts' treaty ratification mission, in the cargoes, and the Omanis collected those anxious few days when the safety a return cargo consisting of textiles, some of Peacock was still in doubt, Sayyid Sa'id cases of multicolored beads, a quantity offered one of his ships to the American of muskets and gun powder, china plates, envoy. Roberts, he indicated, could several mirrors and vases, boxes of gold continue his treaty ratification mission thread, sperm-whale candles, and other aboard an Omani vessel should Peacock items. be lost, and by a second Omani vessel Sayyid Sa'id's gifts for the President to be sent to the United States. With posed a dilemma. A presidential elec­ Peacock's appearance in Muscat, the idea tion was imminent and Van Buren's was deferred. opponents in the Congress and the news­ Again, shortly before Consul Waters papers castigated any suggestion that returned to the United States on leave in the gifts might appropriately be received 1839, the Sultan proposed sending one by the Chief Executive. Doing so, they of his ships to the United States and in­ contended, would be unconstitutional vited Waters to sail in her. Since the ship and unprecedented. After protracted was not yet ready, and because of his debate, and because of Administration doubts about the English sailing master warnings that declining them would be who was to navigate her, Waters de­ offensive to a friendly ruler, Congress clined the offer and left for Salem aboard Martin Van Buren - 8th President of the U.S. his brother's ship. (Harris & Gifford. Washington. D.C.) Such a voyage finally took place in 1839, in part because of the urgings of a visiting American shipmaster repre­ senting the New York firm of Scoville and Britton. Sayyid Sa'id's ship, Sultana, the same vessel that had been sent to the aid of the stricken Peacock, sailed from Muscat on December 23. After touching Zanzibar and St. Helena, she arrived in New York harbor on April 30, 1840. Aboard as supercargo and as Sayyid >, J« /< Sa'id's special emissary was his secretary Ahmad bin Na'aman, charged with de­ livering letters and gifts for the President of the United States and purveying a EJi i T ^ cargo of Omani dates, Persian wool carpets, and Mokha coffee loaded at Muscat, as well as various articles from k# h»*\,

12 Models of First standing on given to the United States by H.M. Sultan Sayyid Sa 'id (Smithsonian Institution)

agreed that they might be accepted on Mayor Phillip Hone and other municipal behalf of the government of the United celebrities. He saw all the sights of the States. Some, such as two Arabian stud city, and was an honored guest on a horses, were sold at auctions—one to a special train ride arranged by the man­ member of former President Jackson's agement of the Long Island Railway Cabinet, General of Tennes­ between New York City and the rural see. Proceeds were deposited in the town of Hicksville. His dignified de­ United States Treasury. Others, such as meanor, quick intelligence, and quiet a Persian carpet, a gold-mounted sword sense of humor endeared him to his and minor gifts, were accepted on the American hosts. condition that they belonged to the United States. Ahmad and his officers were cordially Gestures of Appreciation welcomed in New York. A few days later after Sultana arrived, New York City of­ Sultana's arrival offered a belated op­ ficials visited him aboard his ship to portunity to extend tangible apprecia­ extend "the civilities and accustomed tion for Sayyid Sa id's unstinting help to hospitality of the City," ad istinction rarely Peacock. At the suggestion of Commo­ accorded foreign visitors. The crew, like dore James Renshaw, who commanded Ahmad and his officers, created a sen­ the New York (Brooklyn) Navy Yard, sation and were widely entertained by the U.S. government overhauled Sultana enthusiastic New Yorkers. at the Naval Yard before her return jour­ During his stay, Ahmad met New York

13 ney. The difficult Atlantic voyage had cally unsound. He also made plans to taken its toll and repairs were necessary. send one of his ships to for sugar, Sultana's crew participated in the eight and considered a naval foray against weeks of repair work and won the Nossi Be on the East African coast, admiration of American naval person­ inviting Drinker to command both nel. expeditions. Drinker, recently married As Sultana prepared to depart, the and anxious to return to his bride, government of the United States pre­ declined the offers and returned to the sented Ahmad and his crew with several United States. gifts for Sayyid Sa'id. These included a Sultana's visit to the United States, magnificent pleasure , especially judging from Ahmad bin Na'aman's ac­ constructed under the personal direc­ book, was not a conspicuous com­ tion of the United States' Navy agent, mercial success. Most American com­ firearms manufactured by Colt, two large modities, Sayyid Sa id discovered, could mirrors, and a splendid chandelier. be bought about as cheaply from visiting

New York docks, t9th century (Bellman Archives. New York)

Ahmad had by then discharged his American vessels as by sending Omani English sailing master for intemperance vessels to an American port —and with­ and lax discipline. In his place he engaged out the considerable expenses entailed Captain Sandwith Drinker of Philadel­ in any protracted stay. Sayyid Sa id oc­ phia, a well-known American shipmas­ casionally used the prospect of another ter, along with three other American US voyage for bargaining purposes with seamen. Sultana set sail from New York shrewd US supercargoes, but although on August 7, 1840, and, after a long, Sultana sailed to London in 1842, no tedious voyage, arrived at Zanzibar on Omani ship in this era again visited an December 8. Learning that Sayyid Sa'id American port. was en route from Muscat, Drinker decided to remain. Sayyid Sa'id hoped to retain Drinker The Shufeldt Mission and the three American sailors in his em­ ploy; he even considered placing a 610 In the late 1870's, some 20 years after metric-ton Omani ship in regular service the death of Sayyid Sa id, a new burst between his domains and the United of US trade expansion resulted in explo- States, but rejected the idea as economi-

14 the advent of steam navigation in the In­ dian Ocean,and theshifting cotton textile trade resulting from the American Civil War, had caused something of a reces­ sion in Muscat's economy. No longer did American cotton products dominate its marketplace. Their export had been stopped during the Civil War years and replaced in Omani bazaars by cotton textiles spun in India. In talks with the Omani ruler, Sayyid Turki bin Sa'id, a younger son of the late Sayyid Sa'id, Shufeldt broached Washington's inter­ est in re-opening the Muscat consulate. Sayyid Turki readily assented, although noting that American trade had been for many years conducted satisfactorily

Ca/'lain Sandwith Drinker withouta resident Americanconsul. Prior (Historical Stxietyof Pennsyhwna. Philadelphia) toShufeldt'sdeparture, Sayyid Turki con­ ration of heretofore untapped markets firmed his agreement in writing to the for the products of American industry. reopening of an American consulate. Ti- As part of this effort, the US government coiuieroga's paymaster conducted inde­ dispatched Commodore R.W. Shufeldt, pendent inquiries during the vessel's stay a naval officer and a former American in Muscat and concluded that there was consul to Havana, to various ports of the scope for an increase of trade between Indian Ocean aboard the U.S.S. Ticonder- the United States and Oman. oga. He was to explore trade potentials in areas which had no resident American representatives. The Second American His instructions regarding Muscat and Consulate Oman reflected the uncertainty in Wash­ ington of the precise nature of the changes Washington agreed with Shufeldt s that had taken place in the late Sayyid recommendations that the Muscat con­ Sa'id's domains since the latter's death sulate be reopened. In the absence of a in 1856. The absence since 1845 of a readily suitable American candidate, consular officer representing the United Louis Maguire, an Irishman resident in States in Muscat contributed to such Muscat, who represented a number of ignorance. Washington seemed unclear, European and American firms, was for example, of the implications of the separation between Oman and Zanzibar, selected as American consul. Maguire's designation was agreeable which had been formalized in an 1861 to Sayyid Turki, who formally received British arbitration award. the new American consul in audience on Shufeldt visited Muscat on Novem­ July 22, 1880. A delighted Maguire ber 18, 1879, where he found a Salem reported to the Department of State in vessel, Taria To pan, loading a cargo of Washington that the Omanis had hoisted dates. the American ensign over the Muscati Theopening of the Suez in 1869,

15 fortsand fired a 21-gun salute. All vessels aging for Oman's dates. Small quantities in the Muscat harbor, Omani and for­ of American lumber, wax paper, flour, eign, had been decorated for the occa­ and kerosene oil also had been added to sion and the populace of Muscat cele­ the lists. brated the day as a holiday. At the time of the first career consul's The system of using non-American arrival in October 1906, available statis­ consuls was continued until 1906, when tics suggest that the total import and Washington decided that henceforth only export trade between the two countries career consular officers, not engaged in was slightly less than a quarter of a mil­ private trade, should be assigned to all lion dollars. Thereafter, unfortunately, it American consular posts. Between that dropped sharply, particularly in Ameri­ year and the closure of the Muscat can products sold to Oman. Reasons consulate nine years later, three Ameri­ included Indian and British competition, can consuls served in the post. Through­ coupled with the difficulties of Muscat out this period, Mohamed Fazel, an and Matrah merchants in reducing Indian expatriate first appointed by overstocked inventories due to internal Maguire, whose relations with the ruler distribution problems. Then, too, many of Oman were excellent, remained as American products were simply unmar­ deputy consul and later as vice consul. ketable in Oman; others were inade­ He was serving as acting consul in 1914 quately packaged to compete effectively. when War I broke out and the By then, Oman's date imports to the government of the United States chose United States had grown significantly. to close the post, partly because of Inclement weather conditions caused commercial uncertainties. seasonal fluctuations, but for many years about two-thirds of Oman's date exports were consigned to American buyers. Trade and Between 1902 and 1913, save for two low crop years, values of Omani date sales By the turn of the century, trade to the United States averaged $100,000. between Oman and the United States The cheapness and nutritive value of had expanded somewhat. A new Ameri­ dates caused a surge in American con­ can product called shooks—a set of barrel sumption. By 1911, date imports were staves with accessories to be assembled estimated to be about 16,256 metric tons into crates—offered more attractive pack­ each year.

16 Already, however, the date trade was States and Oman. Their contribution to changing. Direct steamship service from American-Omani friendship is indelible. and India to the Gulf, from about 1887 onwards, meant that sailing ships, A New Era of Understanding such as those from Salem which had visited Muscat annually, were discontin­ Although the American consulate in ued. Instead, faster non-American flag Muscat was not reopened after World carriers increasingly carried cargoes of War I, the United States sent its Minis­ dates to American markets—often via ter to , Knabenshue, to Muscat Indian or European ports. Moreover, in 1934 with a presidential letter mark­ internal problems in Oman, beginning in ing the centennial celebration of the 1833 1913, adversely affected the Omani date treaty. Welcomed by the Omani ruler, industry and presented opportunities for His Highness Sayyid Sa'id bin Taimur, competition from dates, which ul­ Knabenshue presented an official invi­ timately usurped much of the American tation to the Sultan from President market. In 1920, an American firm, Hills Franklin Delano Roosevelt to visit the Brothers,established a date packing plant United States. Accompanied by his fa­ in Muscat, but fluctuating supplies soon ther, Sayyid Sa id bin Taimur arrived in dictated its closure. America on March 3, 1938, and toured Brief rec ognition needs to be given to the . In Washington, he was the yeoman work of American medical formally greeted by missionaries in Oman. In December 1893, Cordell Hull, and was the honored guest the Dutch Reformed Church of America at a White House state dinner given by was permitted to establish a permanent President Roosevelt. station of its Arabian Mission in Muscat. During World War II, Sayyid Sa'id bin Over the next 70 years—with an inter­ Taimur made available the RAF air fa­ regnum between 1915 and 1928—dedi­ cilities at in Dhofarand on Masira cated American missionaries, most of Island to US aircraft bound for the Far them doctors and nurses, performed East. A small number of US Air Force sorely needed medical work for the gov­ maintenance personnel were stationed ernment and people of Oman. An at these installations in order to service Arabian Mission hospital was established transiting American aircraft. The United in Matrah as early as 1909, and medical States was most appreciative of his work was performed in both Muscat and assistance, which contributed to the war Matrah, as well as occasional medical effort. forays into inner Oman. After the acces­ In 1956, with growing prospects for sion ofSu ltan Qaboos in 1970, the Arabian oil in Oman, Washington proposed rees­ Mission voluntarily turned over its tablishing an American consular office medical facilities to the Oman govern­ in Muscat. In response, Sayyid Sa id bin ment. personnel continue to Taimur suggested that the 1833 treaty work in Oman on secondment to the was in some respects outdated and that Ministry of Health. The work of three or a new consular treaty should be nego­ more generations of selfless American tiated. Discussions began in June 1957, medical missionaries, even more than with the Sultan personally conducting that of consuls and merchants, contrib­ the talks for Oman. In the absence of a uted immensely to the creation of people- resident American representative, Wal­ to-people empathy between the United ter Schwinn, the American Consul

17 General in Dhahran, regularly shuttled Muscat and Washington, has signifi­ to Salalah to handle the talks for the cantly strengthened the bonds of under­ American side. standing between the two countries. After lengthy negotiations, a new The United States and Oman today Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and share common interests and objectives Consular Rights was signed on Decem­ in the Arabian Gulf area, including peace, ber 20,1958, by Sayyid Sa id bin Taimur regional stability, security and economic and Consul General Schwinn. It super­ development. On June 4,1980, following seded the earlier 1833 treaty and, in an exchange of notes between represen­ accordance with Article XII, accorded tatives of the two , this each party the right to send consular rep­ cooperation was given concrete expres­ resentatives to the cities of the other state. sion with the establishment of theOmani- The new treaty was ratified by President American Joint Commission for Eco­ Dwight D. Eisenhower on May 9, 1959. nomic and Technical Cooperation. There It was the privilege of the writer of this have since been agreements for the article, representing President Eisen­ construction of a damin Oman, toprovide hower, to exchange treaty ratifications water for an underground reservoir, and with Sayyid Sa'id bin Taimur on May 11, for assistance in fisheries and other de­ 1960, in Salalah. velopment-related projects. The relation­ Following the accession of Sultan ship between Oman and the United States Qaboos on August 3, 1970, His Majesty stands today as a model of how free sent a message to Washington announc­ people, desirous of improving the quality ing his succession, and his determina­ of their lives, respecting rights of others, tion to honor and respect the treaty and determined to maintain their terri­ relations between the two countries. The torial integrity and political independ­ US State Department sent a reply on ence, can cooperate for their mutual August 26, congratulating His Majesty interest. May that cooperation, inaugu­ and affirming the wish of the US gov­ rated by the 1833 treaty, long endure and ernment to maintain and strengthen the flourish. friendship and cooperation between the American and Omani peoples. In 1972, the US established an Ameri­ can embassy in Muscat and Ambassador William H. Stoltzfus, Jr., who was also accredited to , presented his credentials to Sultan Qaboos as non­ resident ambassador. (Patrick J. Quinlan served as resident charge d'affaires from 1972 to 1974.) A year later, in May 1973, an Omani embassy opened in Washing­ ton with His Highness, Sayyid Faisal bin Ali Bu Sa'id, as the first Omani ambas­ sador. And in July 1974, with the arrival of Ambassador William Wolle, a resi­ dent American ambassador was estab­ lished in Muscat. Since then, continuing dialogue at the ambassadorial level, in

18 About the Author:

Hermann Frederick Eilts is distinguished Professor of International Re­ lations, Director of the Center for International Relations, and Chairman of the International Relations Department at Boston University in Massachu­ setts. He served in the United States Army in the North African and Euro­ pean Theaters during World War II. In 1947 he joined the US Foreign Serv­ ice and served in posts throughout the Middle East before being appointed US Ambassador to , 1965 to 1970, and Ambassador to , 1973 to 1979. He is the recipient of many honors and academic awards.

Prepared by:

Nancy Wood Nada Sulaiman Mary Sebold

The Sultan Qaboos Center

19