ABSTRACT

SCHNELL, EUGENE ZACHARY. An Ethnobotany Study: A Comparison of Peoples Medicinal Plant Use in an Urban and Rural Setting in the Province of Romblon, Philippines. (Under the direction of Gary Blank.)

Ethnobotany has been used to study cultures and how people have used plants for medicine since the term was created. This study analyzed the comparison of medicinal plant use with an urban site called Odiongan and a rural site called Ferrol in the Philippines. A test was conducted to examine if there are any significant differences in age, gender and location in relation to the number of medicinal plants used. Through a semi-structured interview 22 used medicinal plants were identified and collected for the study. A survey was produced to ask the participants to identify which of the medicinal plants they used and were recorded in a structured interview. The survey also reviews the attitudes towards western medicine and plant based medicine. There were 195 total participants between both study sites and only age was found to be significant in relation to the number of medicinal plants used. The majority of participants (71%) prefer to use plant based medicine, yet 48% find their medicine comes from a local drug store. The study provides a new look into studying and testing communities for medicinal plant use and also provides data to show that a rural and developing urban site in the Philippines show no significant difference in the amount of medicinal plant used. While most studies focus primarily on the plants, this study gives focus to the people and how they use their environment for medicine.

© Copyright by Zachary E. Schnell

All Rights Reserved

An Ethnobotany Study: A Comparison of Peoples Medicinal Plant Use in an Urban and Rural Setting in the Province of Romblon, Philippines

by Zachary Eugene Schnell

A Thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

Natural Resources

Raleigh, North Carolina

2015

APPROVED BY:

Dr. Gary Blank Dr. Bob Patterson Chair of Advisory Committee

Dr. Tim Wallace

BIOGRAPHY

Zachary Eugene Schnell was born on January 12, 1989 in Wilmington, North

Carolina as the son of Ron and Julie Schnell. He attended Eugene Ashley High school and graduated with honors in 2007. Following high school, Zac began his college career in 2007 at North Carolina State University. During his freshmen year at North Carolina State, Zac did not really know what he wanted to study and learn about for his future. During his last two weeks of his freshman year in college he came across the Environmental Technology &

Management program in the College of Natural Resources and thought “why not.” While pursuing his degree, he found a love of working in the environmental field and enjoyed learning and expanding his understanding of the natural environment. During his undergraduate work Zac was very involved on campus participating and volunteering in environmental clubs, performing in musicals and theatre productions with university theatre, and working as a teacher assistant for different professors and classes. During his first summer internship Zac worked in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park at Tremont as a

Teacher Naturalist. Zac loved interacting with people of all ages and enjoyed working in the great outdoors while teaching others about the natural world around them. Also during his undergraduate years, he participated in a study abroad program that sent him down to the

Amazon Jungle in Peru. It was there that Zac learned about Shamanism and using plants for medicine and gained an interest in the subject of ethnobotany.

Sharing his love for the natural environment and learning from others in the field of environmental management became very interesting to Zac. During his senior year he wasn’t sure what he wanted to do after graduation and through some searching and talking to different people he came across the Master’s International program. The program offers

ii students to earn a master’s degree and becoming a Peace Corps volunteer at the same time.

With the guidance from some of his professors at NC State University Zac began his application to graduate school through the College of Natural Resources and was accepted into the Masters of Science in Natural Resources program with a concentration of

Assessment and Analysis in 2011. It was then that he applied to the U.S. Peace Corps

Volunteer service program and was accepted and assigned to serve in the Southeast Asian country of the Philippines. Zac’s assignment was in the Coastal Resource Management sector, where he lived and worked with local Filipinos in the environmental sector.

Interacting with people and the environment is what brought him to conduct research in the ethnobotanical field and further his interest in medicinal plants. From 2012-2014 Zac served as a Peace Corps volunteer in the Philippines and then returned to finish his master’s degree for the Spring 2015 semester.

Zac is a motivated individual and uses the different opportunities that life gives him, even if they are random occurrences. Zac is a free-spirit, and has a love for life and adventure. He rarely meets a stranger, and enjoys interacting with new people. Traveling the world has become a hobby for Zac. His experiences at NC State have given him a chance to pursue his interest in learning as much as he can about different people and different cultures.

Living life to the fullest is nothing new to Zac. In his down time, Zac enjoys hiking, kayaking, and boating. He also has a knack for videography and photography, and can typically be found filming something for a new video. His love for putting together exciting recreations of his life’s adventures has become a teaching tool for Zac to use to share his experiences with others. He enjoys helping others see the beauty of the world around them

iii and reminding people that there is something new and exciting in every new adventure life offers you.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to give a special thanks to my graduate advisor Dr. Gary Blank for his willingness to guide me through this adventure of pursuing a master’s degree. My thanks and gratitude also goes to Dr. Bob Patterson for always finding the time to help me and sharing the excitement through my studies. Special thanks to Dr. Tim Wallace for being flexible and providing advice and new perspectives.

Also would like to thank Dr. Bob Bruck for all of your work and effort you provided me through my undergraduate and graduate degree. Also for the fun study abroad adventures!

Thank you to Solomon Ghezehei for assisting me with computing analysis of results and willingness to help answer some analysis questions.

A very grateful thank you goes to my Peace Corps family that has assisted me with collecting data and providing support for my studies. A heartfelt thank you goes to Arturo Muros in your responsiveness and always supporting me and being a great friend. To my counterpart

Ernie Falo, you have helped me with anything and everything and your kindness I will never forget. Thank you Leonito “Lito” Falo and your hospitality and kind family were always understanding and generous with assisting me, and I will always be ready to have some

“sleeping vitamins” in your home. Special thank you to Luz Gelito for being a hard worker in helping with improving peoples lives and a terrific supervisor to serve under.

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An extraordinary thank you goes to Ben Burke for helping with the procurement of mailing plant specimens from the Philippines to the USA. An enormous special thank you goes to

Katie Gulilly, Loren Michelle, and Ata Tsafalus with the assistance in collecting information and being responsive when needed. Many thanks to my fellow Peace Corps volunteers, you all made the adventure much more entertaining and worth wild. Some notable mentions and thanks goes out to the Founding Fathers for keeping life interesting and always providing any help that they could. Also to my fellow Peace Corps batch mate Romblomanons, Joshua

Flickinger and Siobhan Gibbons, thank you both for your loyal and generous assistance during our Peace Corps service. Your friendship and aid will never be forgotten.

To all of my Peace Corps Philippines family I say, “Maraming, maraming salamat po sa inyong lahat!”

Of course I cannot forget my crazy loving family and all of their patience and support they have given me from day one. To my mother and father for listening to all the stories and letting me live life to the fullest, words cannot express my gratitude. To my sister, Dr.

Nicole Schnell, thank you for always helping me with various assignments and completing them, especially in editing and reviewing papers. Thank you to many of my relatives for offering their support through the years, especially to my uncle Dr. Raymond Schnell and grandfather Don.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ...... ix LIST OF FIGURES ...... x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 STUDYING ETHNOBOTANY ...... 1 A HISTORY OF ETHNOBOTANY ...... 3 THE STUDY OUTLOOK ...... 7 CHAPTER 2: STUDY AREA ...... 8 GEOGRAPHY ...... 8 CLIMATE ...... 9 FLORA & FAUNA ...... 9 DEMOGRAPHICS & GENERAL INFORMATION...... 10 TOWN DESCRIPTIONS ...... 111 CHAPTER 3: METHODS ...... 155 PLANTS ASSESSED ...... 155 SURVEY DESIGN ...... 177 SURVEY DISTRIBUTION AND COLLECTION ...... 199 DATA ANALYSIS ...... 199 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ...... 211 PLANT RESULTS ...... 211 INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY RESULTS ...... 255 GENERAL SURVEY RESULTS ...... 255 SURVEY RESULTS ...... 277 ODIONGAN VS FERROL ...... 30 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ...... 34 RESULTS SUMMARY ...... 34 PLANTS ...... 34 SURVEY RESULTS ...... 36 URBAN VS RURAL ...... 38

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CONCLUSION ...... 40 REFERENCES ...... 422

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Income Classification for Municipalities ...... 12

Table 2 Used Medicinal Plants in Romblon Province ...... 21

Table 3 How the plants are used ...... 23

Table 4 Number of Participants ...... 26

Table 5 ANOVA of Age & Gender Compared to # of Medicinal Plants Used ...... 28

Table 6 Age Group Significant Comparisons ...... 28

Table 7 Odiongan vs. Ferrol Participants ...... 31

Table 8 ANOVA of Age & Gender Compared to Location (Municipality) ...... 31

Table 9 Odiongan Age Ranges Comparison ...... 32

Table 10 Ferrol Age Ranges Comparison ...... 32

Table 11 Survey questions answered with Odiongan vs Ferrol ...... 33

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Map of Philippines with Romblon Province outlines in red ...... 13

Figure 2 Map of Romblon Province ...... 13

Figure 3 Map of Tablas Island with Odiongan & Ferrol ...... 14

Figure 4 Graph Showing # of Plants Used Compared to Age with Trend line ...... 27

Figure 5 Medicinal # Use ...... 27

Figure 6 Where People Typically Receive Medicine Percentage ...... 29

Figure 7 How Often People Use Plant Medicine Percentage ...... 29

Figure 8 Preference of Medicine Use Percentage ...... 30

x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

“Many admire, few know” is a famous quote attributed to Hippocrates, the father of western medicine. His work evolved into the modern medicine that has expanded into many parts of the world, affecting how medicine is used today. Western medicine is the evidence- driven form that is mostly used in western societies and some parts of the developing world.

Yet not all medicine is derived from Hippocrates’ works. Rather, many of the earth’s medicines derive from the natural environment around us. Many indigenous tribes on the planet rely on this form of medicine, and the knowledge of the local indigenous people has been documented and preserved through studies conducted all over the globe. These studies estimate that about 75-90% of people living in rural areas use plants as their main health care

(Fowler, 2006), and show how plants are collected for medicine and other uses (Hitesh R &

R. S., 2013; Rahman, 2013; Santos et al., 2013). This use of plants in medicinal practices, practices created over thousands of years in human civilizations, has been documented by the field of ethnobotany. This document presents an ethnobotanical study conducted in the island nation of the Philippines. It examines how people use medicinal plants in both urban and rural sites. This comparison also seeks to determine if there is a difference between plant use as medicine in relation to age, gender and location.

STUDYING ETHNOBOTANY

Ethnobotany, simply defined, is the study of human interactions with plants in non- industrialized societies. Dr. Richard Schultes is considered the father of the ethnobotany field with his research pioneering into medicinal and hallucinogenic plants in the Amazonia region (Davis, 2002); he defines ethnobotany with a more inclusive definition as the study of

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the uses, classification, agricultural systems, conservation techniques, magico- religious concepts, technological manipulation, and general economic and sociological importance of plants in primitive or pre-literate societies (Schultes R. E., 1994). The goal of ethnobotanists is to document culturally-significant flora, describe their use, and explain their relationship to cultures, including how they are used, perceived, and managed in human societies. It is important for an ethnobotanist to not only be knowledgeable about the study of plants, but also to be sensitive to the dynamics of how cultures work (Veilleux & King,

1996). Therefore, data collection for an ethnobotanist is found not only in the form of plant and animal collections and laboratory analysis, but also recorded interviews, photographs, market surveys and so on (Martin, 2004).

Dr. Richard Schultes and his revolutionary work popularized and helped solidify the field of ethnobotany. In 1941, Schultes traveled to the Columbian Amazon rainforest where he documented and collected over 24,000 plant specimens, 2,000 of which are used as medicines or poisons (Woo, 2001). His work began with the search for a poison known as curare down in the Amazon basin; today, a derivative of curare is used in modern medicine as a muscle relaxant for surgeries.

The depth of Schultes’ research—which led to his profound contributions to science—derived in part from his living and working with shamans of the Amazon. In many societies, shamans are considered sources of wisdom and power derived from their understanding of the natural world and their connection to the spirit world. The word

“shaman” comes from a Siberian tribal word for a person who is able to go into an altered state and leave his or her body to interact in spirit realms (Mokelke, 2009). Indigenous communities traditionally relied on local shamans to provide local herb lore to heal sickness.

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Many rural communities today still have some form of shaman to help cure ailments, particularly those that have not fully adapted to the introduction of western medicine (in many cases, knowledge of how to use western medicines is lacking) (Werner, 1990).

However, in general, shamans have been in decline in most tribal communities due to urbanization and the encroachment of western civilization (Luna, 1984). Urbanization around the world has therefore led to the decline in medicinal plant knowledge.

A HISTORY OF ETHNOBOTANY

Ethnobotany has been an important form of human civilization; some scientists

(Wooten, 1972; Schultes & Reis, 1995) suggest that the ethnobotanical inquiry between indigenous groups could be one of the oldest studies of mankind. It is unclear how indigenous societies originally acquired medicinal knowledge of plants, but studies have suggested they may have relied upon trial and error while searching for food (Johns, 1996).

With the creation of written language, some cultures, including Mayas and Aztecs, began documenting their plant uses, leading them to developing a method for measuring the natural phenomena of such plants. From ancient times, ethnobotany could be considered a branch of natural philosophy or just as a subset of medicine and agriculture (Abner, 1986; Schultes &

Reis, 1995). Starting in the 19th century, ethnobotany was becoming a science study before the term “ethnobotany” was suggested in the literature.

Karl Friedrich Phillip von Martius collected ethnobotanical data in the Brazilian

Amazon from 1817 to 1820 and recorded information on the different Indian tribes and their customs (Schultes & Raffauf, 1990). Another collector, Richard Spruce from 1849 to 1864 traveled through the Brazilian Amazon to Venezuela and over to the Andes of Ecuador, collecting seeds of Cinchona, Heavea, and Banisteriopsis caapi. From the travels and

3 documents produced by these two ethnobotanists, other compilations arose, and from this examination a name for this study was born.

It was first proposed as an academic discipline in the U.S. by an archaeologist named

John Harshberger in 1895 (Harshberger, 1896). He brought the attention to the idea of studying people and plants together, suggesting an entirely different field of study.

Ethnobotany as a scientific discipline is considered a new field of study when compared to other physical sciences like physics, mathematics, and geology (Feldmen, 1969). The acceptance of ethnobotany as a discipline earned Dr. Richard Schultes the title of the “Father of Ethnobotany” and inspired greater respect and reputation for his contributions.

While many ethnobotanists have followed Schultes in his studies of the Amazonia region, others have trekked into other remote regions of the world, including Pacific Oceania.

Anthropologists and ethnographers were some of the first professional scientists to arrive in the Pacific Oceania islands (Merlin, 2000). Botanists, such as Jacques Barrue, were among some of the first scientists to study in Southeast Asia and in the Pacific. Barrau contributed to the understanding of regional cultivated species in traditional subsistence agriculture and gave insights into the origins of cultivated plants and their domestication in Oceania (Barrau,

1958; 1961; 1965). While there have been other ethnobotanical studies conducted in the

Pacific Oceania region, very few are conducted through the use of ethnobotanical surveys.

Conducting ethnobotanical surveys about people and plants helps increase cultural and biological understanding by revealing how plants are used for medicine and how cultures perceive these plants. For ethnobotanists, the world’s rain forests are libraries of information and the indigenous people, the indexes of the books (i.e. plants) of those rainforests.

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Ethnobotany has begun the difficult yet fascinating work of preserving this important knowledge in modern society.

Today the field of ethnobotany is also used to help promote biodiversity, reverse cultural erosion, and preserve traditional knowledge (Barrett, et al, 2000). It also combines concepts derived from the disciplines of anthropology, agriculture, biochemistry, genetics, ecology, horticulture, conservation biology, botany, and linguistics (Prance, 2007). In the words of Richard Ford (1978) “the accumulation of methods, viewpoints, and data from each of these fields has enriched and enlivened ethnobotany.” Ethnobotany is important also for the development of drugs that are used in western medicine and in traditional societies today.

In fact about 25% of prescription drugs are directly or indirectly derived from plants (Fowler,

2006). The chemistry of plants provides humans with a mixture of natural medicinal agents, made effective over thousands of years of evolution.

Through the development and urbanization of countries and cultures, however, a decline in the use of plants for medicinal purposes has been observed. Over the years, a number of studies have documented the loss of medicinal plant knowledge (Almeida et al.,

2010; Voeks, 2007; Teklehaymanot, 2009; Case et. al., 2005), which some believe is from acculturation and global development (Phillips & Gentry, 1993). These studies have researched medicinal plants used in one site as compared to another but not specifically a developing urban site compared to a rural site; however, comparing sites at different stages of development may help increase understanding of how urbanization affects medicinal plant use.

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THE STUDY OUTLOOK

This study looks at medicinal plant use as a curative in the island nation of the

Philippines in the province of Romblon. Serving as a Peace Corps volunteer and participating in the Peace Corps Master’s International (PCMI) program through North

Carolina State University, I have investigated how people use plants for medicine in my assigned site. Some studies focus on the number of cited plants, but not the number of plants actually used as compared to other locations. I decided to take a different approach in examining the local people’s thoughts and attitudes towards using plants for medicine. This study provides insight and a new approach into perceptions about medicinal plants and examine if there is any difference in age, gender, and location with relation to the number of medicinal plants people use.

A limited number of studies have utilized ethnobotanical surveys in general, and in the Philippines specifically. Some studies, conducted in a variety of countries, only provide a list of plants used for medicine, but don’t necessarily document details of use (Morilla,

Sumaya, Rivero, & Madamba, 2014). This study seeks, not only record how medicinal plants are used in the Romblon province of the Philippines—including who uses them—but also to compare use between two municipalities (one rural, the other urban) to analyze the effect of urbanization on medicinal plant use. The municipality of Ferrol represents a rural community, whereas the municipality of Odiongan represents a developing urban site.

Based on evidence gained through semi-structured interviews, the used medicinal plants of Ferrol and Odiongan are documented and presented in this ethnobotanical survey.

The survey was distributed to people living in Odiongan and Ferrol and then collected and analyzed to determine if there is a difference in medicinal plant use between the two study

6 sites. This study provides a preview of how and if people are still using plants in a rapidly developing urban site and a rural site. This document is divided into 6 chapters: the introduction, the study area descriptions, methodology of the study, plants assessed for the study, results, and discussion about the results.

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CHAPTER 2: STUDY AREA

The Odiongan and Ferrol municipalities are the two sites used for this study located in the province of Romblon. This chapter provides the background information on Odiongan and Ferrol to understand the context of this study. The official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and English. The Filipino language is a derivative of Tagalog; therefore for this study Tagalog and Filipino represent the same language.

GEOGRAPHY

The Philippines covers approximately 300,000 sq. km. The terrain comprises of

7,107 islands with narrow coastal lowlands and about 65% classified as mountainous

(Anonymous, 2012). The Philippines nation is shown in Figure 1 to give a representation of the location of the country in relation to the rest of Southeast Asia.

Manila is the capital city of the Philippines, and the province of Romblon is located south in a different region. The Romblon province, where this study was conducted, is located in about the middle of the Philippines and is part of the MIMAROPA Region IV-B.

The Romblon province is shown on Figure 2. The province is about 346km south of Manila and to the east of the island of Masbate and to the west of the island of Mindoro. Odiongan and Ferrol municipalities are located in the province of Romblon and both are located on the island known as Tablas. The town center of Odiongan is located at 12°24′N latitude and 122°00′E longitude and the Ferrol town center is located at 12°20′N latitude and

121°57′E longitude (National Statistical Coordination Board). Each municipality contains a barangay (the word for community) called Poblacian, which each Poblacian is considered the town center of the municipality.

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CLIMATE

Due to the geographical location of the Philippines, its climate is classified as a

Tropical Rainforest (Schoolmeester). The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical &

Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) classifies the Romblon province as a Type

III season. Type III is described as having the season not very pronounced overall and having a dry season from November to April and wet for the rest of the year (PAGASA-

DOST, 2014). Average rainfall for the Romblon region is approximately 2203.9mm

(PAGASA, 2014).

The mean temperature during the coolers days in the Philippines averages at about

25.5°C and the warmer days for the summer months at 28.3°C (PAGASA, 2014). The

Philippines is prone to many different types of natural disasters and extreme weather patterns. Some natural disasters that occur in the area include typhoons, volcanos, earthquakes, floods, landslides, and ext. All of these natural disasters can affect the local people and the terrestrial and marine life.

FLORA & FAUNA

The vegetation in the coastal areas resembles the typical island tropical paradise. The coastlines contain different mangrove species and just inland there are different types of ferns, orchids, tall coarse grass and various trees. Some fruit bearing tree species include palm coconut trees (Arecaceae cocos), various mango tree species, and guyabano (Annona muricata L.). The Philippines is not known for many different types of woody tree species.

There are few studies done on the different kinds of trees found in the Philippines compared to the rest of Southeast Asia (Langenberger, 2004).

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There are more than 200 inhabited species of mammals including water buffalo

(carabao), goats, horses, cats, dogs, monkeys, squirrels, and red and brown deer. Hundreds of different birds flock through the Philippines such as peacocks, parrots, hornbills, and the endangered Philippine eagle (Hernandez, 2015). The Philippines is more known for the variety of marine life living there in the water, due to being located in the coral triangle of the world.

DEMOGRAPHICS & GENERAL INFORMATION

Odiongan was founded in 1855 and today is classified as a 1st income class (1 being more wealthy) municipality (National Statistical Coordination Board). The income ranking system for a class 1 municipality shows that the municipality has at least a 55,000,000 peso annual income (National Statistic Coordination Board, 2014). The entire class ranking system can be seen in Table 1 with estimate dollar conversions. There are 25 barangays located in the municipality of Odiongan. According to the 2010 census, the population of

Odiongan is 43,676 (National Statistic Coordination Board, 2014). The native language is known as Asi, while Filipino and English are also used languages. The total area of land is approximately 185.67 km2, therefore Odiongan has an estimate of 235 people/km2.

Ferrol was founded in 1850 and became as part of Odiongan but was separated and incorporated in 1978 as its own established municipality. Ferrol is classified as a 6th income class municipality, so therefore has an annual income of less than 15,000,000 pesos (National

Statistic Coordination Board, 2014). Class 6th ranking is classified as a poor municipality.

There are a total of 6 barangays in Ferrol. During the 2010 census, the total population is estimated at 6,802 people (National Statistic Coordination Board, 2014). The total land area is approximately 22.72 km2 and is about 300 people/km2. The local language is called

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Onhan, but the use of Filipino and English are also used languages. Ferrol and Odiongan map locations can be found on Figure 3.

TOWN DESCRIPTIONS

Odiongan would be described as a large town/urban area. There are many restaurants, internet cafes, shops, and a large market available to the public. The town is the main port for the island of Tablas. There are approximately 12 regularly scheduled main vessels each week utilizing the Odiongan port. These large ships are used for transportation of food, people, and goods. The shipping vessels are connected to other main ports of the

Philippines such as the Manila and Batangas pier that have high boat traffic. Odiongan is the most well connected port for the Romblon province. There is also the presence of foreigner investments and other travelers that use the municipality of Odiongan for business and common traveling. Odiongan is also the home to the main campus of Romblon State

University. Many students of Romblon State University are from the Romblon province and choose to study in Odiongan, therefore increasing the size of Odiongans population. There is

1 hospital and 26 health centers found in Odiongan that the people have access to use.

Unlike Odiongan, Ferrol is a small town with limited resources. There is only 1 health center for the whole municipality of Ferrol which is located in the town center or

Poblacian. Ferrol has no restaurants, no market, and very few small shops available on the average day. There are no ports or piers for larger ships to use for any shipment of materials.

Ferrol relies more on agriculture products including rice & other food crops and the people will travel to Odiongan if they are in need of a specific item to purchase. There are about

1600 registered fishfolk in the municipality of Ferrol. Registration of fisherfolk was

11 conducted as a Peace Corps project. The majority of Ferrol’s industry is farming and fishing.

The municipality has begun starting implementing plans for tourism to begin to help improve the economic status of Ferrol. Ferrol contains many future touristic destinations of white sand beaches, caves, and cultural understanding opportunities. Some residents of Odiongan travel to Ferrol for the peace and quiet setting Ferrol provides. Ferrol is ranked as the third smallest municipality in population size in the whole province of Romblon and the smallest municipality on Tablas Island.

Table 1 Income Classification for Municipalities

Class Average Annual Income Estimated Dollar Amount (₱42 = $1) First P 55 M or more X ≥ $1309523.81 Second P 45 M or more but less than P 55 M $1309523.81 ≥ X ≥ $1071428.57 Third P 35 M or more but less than P 45 M $1071428.57 ≥ X ≥ $833333.33 Fourth P 25 M or more but less than P 35 M $833333.33 ≥ X ≥ $595239 Fifth P 15 M or more but less than P 25 M $595239 ≥ X ≥ $357142.86 Sixth Below P 15 M $357142.86 ≥ X

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Figure 1 Map of Philippines with Romblon Province outline in red

Figure 2 Map of Romblon Province

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Odiongan

Ferrol

Figure 3 Map of Tablas Island with Odiongan & Ferrol

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CHAPTER 3: METHODS

From September 2012 to September 2014, I served as environmental volunteer in

Peace Corps Philippines. I was placed in the municipality of Ferrol located in the province of

Romblon. The work I conducted in Ferrol and the neighboring municipality of Odiongan proceeded as appropriate to both my service responsibilities and graduate studies through

North Carolina State University. After living in Ferrol for about three months, I started asking local people about plants and how they used them for medicine. Through informal conversations with a variety of people I started constructing a plan of what type of study I could conduct.

In this study, I chose methods based on resources available in the two study areas.

Because the Ferrol and Odiongan sites are considered more remote, not as many options are available to pursue.

This chapter is divided into 4 sections: assessed plants, survey design, survey distribution and collection, and data analysis. These sections describe how the data was collected and analyzed.

PLANTS ASSESSED

First, to know which plants to study, it is necessary to learn about the common medicinal plants used as a curative in the area. Over the course of my Peace Corps volunteer service, I collected information about plants from local people in Ferrol using the chain- referral sampling method. This method involved engaging with locals to distinguish others who might be able to provide information required for a study. By speaking to locals about the study, I was able to identify, not only the most used medicinal plants, but also experts that could help document those plants and elaborate upon their use.

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Two brothers, Ernie Falo and Leonito Falo, provided their knowledge of medicinal plants. Ernie and Leonito both live in barangay Bunsoran, Ferrol. Both men have been using plants for medicine for most of their lives and were willing to provide me with the information about the local plants they use in the area. Their knowledge of medicinal plants came from elder family members while growing up over years when western medicine was not a viable option to treat an ailment. These plants are commonly found in the wild and are therefore accessible to everyone. After determining the common plants used for medicinal purposes, we spent several days conducting field walks to examine, collect and preserve (i.e. using a plant press) these plant species in the case further identification is needed. I used a hand-written journal to document the information we collected, including the name of each plant (usually in Tagalog), what part of the plant is used (leaf, roots, etc.), and how to prepare the plant to be used as medicine (boiling for tea, rubbing on the skin, etc.). This information later contributed to the creation of the survey. (Further analyses of the plants, as well as each plant’s English common name and scientific name, are shown in Chapter 4 Table 2.)

During documentation, I collected and labeled plants. Depending on the size of the plant, pieces, such as leaves, were collected and preserved using a plant press, in case the plant is needed for future analysis. Using old newspapers and other paper documents to dry them out, the plants were pressed, a common method for preserving plants for a herbarium.

An example of this method is referenced from the Botanical Research Institute of Texas

(Botanical Reserach Institute of Texas).

Once the plants were collected, a permit through United States Department of

Agriculture (USDA) and Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) allowed for the plants to be shipped to North Carolina State University from the Philippines. When the

16 plants arrived, they were taken out for further identification. With the help of Ernie and

Leonito, the plants were matched to the Tagalog and English names, and further verified by

Filipino plant journal articles (University of the Philippines Los Baños, 2013). Other organizations such as the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture, 2015) and the online plant database The Plant List (The Plant List, 2013) contributed in the identification of the plants by their scientific family and species name.

SURVEY DESIGN

As shown in the literature, ethnobotanical knowledge can vary by different variables such as geographical origin, religion, age, ethnicity, and gender. Some published articles provide examples of different variables effecting traditional plant knowledge (Voeks, 2007).

The survey prompts for this study were created from observations and conversations from the locals. The survey was designed to include respondents from two different municipalities and to avoid participant disclosure of traceable information to help ensure anonymity. Also, due to cultural sensitivity, some questions such as education and income level were omitted from the survey. These and other factors led to the creation of a comprehensible survey, resulting in a high response rate and providing a greater sample population for the study.

Many studies reviewing plant knowledge and use, including those by Cheikhyoussef et al.

Journal of Ethnobiology and ethnomedicine and Meretika et. al. Acta Bot. Bras, include fewer than 100 participants; this survey includes 195. Due to the study’s survey of human subjects, an application was submitted to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at North

Carolina State University and accepted.

While the survey was designed to be applicable to Ferrol and Odiongan, it can be altered slightly using the same format for other site studies, allowing for accurate

17 comparative research to be conducted at other sites around the world in the future. The questions on the survey are shown in English and Filipino, the Philippines national language.

In order to be easily understood by people of all ages, the survey was made simple by requiring only 8 responses. The prompts were:

1. Gender

2. Age

3. Location of residence

4. Where do you typically get medicine from?

5. Would you rather use western medicine or plants for medicine?

6. Have you ever used plants to treat a sickness?

7. How often do you use plants for medicine?

8. Which of the following plants have you or your family used for medicine before?

These different variables help demonstrate a comparison of the level and variety of medicinal plant use with relation to age, gender, and location. Question 4 has three choices for participants to choose from, which include: Any Drug Store, Plants, or Both. Question 5 introduces the element of preference, apart from basic knowledge or use, to identify trends in medicinal care in both sites. Question 6 gives perspective on the degree to which a population as adopted western medicine; comparison between question 6 and particularly question 2 (age), gives some indication of degrees to which generations have bought into or rejected traditional medical practices. Question 7 helps to verify whether a plant used for medicine is tied to strict cultural or societal practices or if it is used purely for healing of the sick; this question will have the following choices: Daily, Weekly, Bi-weekly, Monthly, and

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It Depends If Someone is Sick. A list of identified medicinal plants was given to participants to confirm if they have used a specific plant for medicine. The choices of plants in question

8 were generated from the plants identified and documented with Ernie and Leonito Falo, shown in Table 2.

SURVEY DISTRIBUTION AND COLLECTION

Distribution of this survey to participants involved what is known as convenient- surveying. The convenient-survey method is a research technique that researchers use because it is fast, inexpensive, and easy, as subjects are readily available.

In this study, the application of this method involved asking different people on the street, houses, schools, government buildings, etc. to complete the survey. This produced diversity in the population sampling and helped avoid bias. Any person age 18 and older was allowed to complete the survey. Peace Corps volunteers, friends and co-workers, living in the either the municipality of Odiongan or Ferrol, assisted with distribution, and participants helped identify other people to complete the survey. For example, a fellow Peace Corps volunteer teacher might distribute the survey to not only Filipino teachers at his or her school, but also the family with whom he or she is living. Different groups distributed the surveys to fellow friends, host families, colleagues, Non-Government Organizations, etc.

The paper survey distributed to participants was collected upon completion (surveys took generally 5 minutes or less to complete) before answers were added to a master spreadsheet where they could be further analyzed.

DATA ANALYSIS

This study examines the variables of age, gender, and location in relation to the

19 number of plants used. The statistical analysis methods for this study include analysis of variance (ANOVA), and regression of age ranges comparisons. Tukey’s Studentized Range

Test is used to test for significance between the age category ranges. All statistical analysis used the computer program SAS 9.4 edition. Quantification is not the only method to analyze the data; thus other qualitative information has been examined and reference through observations, cultural concepts, and information provided by the people of the Philippines.

By working with statistics and numbers, there is risk of forgetting that the validity ultimately depends on the quality of the data gathered and the information used to generate them

(Phillips, 1996).

The information generated by thus study is reviewed in Chapter 4. Both results about the plants used and survey responses are further reviewed in the discussion section (Chapter

5).

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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS PLANT RESULTS

This chapter will provide an analysis of the plants collected and used for the survey.

An overview of the collection of plants, a description of the common medicinal plant uses, and how the plants are prepared for medicinal use will be examined. Table 2 provides a list of the 22 plants recorded for medicinal plant use and is arranged alphabetically by genus of the plants scientific name.

Table 2 Used Medicinal Plants in Romblon Province

Scientific Name Scientific Family Local Name Common English Name (Tagalog) Name Annona muricata Annonaceae Guavano Soursop Antidesma bunius Phyllanthaceae Bignay Chinese Laurel Blumea balsamifera Asteraceae Sambung Blumea Camphora Bryophyllum pinnatum Crassulaceae Katakataka Air Plant Calophyllum blancoi Calophyllaceae Bitaog none Capsicum annuum Solanaceae Sili Red Pepper Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Hagunoy Devil Weed Chrysophyllum cainito Sapotaceae Kaimito Star Apple Gliricidia sepium Fabaceae Kakawati Aaron's Rod Grammatophyllum scriptum Orchidaceae Tawa Tawa Bell Orchid Jatropha gossypifolia Euphorbiaceae Tuba-Tuba Red Physic Nut Lagerstroemia speciosa Lythraceae Banaba Queen's Flower Mimosa pudica Fabaceae Makahiya Bashful Mimosa Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Malunggay Miracle Tree Origanum vulgare Lamiaceae Oregano Oregano Persea americana Lauraceae Abocado Avocado Piper betle Piperacea Ikmo Betel Pepper Premna odorata Verbenacea Alagaw Fragrant Premna Psidium guajava Myrtales Guayabas Guava Senna alata Fabaceae Akapulko Guajava (Candle Bush) Tabebuia avellanedge Bignoniaceae Maravelos Taheebo Vitex negundo Lamiaceae Lagundi Chinese Chasetree

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Table 2 identifies the local Tagalog, English, and scientific names. The Tagalog and

English names have been identified with the help from Ernie and Leonito Falo and from reviewing Filipino plant journal articles (University of the Philippines Los Baños, 2013).

The USDA (United States Department of Agriculture, 2015) and The Plant List organization

(The Plant List, 2013) and the collection of plants were used in compiling the scientific names.

A description of the common uses and preparation methods of each plant are shown in Table 3. The plant medicinal uses are notes gathered from Ernie and Leonito Falo first documented in a journal, and then entered into a spreadsheet edited and formatted for this document. There is a range of different medicinal uses represented in the 22 used medicinal plants. Some common occurrences such as wounds, headaches, or skin itch relief are examples of some of the common ailments humans come across more frequently than some other ailments. Table 3 provides details about the medicinal use for each plant and shows the part of the plant used, the mode of preparation, and the medicinal uses from each plant.

Leaves are the most common part of the plants used for medicine. Using leaves accounts for 20 out of 22 plants. Only 2 plants were cited for using bark, 1 using the seeds, 1 using the stem and 1 using the roots of a plant. Out of the 22 plants only 3 (malunggay, tuba- tuba, and bigay) of the plants cited have multiple plant part uses. It is common in ethnobotanical studies for leaves to be the most frequently used parts of the plants

(Mahmood, et al., 2011; Kulip, 2003).

The column labeled “Mode of Preparation” provides the method for using the medicinal plant. Decoction, the preparation of boiling plant materials to release the active constituents is the second most common method of preparing the plant for medicinal use.

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There are 8 plants that regime the decoction method for preparation. Decoction allows for the oils and other compounds to be extracted from the plant in the form of a tea to be ingested. Other methods of preparation include infusion, poultice, extraction, direct application, and eating raw plant material.

Table 3 How the plants are used

Local Name Part Plant Scientific Name Mode of Preparation Medicinal Uses (Tagalog) Used Annona muricata Guavano Leaves Decoction Lower blood pressure Antidesma bunius Bignay Bark, Leaves Decoction Lower sugar levels UTI, Stomachache Blumea balsamifera Sambung Leaves Decoction, Poultice pain Bryophyllum Mashed & applied Katakataka Leaves Wound pinnatum directly Calophyllum Mashed & applied Bitaog Leaves Infected Eyes blancoi directly, Infusion Capsicum annuum Sili Leaves Applied Directly Stomachache pain Chromolaena Stop bleeding on Hagunoy Leaves Poultice, Crush odorata wound Chrysophyllum Kaimito Leaves Decoction Help LBM cainito Gliricidia sepium Kakawati Leaves Applied directly Skin itches Grammatophyllum Tawa Tawa Stem Extraction Eye Pain scriptum Jatropha gossip Applied directly, Tuba-Tuba Bark, Leaves Bone fracture, Fever \olia Infusion Lagerstroemia UTI, Good for Banaba Leaves Decoction speciosa kidneys Crush & applied Mimosa pudica Makahiya Leaves Skin itches directly Lower blood Seeds, Moringa oleifera Malunggay Eat Raw pressure, healthy Leaves nursing milk Origanum vulgare Oregano Leaves Extraction Helps coughing Persea americana Abocado Leaves Decoction Good for kidneys Mashed & applied Piper betle Ikmo Leaves Fever relief directly Premna odorata Alagaw Leaves Applied directly Headache relief Applied directly, Eat Psidium guajava Guayabas Leaves Wound, help LBM raw Skin disease (ex. Senna alata Akapulko Leaves Applied directly whiteheads) Tabebuia Maravelos Roots Decoction Help LBM avellanedge Vitex negundo Lagundi Leaves Decoction Helps coughing

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Soaking a piece of the plant (i.e. leaves) in a liquid solution is referred to as infusion.

The preparation of infusion accounts for 2 plants: tuba-tuba (Jatropha gossypifolia) and bitaog (Calophyllum blancoi). The poultice method is used when the plant material is placed in a cloth and dampened with water and then applied to a wound. This method is only applied when using sambung (Blumea balsamifera) for stomachache pain. Taking a piece of a plant such as the leaves or stem of a plant and breaking them to gain access to a liquid found inside is referred to as the extraction method. Malunggay (Moringa oleifera) and tawa tawa (Grammatophyllum scriptum) are the only two plants with using the extraction method.

The directly applied method describes using a piece of the plant in direct contact with the body. This is most commonly used method due to 10 plants being used by people. For example, Senna alata, or akapulko plant leaves are used and rubbed on the skin of the body to treat for itchy skin that could have been caused by a common bug bite. Eating raw plant material such as seeds or leaves is the last method of preparation with malunggay and guaybas (Psidium guajava). Sometimes the plant parts are used in cooking specific food dishes.

All of the parts of plants used and methods of preparation is represented in Table 3.

The information presented in Table 2 and Table 3 are representations of used medicinal plants found on the island of Tablas in Romblon, Philippines. Both municipalities of

Odiongan and Ferrol have access to the listed plants. This is important because the plants show a wide-use of medicinal uses. Most plant medicinal uses are common occurrences for humans. All of these plants provide an external and/or internal application of different ailments. For example, it is more common for a person to have a skin itch or a headache than it is to have a very rare disease that there might not be a common known plant cure. Table 3

24 shows the common reasonable ailments that a plant could be used to treat a daily or weekly occurrence. The plants listed are the same plants shown on the survey.

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY RESULTS

As discussed in the Plant Results section, 22 plants were collected and used in a variety of preparations. These plants were then included in a survey to determine how many people reported use of each plant. The results of this study were formulated through the use of statistical quantitative techniques to determine if there are any statistical significance differences between the variables. Analyses were conducted to evaluate the medicinal plant number use between the ages and genders of the participants, and the location of where the participants live. Additionally, the analysis of how often participants use plants, their preference of medicine use, and where the participants typically receive their medicine from will be examined.

The assumptions of analysis of variance (ANOVA) were verified to test for significant differences for each variable. The statistical procedures were performed using

SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina) and conducted at the α=.05 level. Some of the survey questions were analyzed with percentages using Microsoft Excel.

GENERAL SURVEY RESULTS

The survey was distributed in municipalities of Ferrol and Odiongan. This survey shows a representation of two Philippine municipalities and the medicinal plant use in the two study areas. Table 4 provides the general population of all the participants. Figure 3 provides the visual representation of age and number of plants used while also showing the increasing trend line. Further breakdown of ages have been split into three different age

25 ranges. The age ranges are: 18-29, 30-49 and 50+. These age ranges also provide about the same amount of participants for each group and allow for a better comparison to other ethnobotanical studies. The three ranges provide age categories that are compared to each other for number of medicinal plant uses.

Table 4 Number of Participants

User Age Range / Men Women Total Gender Age 18-29 26 47 73 Age 30-49 26 47 73 Age 50+ 18 31 49 Total 70 125 195

Figure 5 gives the graphical representation of the number of medicinal plants referenced and cited from the survey. The number listed above each column indicates the total number of people who responded that they used each plant. The total sample size of plants referenced and selected from the survey list is 1,390. The average number of plants used per respondent is 7.13, out of the 22 listed. Males used average number of 7.76 of plants, while females indicated an average use of 6.82 plants. The top three cited plants of the total 22 are lagundi, malunggay, and oregano. Malunggay is the most cited plant (156) and the least referenced is bitaog (1). The average number of plants per respondent use is

63.2, and only 10 plants were referenced by that many people.

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Age vs # of Plant Use

20

15

10

5 # of #Plants Used (n=22)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Age (in years)

Figure 4 Graph Showing # of Plants Used Compared to Age with Trend line

195 175 156 155 144 147 135 115 100 93 95 85 70 75 66 64 66 60 46 44 55 37 35 42 35 41 25 35 18 15 15 1 # of Times of#ReferencedTimes (n=195) -5

Medicinal Plant

Figure 5 Medicinal # Use SURVEY RESULTS

Age and gender are two variables examined when comparing the number of people using each medicinal plant. Results for all 195 participants as one dataset are shown in Table

5. Comparing male to female number of medicinal plant uses is shown not to be significant

27 with p > .05. Being a male or female does not affect the number of medicinal plants used.

Cross referencing age and gender show, with p-value equaling 0.9001 to be highly not significant (p > 0.05); thus, to be a male or female, older or younger, will not be significant in the total number of medicinal plants a person has used. Only age is significant (when p <

.05) with a p-value of 0.0016. This is due to the older age range (50+ years) citing more usage of medicinal plants compared to the younger age category (18-29 years). The ages compared to the number of medicinal plants used is expected to show significance.

Table 5 ANOVA Results of Age & Gender Compared to # of Medicinal Plants Used

Factor F Value Pr > F Age 6.65 0.0016 Gender 0.48 0.4914 Age X Gender 0.11 0.9001

Using Tukey’s Studentized Range Test the age ranges compared to each other also show significant differences (p < 0.05). The younger population (18-29 years of age) in comparison to both other age groups (29-49 years & 50+) is significantly different (p < 0.05) in the number of medicinal plants used according to the ANOVA results. The middle age category (30-49 years) and the older age category (50+ years) are not significantly different

(p > 0.05) in the number of medicinal plants used. These results are shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Age Group Significant Comparisons

Comparisons significant at the 0.05 level are indicated by ***. Age Ranges Difference Simultaneous 95% Confidence Comparison Between Limits Means 30-49 vs 50+ -0.8440 -2.9111 1.2231 18-29 vs 50+ -3.5563 -5.6235 -1.4892 *** 18-29 vs 30-49 -2.7123 -4.5650 -0.8597 ***

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The survey also questioned the participants about their preference for medicine, where they typically receive medicine, and how often they use plants for medicine. These results are shown in the following figures (Figure 5, 6, & 7).

31% Drug Store 48% Plants Both

21%

Total participants = 195

Figure 6 Where People Typically Receive Medicine Percentage

4% 2%

6% Daily Weekly Monthly Depends 88%

Total participants = 195

Figure 7 How Often People Use Plant Medicine Percentage

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29% Local Plants

Western Medicine 71%

Total participants = 178

Figure 8 Preference of Medicine Use Percentage Figure 5 represents the survey question “Where do you typically get medicine from?”

48% responded from a drug store, 21% mostly used plants and 31% thought they used both outlets evenly. Figure 6 shows the results for the survey question “How often do you use plants for medicine?” The majority of individuals only use plants when they are sick, as the

88% of the population size shows. Few of the respondents use plants for medicine other than when they are sick. Additionally, 4% said they use plants daily, 2% on a weekly basis, 6% on a monthly basis and while none are used on a bi-weekly basis. “Would you rather use western medicine or plants for medicine” is the survey question results shown in Figure 7.

Approximately 71% said they would rather use plants more than western medicine, while the remaining 29% would choose western medicine over plants for medicine.

ODIONGAN VS FERROL

After reviewing the results from the whole population sample, the dataset was divided to between the two municipalities to analyze the Odiongan in relation to Ferrol to test if there is a significant difference between the number of medicinal plants used in a rural site (Ferrol) to an urban site (Odiongan). Table 7 shows the demographic breakdown of the age ranges, gender, and specific site locations.

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Table 7 Odiongan vs. Ferrol Participants

User Group / Odiongan Odiongan Ferrol Men Ferrol Women Gender Men Women Age 18-29 20 35 6 12 Age 30-49 21 35 5 12 Age 50+ 8 15 10 16 Total 49 85 21 40

Table 8 shows the results from the ANOVA test to identify if there is any significance using the variables age, gender and location in relation to the number of medicinal plants used. Focusing on the comparison of the rural site Ferrol to the urban site Odiongan, there is no significant difference (p > .05) reported in the number of medicinal plants used in each municipality. Age and gender also factored into the location result with age and gender not being statistically significant (p > .05) between the two municipalities medicinal plant use.

Table 8 ANOVA of Age & Gender Compared to Location (Municipality)

Factor F Value Pr > F Location 1.46 0.229 Age X Location 0.11 0.8984 Gender X Location 0.31 0.5771 Age X Gender X Location 0.2 0.8151

A further analysis comparing Ferrol to Odiongan when looking at the significance of the age ranges is reported in Table 9 and Table 10. Using Tukey’s Studentized Range Test, the results for Odiongan’s age ranges are significantly different when comparing the younger

(18-29 years) age range to both the 30-49 years and 50+ participants in Odiongan.

Examining all 195 participants age ranges and Odiongan’s age ranges produce the same results as when looking at the entire dataset when classifying which age ranges are significant when compared to each other.

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Table 9 Odiongan Age Ranges Comparison

Comparisons significant at the 0.05 level are indicated by ***. Difference Age Ranges Simultaneous 95% Between Comparison Confidence Limits Means 30-49 vs 50+ -0.4798 -3.0487 2.0891 18-29 vs 50+ -3.0324 -5.6081 -0.4567 *** 18-29 vs 30-49 -2.5526 -4.5218 -0.5834 ***

Table 10 Ferrol Age Ranges Comparison

Comparisons significant at the 0.05 level are indicated by ***. Difference Age Ranges Simultaneous 95% Between Comparison Confidence Limits Means 30-49 vs 50+ -0.385 -4.508 3.789 18-29 vs 50+ -3.662 -7.716 0.391 18-29 vs 30-49 -3.278 -7.749 1.193

Table 10 shows that there is no statistical significant difference (p > 0.05) in the number of medicinal plants used when examining the participants age for people living in

Ferrol; yet, Table 9 shows significance within the age ranges. These results suggest that younger people in a rural site such as Ferrol, will learn and use more medicinal plants than a younger population living in an urban site.

Examining the results with Odiongan vs Ferrol in the survey questions, the response summaries are shown in Table 11. Each municipality is compared side-by-side to show the percentage representation of the survey questions. The “Receives medicine from where?” represents the survey question “Where do you typically get medicine from?” with the choices being either from a drug store, local plants, or both. “Would you rather use western medicine or plants for medicine” answers are shown under the “Preference” row with the percentages.

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Table 11 Survey questions answered with Odiongan vs Ferrol Results

Odiongan Ferrol

Receives 58% Drug Store 28% Drug Store Medicine from 17% Plants 28% Plants where? 25% Both 44% Both 28% Western Medicine 31% Western Medicine Preference 72% Local Plants 69% Local Plants

More people in Odiongan typically get their medicine from a drug store (58%) compared to the 28% of the Ferrol population sample. Ferrol is evenly distributed in receiving medicines from the drug store and plants each at 28%. More people in Odiongan rely on a drug store than people in Ferrol, yet more people in Odiongan would prefer to have more local plants for medicine at 72% compared to Ferrol at 69%. Respondents of both municipalities indicated they would prefer to use plant medicine over western medicine.

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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION RESULTS SUMMARY

The results of plant use were examined using the variables age, gender, and location.

Gender and location appear to have no effect on the number of medicinal plants used by participants in the municipalities of Odiongan and Ferrol. Age difference did affect the number of medicinal plants used. Survey results from people age 30 and older showed more plant use for medicine than those age 29 and below.

The people of Odiongan and Ferrol predominantly (88%) use medicinal plants only when sick. Access to western medicine has provided an alternative to local medicinal plants;

48% of people surveyed purchase western medicine at local drug stores. However, the majority of people (71%) would still rather use local plants for medicine.

Location is not significant in the amount of medicinal plants used in each municipality. Odiongan, representing an urban site, and Ferrol, representing a rural site, show no difference in the number of medicinal plants used. Age, gender and location all factored together do not show any significance in the number of plants used.

The top three used medicinal plants are lagundi, oregano, and malunggay; the least common are bitaog, ikmo, and makahiya. Each plant is used to cure different ailments and has different preparation methods shown in Table 3.

PLANTS

Lagundi (Vitex negundo), oregano (Origanum vulgare), and malunggay (Moringa oleifera) are the top most frequently used plants for medicine, out of the 22 listed common medicinal plants. Lagundi is the least popular of the top three, used by 144 participants out of 195. The lagundi’s leaves are boiled to create a tea to help treat coughs and remove

34 phlegm or mucus. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015) most adults on average get the common cold 2 to 3 times a year. A symptom of the common cold is coughing and mucus production, which is one possible reason for the high use of lagundi leaves. The Philippine Department of Health also endorses the medicinal use of lagundi for respiratory relief. Lagundi is also a commonly found tree providing easy access to the leaves for medicine.

Ranking second highest for medicinal plant use was oregano, with 147 cited users out of 195 participants. Oregano is a common herb found in most parts of the world. Most studies of oregano focus on oregano oil, which is used primarily as an external health treatement for fungal infections, parasites, and yeast infections, as suggested by Erickson

(2009), or an antioxidant and antimicrobial, as suggested by Challem (2008). In the

Philippines the common use is to treat coughs; the oregano leaves are steamed and then squeezed to extract a liquid, which is then ingested. Oregano is also used as a cooking herb to add flavor to food dishes. Because the plant is used for cooking, it is highly accessible, which could explain its high medicinal use.

Oregano is not the only medicinal plant used for cooking; malunggay is commonly used in Filipino food dishes. Malunggay was the most popular medicinal plant, with 156 cited users out of 195 participants. Originally this plant was used only for lactating mothers, as Ernie, a Filipino medicinal plant expert, suggested. Malunggay has been studied by scientists for different uses and, for the past 20 years, it has been promoted by the World

Health Organization and by the Philippines government as a health enhancer for poor countries around the globe (Ples & Ho). The medicinal properties of the plant parts of malunggay have been long documented and used in Filipino folk medicine (Quisumbing,

35

1978). Many Filipinos also used malunggay leaves in cooking traditional Filipino food dishes. It is very common that most Filipinos know and use malunggay just as most

Americans use and know the healthier benefits of eating a salad. The average Filipino diet contains a lot of meats and high sugar uses, which can lead to high blood sugar in the body.

The Philippine government Department of Health suggests that using malunggay may help lower sugar blood levels (Ples & Ho). This benefit has become common knowledge in the

Philippines.

The reason for the popularity of these high-use medicinal plants in the Philippines may be a result of their widely-accepted health benefits, their frequent use as a cooking ingredient, and their effectiveness in treating most common ailments. Lagundi helps with the common cold, while oregano adds more flavor to the food dish, and malunggay has been promoted for many years for its health benefits. All these plants are also commonly found growing wild, and so most of the time are free of cost.

SURVEY RESULTS

Studies have shown a difference in the knowledge of medicinal plant use between genders (Voeks, 2007). Voeks (2007) presents results showing that women are more likely to have medicinal plant knowledge in Brazil, and Teklehaymanot (2009) reported that men show more knowledge with medicinal plant use in Ethiopia. In the case of the Philippines, this study shows no significant difference (p > .05) in the medicinal plant use in relation to gender. In some cultures, gender is an important factor in determining who is responsible for understanding how to use plants for medicine (Cheikhyoussef, et. al., 2011). Most people learn different medicinal plant use either through their parents or the practicing of gardening and farming.

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Ramos et. al. (2007) suggest that men tend to experience a greater number of plant species compared to women because men are responsible for pasture management and the collection of plant resources in Brazil. This does not seem to be the case in the Philippines in the communities in the province of Romblon. While men tend to be responsible for the agriculture (i.e. growing crops such as rice and corn), women typically grow vegetables in smaller gardens. A Filipino man working in the rice fields all day may opt to use a plant growing nearby to help cure a headache. The women might also use a plant near their place of work, rather than find a western drug in the home for the sake of saving time. Both genders work and interact with the natural environment outside of the home, which aids in learning about how to use plants for medicine. This equality in medicinal plant knowledge between the genders contradicts some studies done in other cultures that show greater plant knowledge and use on the part of men, as shown by Case et. al. (2005).

The majority of studies do not touch upon the preference of the local people in what type of medicine they use. The survey question “Would you rather use western medicine or plants for medicine?” directly inquired upon preference, and 71% of respondents prefer to use local plants rather than western medicine. Both Odiongan and Ferrol municipalities have access to western medicine at a drug store found in Odiongan, hence the question “Where do you typically get medicine from?” Out of the entire sample population 69% answered “at a drug store”. The preference is for medicinal plants, yet the practice is to purchase western medicines from the drug store. Previous studies have not examined this phenomenon and therefore have not tested for it. This finding could contribute to evidence of plant knowledge declining worldwide due to increased access to western medicine. Convenience of taking a

37 pill rather than preparing an herbal remedy may also contribute to the decline of medicinal plant use. Only 18% of the population sampled use plants more than western medicine.

The knowledge of medicinal plants shows variance by age. In some rare cases a younger population may show more cited plants used for medicine than older populations

(Hanazaki, Tamashiro, Leitao-Filho, & Begossi, 1999). Reviewing all respondents, the dataset showed to be significant (p < .05) when comparing the age categories to each other in relation to the number of medicinal plants used. The data showed 18-29 year old participants use fewer medicinal plants as compared to both other age groupings (30-49 and 50+). This is expected: the older the person, the more experience and knowledge the person will have concerning medicinal plants. Other studies have found similar results (Caniago & Siebert,

1998; Luoga et al 2000).

URBAN VS RURAL

This study was designed to look at the difference in medicinal plant use between a developing urban setting and a rural setting. The study also focused on the number of plants used at the two sites, with Odiongan representing the developing urban municipality and

Ferrol representing the rural municipality. Participants in both municipalities (88%) say they use plants for when they are sick, and do not show any comparative significance (p > .05) in the number of plants they use for medicine. Therefore site location apparently does not affect the number of medicinal plants used. Although comparing the number of plants used in a rural site to a developing urban site has not been a focus of published research, Phillips and

Gentry (1993) assert that medicinal plant knowledge "is uniquely vulnerable to acculturation." The current data contradict Phillips and Gentry’s assertion, suggesting some

38 additional factor may contribute to a developing urban site showing a significant change in medicinal plant use.

Some other potential variables that impact how people use western medicine and medicinal plants might include availability (i.e. how many drug stores are located in each site), as well as the costs of pharmaceutical drugs. Many people in developing countries sometimes do not have the financial capability to purchase western medicine, but they can walk outside into the forest and find a plant they know how to use to cure a sickness. Given these factors, it is unsurprising that the current data show 71% prefer to use plants over western medicine.

Age is another variable analyzed separately within each municipality. Ferrol showed no significant difference (p > .05) when comparing different age groups, yet Odiongan did.

Odiongan results showed that there is a significant difference (p < .05) between the younger age group (18-29) and older age groups (30-49 and 50+) with relation to the number of plants used, with the younger group using fewer medicinal plants than the older groups. Ferrol did not show this difference, which may indicate that the younger population in Ferrol learn more plants at an earlier age compared to the younger population living in Odiongan. The rural site, Ferrol, has more limited to access western medicine, creating an incentive to learn and use plants as medicine.

This study has sought to open the field to comparative research between sites in the same country or different countries. The method employed represents a more rapid approach to testing multiple communities’ knowledge by focusing primarily on participants rather than the numerous potential plants that could be included in community interviews. Identifying these plants involves, by necessity, sincere engagement with the community, connecting with

39 community members in relationships of mutual respect and understanding of background and culture.

Observing and understanding culture is an integral part of ethnobotanical study.

While observing the people and culture, just as an anthropologist would, the ethnobotanist develops new points of view through observation and interaction with the local community.

Ethnobotanists often work without the support of colleagues in other subject areas, which may help them create close relationships with the communities in which they work (Martin,

2004).

CONCLUSION

The survey results show little difference between an urban site like Odiongan and a rural site like Ferrol. The results show that in the two Filipino communities, a pattern of plant-based medicine use still exists today. The rural site and urban site are comparable in the number of plants used. On the whole, factors of age, gender, and location did not affect the amount of plants used medicinally. There is no significant difference (p > .05) between male or female medicinal plant use; both use about the same number of plants (male avg. =

7.67 & female avg. = 6.82). Only age is found to be significant when comparing the number of medicinal plants used. The 18-29 year olds do not use as many plants in contract to the

30-49 and 50+ year old respondents.

Twenty-two used medicinal plants were collected and referenced for the survey. The most frequently reported medicinal plants included malunggay, oregano, and lagundi. The malunggay plant is widely known in the Philippines for its health benefits, and oregano is a common cooking ingredient in Filipino food dishes, while lagundi is used to help clear common cold symptoms. While the majority of people would prefer to use plants for

40 medicine (71%) almost half (48%) of people purchase western medicine from local drug stores.

The ethnobotanical survey study conducted has reviewed not only what people know about plant use, but also communities’ attitudes towards western medicine and local plant medicine. This study introduced new research opportunities and techniques for studying certain medicinal plants between cultures and locations. In the Philippines’ case, despite the influence of outside cultures, people still want to use plants for medicine and so have continued doing so. While some countries have suffered cultural erosion in the face of wide- spread urbanization, this study suggests the Philippines might be more successful in maintaining not only its use of medicinal plants but other traditional practices as well.

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REFERENCES

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