Therapeutic Orchids: Traditional Uses and Recent Advances — an Overview

Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140

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Review Therapeutic orchids: traditional uses and recent advances — An overview

Mohammad Musharof Hossain ⁎

Department of Botany, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh article info abstract

Article history: Orchids have been used as a source of medicine for millennia to treat different diseases and Received 27 January 2010 ailments including tuberculosis, paralysis, stomach disorders, chest pain, arthritis, syphilis, Accepted in revised form 4 September 2010 jaundice, cholera, acidity, eczema, tumour, piles, boils, inflammations, menstrual disorder, Available online 21 September 2010 spermatorrhea, leucoderma, diahorrhea, muscular pain, blood dysentery, hepatitis, dyspepsia, bone fractures, rheumatism, asthma, malaria, earache, sexually transmitted diseases, wounds Keywords: and sores. Besides, many orchidaceous preparations are used as emetic, purgative, aphrodisiac, Salep vermifuge, bronchodilator, sex stimulator, contraceptive, cooling agent and remedies in Vanilla scorpion sting and snake bite. Some of the preparations are supposed to have miraculous Chyavanprash Shi-Hu curative properties but rare scientific demonstration available which is a primary requirement Tian-Ma for clinical implementations. Incredible diversity, high alkaloids and glycosides content, Bai-Ji research on orchids is full of potential. Meanwhile, some novel compounds and drugs, both in phytochemical and pharmacological point of view have been reported from orchids. Linking of the indigenous knowledge to the modern research activities will help to discover new drugs much more effective than contemporary synthetic medicines. The present study reviews the traditional therapeutic uses of orchids with its recent advances in pharmacological investigations that would be a useful reference for plant drug researches, especially in orchids. © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 103 2. Traditional uses of orchids ...... 103 2.1. South-East Asia ...... 103 2.2. China and Japan ...... 103 2.3. Europe ...... 112 2.4. Africa ...... 112 2.5. America ...... 113 2.6. Australia ...... 113 3. Popular orchid preparations...... 113 3.1. Salep ...... 113 3.2. Vanilla ...... 114 3.3. Chavanprash...... 114 3.4. Shi-Hu, Tian-Ma and Bai-Ji ...... 115 4. Important phytochemicals in orchids ...... 115 5. Pharmacological studies of orchid phytochemicals ...... 116 6. Threats to orchids ...... 138

⁎ Tel.: +880 1712684778; fax: +880 31 726310. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected].

7. Conclusions ...... 138 Acknowledgments ...... 138 References ...... 138

1. Introduction oldest references to the use of medicinal herbs in India are found in the Sanskrit literatures. There are four Vedas —‘Rig Veda’, Orchidaceae, the largest and most evolved family of the ‘Sama Veda’, ‘Ayur Veda’ and ‘Atharva Veda’ which form the main flowering plants comprises 25,000 to 35,000 species under 750 literary source for Vedic era. The ‘Rig Veda’ and ‘Atharva Veda’, to 850 genera [1–3]. They are virtually found in all regions written between 400 and 1600 B.C. dealing with varied use of around the globe except the icy Antarctica and hot deserts, but plant drugs, are the oldest books in the library of humans supply their greatest diversity occurs in the tropical and sub-tropical curious information on this subject. It is in the ‘Ayurveda’ which regions. Orchids are undoubtedly the ornamental elite because is considered as an ‘Upa Veda’ (=applied knowledge), that of their perplexingly complex flowers of exquisite beauty. property of plant drugs and their uses is described. ‘Charaka Reason being, orchids nowadays became an object of multibil- Samhita’, the earliest treatise on ‘Ayurveda’ written by Charaka in lion dollar business. Evident by recent increase in the world 600 B.C., listed 341 plants and plant products, is a great reference floriculture trade, orchids became the second most popular cut to diseases and medical procedures for health care. One flowers as well as potted floriculture crop rising at the rate of additional Sanskrit literature ‘Sushruta Samhita’ which was 10–20% [4,5]. Apart from their ornamental value, many orchids written by Sushruta, a surgeon and teacher of ‘Ayurveda’ in 600 have apparent medicinal and glycosidal importance. However, B.C., is a more comprehensive and authoritative works of the fact that orchids could play an important role in herbal ‘Ayurveda’ that contains description of 1120 illnesses, 700 medicines is often overlooked. The history of orchids probably medicinal plants and 121 preparations. Interestingly, all this started with their use for medicinal purposes. Numerous orchid ancient Sanskrit literature incorporated some orchids as medic- species have been and are being used in different countries for inal herbs. It is greatly the credit of the Indians that they were therapeutic properties. A good number of research papers, acquainted with a far larger number of orchid species than the popular articles and books have been published on medicinal native of any other country in the face of the earth [10].Inthe uses of orchids throughout the world. However, the informa- Ayurvedic system of medicine, a rejuvenating herbal formulation tion is scanty for high value medicinal plants like orchids. ‘Astavarga’ is derived from a group of 8 herbs, some of these Furthermore, all the existing information generally corre- herbs i.e. jivak (Microstylis wallichii), kakoli (Habenaria acumi- sponded to a particular region or community. It is therefore nata), riddhi (H. intermedia) and vriddhi (H. edgeworthii)are important to aggregate the information of medicinal uses of orchids [11,12]. Flickingeria macraei is used in ‘Ayurveda’ in the orchid that will provide useful references for plant drug name of ‘jeevanti’ which is used as astringent to the bowels, research. In the present study an attempt was made to amass aphrodisiac and in asthma and bronchitis [13]. Other commonly the available information on medicinal orchids throughout the used orchid drugs in the Ayurvedic system are salem (Orchis world. It would be impossible to give an exhaustive review of latifolia and Eulophia latifolia), jewanti (Dendrobium alpestre), the medicinal uses of orchids within the limits of a small essay shwethuli and rasna (Acampe papillosa and Vanda tessellata). In like this, but a brief summary will permit some idea with ‘Sushruta samhita’ it is mentioned that the underground tuber of respect to traditional use, the advances made and the Orchis latifolia is used in the drug ‘munjatak’ which pacifies cough popularity extended to orchids for the time being. [14]. The leaves of Vanda roxburghii have been prescribed in the ancient Sanskrit literature for external application in rheuma- 2. Traditional uses of orchids tism, ear infections, fractures and diseases of nervous system. In some regions of Malaya, the women boil the leaves of The origin of orchids on the earth probably dates back to Nervilia aragoana and drink the liquid immediately after 120 million years. However, available written records are as childbirth as a precaution against possible sickness. Corym- early as 4th millennium B.C. only. Orchids have been used as a borchis longiflora, Tropidia curculigoides, and Acriopsis javanica source of herbal remedies in China since 2800 B.C. [6,7].Since are valued as febrifuges in treating malaria. Eria pannea plant the Vedic period (2000 B.C.–600 B.C.), some orchids have been is boiled to furnish a medicinal bath to cure ague and several used by Indians for their curative and aphrodisiac properties species of Lissochilus are used as aphrodisiac. The stems of [8]. In the Indian Vedic scriptures there is a mention of orchid L. dilectus are used in scabies and skin lesions and the under the name ‘Vanda’. Some parts of Europe, America, pseudobulbs of Epidendrum bifidum have been used to expel Australia and Africa have also been using orchids as herbal cure tapeworms and other intestinal parasites. In Indonesia, a for long. A mega list of medicinal orchids and their traditional scented ointment made from the pseudobulbs of Gammato- uses is given in Table 1. In the following section brief history of phyllum scriptum is believed to cure sores [15]. medicinal orchids of the world is discussed. 2.2. China and Japan 2.1. South-East Asia There is no doubt that the Chinese were the first to Indians have one of the oldest, richest and most diverse cultivate orchids, and they were almost certainly the first to cultural traditions called ‘folk traditions’ associated with the use describe orchids for medicinal use [16]. Chinese legendary medicinal herbs and it is still a living tradition in India [9].The Emperor ‘Shen-Nung’ advised on the medicinal properties of Table 1 Traditional therapeutic uses of medicinal orchids. 104

Name of the species Vernacular/tribal/common name Plant part(s) Medicinal uses References use

Acampe carinata (Griff.) Pantl. Rasna (Sanskrit); Kano-kato Root, leaf The root paste is used in acute rheumatism, sciatica, neuralgia, beneficial in [71,92] secondary syphilis, uterine diseases, scorpion sting and snake bites. Leaf paste along with garlic useful in chest pain and stomach disorder caused by hyper acidity. Acampe papillosa (Lindl.) Lindl. Rasna (Sanskrit) Root The root is used in rheumatism. It is also used as cooling agent, astringent to boils, [2,3,98,100,124] expectorant, burning sensations, biliousness, useful in asthma, bronchitis, diseases of eyes and blood, poisonous infections, tuberculosis, throat troubles and fever. Crusted roots are used as tonic; pasted roots are used for rheumatic pains, sciatica and neuralgia. It is considered to be beneficial in curing secondary syphilis and uterine diseases. Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & McCann Rasna (Sanskrit) Root Fresh root paste with Asparagus recemosus root paste is taken orally on empty [3,89] stomach to cure arthritis. Acampe wightiana Lindl. Taliyamaravala (Malaylam); Kanbher (Marathi) The plant is a bitter tonic. It is used in rheumatism. [10,40,97] Aerides multiflorum Roxb. (A. affine Lindl.) Draupadi puspa Whole plant It showed anti-bacterial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Salmonella aureus. [12,101] Aerides odorata Lour. Pargasa Root, leaf Fresh root paste along with Azadiracta indica bark paste is taken for reducing joint [3,89] pain and swelling. The leaf juice is taken orally for tuberculosis. Anocetochilus formosanus Hayata – Tuber The plant is an antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, hepatoprotective. It has anti- [128–131] 102 (2011) 82 Fitoterapia / Hossain M.M. cancerous properties and is used in treating hepatitis and hypertension. It is an important ethnomedicinal plant in Taiwan and is called ‘King Medicine’ because of its diverse pharmacological effects, such as antihyperglycemia, antiosteoporosis, antihyperliposis, antifatigue and hepatoprotection. Arundina graminifolia (D. Don) Hochr. Bamboo orchid Rhizome It has anti-bacterial activity. Root decoction is used in body ache. [3,12,97] Bletilla striata (Thunb.)Rchb.f.[Syn.Limodorum Baiji, Bai-Ji (Chinese) Tuber Its herbal medicinal name in Chinese is Dai Chi (Baiji). The medicine prepared [19,45] striatum Thunb., Epidendrum tuberosum Lour., from tuber is used to treat tuberculosis, hemoptysis, gastric, and duodenal ulcers Bletia hyacinthina (Wild) R. Br.] as well as bleeding and cracked skin on the feet and hands. Other uses in China, Mongolia, and Japan include the introduction of euphoria, purification of blood, strengthening and consolidation of lungs, as well as the treatment of pus, boils, abscesses, malignant swellings, ulcers, and breast cancer. Tubers have also been used as demulcent, and expectorant. Additional medical applications of the boiled and/or dried tubers include treatment of the flatulence, dyspepsia, dysentery, –

fever, malignant ulcers, gastrointestinal disorders, hemorrhoids, anthrax, malaria, 140 eye diseases, tinea, ringworm, tumors, necrosis, silicosis, traumatic injuries, coughs, chest pain, tuberculosis, vomiting, gastrorrhagia, enterorrhagia, internal bleeding, inflammation, and chopped skin. The powdered roots mixed with oil have been used as an emollient for burns and skin diseases. Whole plant preparations are tonic and treatment against leucorrhea, hemoptysis, and purulent cough. Leaves are reported to cure lung disease. In Japanese folk medicine, the tubers are used for the same purposes as salep. Bulbophyllum cariniflorum Rchb. f. Sumura Root Dried root with cow milk and black pepper is used to induce abortion within [89] 2–3 months of pregnancy. Bulbophyllum lilacinum Ridl. Pargasa; Gota parchallow (Rakhain) Pseudobulbs Fluid from cleaned pseudobulbs are extracted by pressing and kept in a sealed jar [3] for overnight then mixed with water and taken as a cool drink. It removes fatigue, restlessness and keeps the body fresh. Bulbophyllum neilgherrense Wight Purusharantha Pseudobulb The extracted juice from the pseudobulbs is used for restoration of adolescence [3,98,119] and as tonic. Cleisostoma williamsonii (Rchb. f.) Garay – Whole plant The paste of the plant is used as an astringent. [2] Coelogyne corymbosa Lindl. – Pseudobulb The juice of fresh pseudobulb is used in healing burn wounds. [90,97] Coelogyne cristata Lindl. – Pseudobulb The gum of the bulb is applied on the sores. [4,95] Coelogyne fuscescens Lindl. – Pseudobulb Paste of pseudobulb is administered orally for stomachache. [97] Coelogyne gardneriana Lindl. – Whole plant It showed effective anti-bacterial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae and E. [101] ccoli. Coelogyne punctulata Lindl. – Pseudobulb The powder obtained from pseudobulb is used in burn injuries and healing wounds. [2] Corallorhiza maculate Raf. Coral Orchid (English) Roots, stalks A tea made from dried stalks is given to patient of pneumonia to relieve [95] weakness. Roots are used to kill worms, increase perspiration and as sedative. Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Blume – Leaf The juice of the fresh leaves is given as an emetic to reduce fever, especially in [4,15] children. Cymbidiam macrorhizon Lindl. – Rhizome Rhizome is used in boils and also used as diaphoretic and febrifuge. [15] Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. Boat orchid (English) Root, leaf, The plant is said to be emetic and purgative. It furnishes salep. Root powder is [2,3,10,40,81, whole plant used to reduce paralysis. Tribal people of Chittagong hill tracts (Bangladesh) use 89,98,107] leaf extract for treating boils and fever. Pasted aerial roots are used for joining fractured bones. Whole plant is used as purgative, emetic, tonic and in treating earache, burns and sores. Plant is pounded with ginger and the water extract is given to cure chronic illness, weakness of eyes, vertigo and paralysis. It contains two substituted bibenzyls, a dihydrophenanthrene and a phenanthraquinone which are biologically active phytochemicals. Cymbidium ensifolium (L.) Sw. – Rhizome A decoction prepared from rhizome is used in gonorrhoea and that of flowers in [2] eye-sores. Cymbidium giganteum Wall. ex Lindl. Iris cymbidium Leaf Juice of crushed leaves has unique blood clotting properties. [97] Cymbidium longifolium D. Don – Pseudobulb It is a source of salep is used as demulcent. Aqueous solution of dried and powdered [90,97] pseudobulbs is taken orally in empty stomach condition as emetic. Cypripedium calceolus L. Lady's Slipper Orchid Root, Powdered roots in sugar water is said to act as sedative, promote sleep and reduce [91] 102 (2011) 82 Fitoterapia / Hossain M.M. rhizome pain. A tea prepared from roots is used to treat jangling nerves and headaches. Cypripedium elegans Rchb. f. Lady's slipper orchid Root The root is used as nerve tonic in hysteria, spasm, fits, madness, epilepsy and in [2,91] rheumatism. Herbalists generally consider Cypripedium preparations to be antispasmodic, anodyne, diaphoretic, hypnotic, nervine, sedative, stimulant and tonic. Cypripedium parviflorum Salisbury Lady's slipper orchid, moccasin flower, Rhizome It is one of the most important medicinal lady's slipper in North America. [31–33,127] camel's foot, squirrel foot, steeple cap, Rhizomes are dried and reduced to a powder and administered as a teaspoon of Venus' shoes, whippoorwill shoes, powder, diluted in sugar water, or any other convenient form. The Cherokees, nerve root, American valerian Iroquois, Menominee, MicMac, Penobscot, and other tribes used Cypripedium to treat a variety of disorders. Preparations have been taken internally in the treatment of insomnia, anxiety, fever, headache, neuralgia, emotional tension, palpitations, tremors, irritable bowel syndrome, delirium, convulsions due to fever and to ease the pain of menstruation and child birth. Cypripedium pubescens Willd. Lady's slipper orchid Root In Indian folk medicine, the plant is antispasmodic, diaphoretic, hypnotic, [12,85] –

nervine, sedative, and tonic. It is used in diabetes, diarrhoea, dysentery, paralysis, 140 convalescence, impotence and malnutrition. It is one of the most valuable medicinal herbs in America. Its operation upon the system appears to be in harmony with the laws of animal life, giving tone to the nervous system and is, therefore, used in all cases of nervous irritability, hysterical affections, spasms, fits and all derangements of the functions of the brain such as madness, delirium etc. Its properties are sedative and antispasmodic. It has a pungent smell, somewhat nauseous. It contains extractive, gum, fecula and a small portion of essential oil. Its beneficial effects are produced by allaying pain, quieting the nerves and promoting sleep. It has good effects also in nervous headache, epilepsy, tremors, etc. Its use is preferable to Opium since it has no narcotic effects. The dry powder of roots or fluid extract of Cypripedium,official in U.S.P. and which is quite extensively used for many of the ailments mentioned previously. In addition to the previously mentioned ailments, this drug also finds extensive use as a valuable drug in allaying pains of the joints following scarlet fever and also in the treatment of worms of the stomach. Dactylorhiza maculate (L.) Soó Health spotted orchid (English) Tuber The plant has aphrodisiac properties. [110] Dactylorhiza purpurella Northern marsh orchid (English) Tuber A decoction of testicle-like tuber has enjoyed an age-old reputation as a love- [110] (Stephen. & Stephen.) Soó philtre, with an allegedly aphrodisiac effect on women. 105 (continued on next page) 106

Table 1 (continued)

Name of the species Vernacular/tribal/common name Plant part(s) Medicinal uses References use

Dactylorhiza hatagerea (D. Don) Soo. Salam-panja, Salep, Hatajiri, Root, The plant extensively use in the Indian system of medicine particularly in [2,82,91–93,103, Hatajori (Hindi) Mash Orchid (English) rhizome Ayurveda, Siddha and Yunani medicine as an aphrodisiac and nervine tonic. 105,114,115] People of Lahaul-Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh (India) use the plant for curing various diseases. Roots along with the fruit pulp of Siya (wild rose) and other ingredients are crushed and made into paste. The pills made from the paste are given as tonic in case of general weakness and debility. The tubers are boiled with milk and the decoction is taken as general tonic to improve health. The fresh tubers extract is taken to treat cough. The boiled extract of tubers mixed with milk is given orally for treating boon fracture. The processed (refined) tubers mixed with misri (sugar crystal) and milk is given to control spermatorrhoea. The fresh root juice is given in cough and stomachache. Fresh tuber is applied to healing wound. A decoction prepared from tuber is given in colic pain. Root powder is astringent and expectorant. It used to relieve fever and urinary troubles. Dendrobium alpestre Royle Jiwanti (Sanskrit) Wild orchid Pseudobulb Pseudobulbs are medicinally important. Its preparations are used to treat [15,91,92] 102 (2011) 82 Fitoterapia / Hossain M.M. pimples, boils and other skin problems. The plant is also used as tonic. Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C.E.C. Fisch. Fasia mach (Chakma)* Fine leaf paste is applied on the abnormal or deformed parts of the head of newly [3] born baby to get normal shape. Dendrobium crumenatum Sw. – Leaf A poultice of leaves is beneficial in boils and pimples. [2] Dendrobium farmeri Paxton Whole plant It showed encouraging anti-bacterial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae, E. coli [101] and Salmonella typhi. Dendrobium herbaceum Lindl. Sasanga, Radam Leaf A decoction made from leaf is used to treat syphilis. Tender leaf juice is used for [89,98] earache. Dendrobium macraei Lindl. Jivanti, Jeva jevaniya, Saka shreshtha, Whole plant It is used as a tonic for general debility. [12] Yasasvini, Jiva bhadra (Sanskrit) Dendrobium macrostachyum Lindl. Radam Tender Tender tip juice is used as an ear drops for earache. [98] shoot tip Dendrobium monticola Hunt & Summerh. Jiwanti (Sanskrit) Pseudobulb The poultice of pseudobulbs is used to treat boils, pimples and other skin [2] – eruptions. 140 Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Shi-Hu (Chinese) Pseudobulb, The pseudobulb extract is used to cure eye infections and to soothe burns. In [2,4,12,95–97] seed Vietnam the plant is used in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis, general debility, flatulence, dyspepsia, reduce salivation, parched and thirsty mouth, night sweats, fever and anorexia. The plant is also used as antiphlogistic, stomachic and tonic. The seeds are used in fresh wounds for a speedy healing. Stem is useful in thrust and dryness of tongue and also given in fever during convalescence. Fresh and dried stems used for longevity, as aphrodisiac, stomachic and analgesic. The plant has been regarded as a source of precious drug in Chinese Materia Medica for containing some important alkaloids. Dendrobium normale Falc. Blue orchid Whole plant The entire plant is known for its aphrodisiac and tonic properties. [91,92] Dendrobium ovatum (Wild.) Kranzl. Maravvar (Malabar); Nagli (Marathi) Whole plant The plant is an emollient. The juice of fresh plant is given internally for all kinds of [2,10,40] stomachache. It excites the bile and acts as a laxative to the intestines Dendrobium pumilum Roxb. Sakat kalumbai (Malay) Whole plant The Malays use it as a drug in dropsy [10,40] Desmotrichum fimbriatum Blume Jibai, Jibanti (Bengali); Jiban, Joivanti, Sag Pseudobulb, Sanskrit writers described the plant as cold, mucilaginous, light, strengthening, [10,40] (Hindi); Bhadra, Jiva, Jivani, Jivanti (Marathi); leaf, fruit, and as a remedy for disorders of the bile, blood and phlegm. The whole plant is whole plant used in decoction along with other drugs supposed to have similar properties. The fruit is said to be an aphrodisiac. The plant is prescribed by Sushruta, in combination with other drugs, for the treatment of snake bite and scorpion sting. The plant is occasionally used as a stimulant and tonic. As a tonic it is given in debility due to seminal losses Epipactis helleborine (L.) Crantz. Epipactis Broadleaved helliborine Root, The roots of these plants are used in insanity. [2,11,91–93] gigantea Dougl. ex Hook. and Epipactis rhizome veratrifolia Boiss. & Hohen. Epipactis latifolia Wall. Helloborine Rhizome Rhizomes are used to treat nervous disorders. Infusion of leaves is given in [91,92] intermittent fever. Rhizome is regarded as aphrodisiac. Eria bambusifolia Lindl. Kimar Whole plant The plant is used to cure hyper acidity and other stomach disorders. [89] Eria muscicola (Lindl.) Lindl. – Pseudobulb The plant is highly medicinal. It is used to treat chest, heart, lung, eye, ear and [91,92] mental problems. Eria pannea Lindl. – Root, leaf, Decoction of roots and leaves are used in bone-ache. Paste of whole plant is mixed [2,90] whole plant in bathing water for ague. Eria spicata (D. Don.) Hand.-Mazz. – Stem Stem paste applied externally on forehead to cure headache. The same [90] preparation is taken orally for stomach ailments. Eria pubescens Lindl. Iswar mul (Tanchinga)* Clean pseudobulbs are robustly pressed to soften and then submerged in a glass [3] of water for overnight to exude fluid materials and taken as drink. This fluid mixed water hold up ejaculation and prolong sexual intercourse. Eulophia campestris Wall. Khusyu-uth-thalab (Arabic); Salibmisri, Tuber In Ayurvedic system of medicine the tuber is used as appetizer; stomachic, tonic, [10,91,92] Sungmisri (Bengali); Salibmisri (Hindi); Amrita, aphrodisiac, alterative; commonly give it to stimulate appetite and to purify Jiva, Jivanti, Sudhamuli, Pranada, Pranabhrita, blood in heart troubles. Virkanda, (Sanskrit); Hattipaila (Nepali) Yunani doctors credit the tuber with tonic, aphrodisiac and astringent properties; they considered it useful in stomatitis, purulent cough, and paralytic infection. 102 (2011) 82 Fitoterapia / Hossain M.M. The plant furnishes a salep which is esteemed as tonic and aphrodisiac. The tubers are also used to treat pulmonary and cardiac problems. Eulophia dabia (D. Don) Hochr. Salep misri, Salam misri, Amrita, Pranada, Tuber Tubers used in Ayurveda as stomach tonic, appetizer, aphrodisiac, worm [2,12,13,92, Jiwani, Hattipalia (Sanskrit) infestation, scrofula and blood purifying during heart problem. 93,99] In the Yunani system of medicine, it is used as an aphrodisiac and an astringent tonic. Also useful in stomatitis, purulent cough and paralytic strokes. It yields salep which is useful as a tonic and an aphrodisiac. Eulophia epidendraea C. E. C. Fischer Sega domma gadda Tuber The tubers are used as vermifuge and to treat anorexia and anthrax. [2] Eulophia graminea Lindl. Crushed tubers and the extracted juice are used as vermifuge. [94] Eulophia herbacea Lindl. Dudhiya Tuber The tuber furnishes an esteemed kind of salep. In Ayurvda it is considered as a [2,40,91,92,98] general tonic. Eulophia nuda Lindl. Budbar (Bengali); Ambarkand, Gourma (Hindi); Tuber Hindu practitioners use the tuber tuberculous gland of the neck, tumours, bronchitis [3,10,40,90, Balakanda, Malakanda, Kandalata, Panktikanda, and diseases of the blood; they say it gives appetite and prescribed it accordingly. 97,98,108] –

Riddhi (Sanskrit); Ri-ddhi, Rid-dhi (Tibetan) The pounded fresh plant is applied to boils and abscesses to promote maturation 140 and suppuration. The powdered tuber is said to be an antidote for poisoning; it is administrated internally to those suffering from intestinal worms. Extracted juice of crushed tubers is effective in bronchitis. It is also used as blood puriﬁer and vermifuge. The plant is hot and a source of salep. It promotes strength and alleviates all the three ‘dosas’. Tuber paste is commonly used as appetizer, hot, useful in tuberculous glands in the neck, tumours, and bronchitis. Eulophia ochreata Lindl. Salab panja (Hindi) Tuber The tuber is a source of salep which has high nutritive value. It is used exclusively [9] for the treatment of sexual impotency, male sterility, and for restoring general health, strength and vigour. The plant is considered as highly aphrodisiac. Eulophia pratensis Lindl. Satavari (Marathi) Tuber The tubers are applied externally and given internally to remove scrofulous gland [10,40] in the neck and as a worm remedy. They make a large portion of the salep of Western India. Eulophia spectabilis (Dennst.) Suresh Bonga taini Leaf It is used as aphrodisiac and vermifuge [89] Flickingeria macraei (Lindl.) Seidenf. Pseudobulb The juice of pseudobulb is administered orally as tonic and stimulant. It is also [89,97] used externally to cure skin allergy and eczema.

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Table 1 (continued)

Name of the species Vernacular/tribal/common name Plant part(s) Medicinal uses References use

Gastrodia elata Blume Chih Chien, Tian-Ma (Chinese) Tuber The tubers are used as a food, raw or steamed in Tibet, China, and Japan. This is [19,45] used as source of important herbal medicine for the control of the internal movement of wind according to the ancient Chinese medicine theory. In China, rhizomes, stalks, and dried tubers (known as Tianma) are used to treat headaches, dizziness, blackouts, numbness of the limbs, hemiplegia, epilepsy, limb cramps, spasms, migraine, expulsion of poisonous effluvia, rheumatism, vertigo, neuralgia, facial paralysis, dysphrasia, infantile convulsions, lumbago, fever, and neverous afflictions. The herb is also used to give strength and virility, improve circulation and enhance memory. The stalks are considered to be aphrodisiacs. In Korea, the tubers are used to treat nervous disorders, prevent the common cold and serve as a tonic. This orchid is used in Taiwan as a fortifier, to treat weak nervous systems and headache. Dried plants are used in Japan to treat vertigo, headache, and nervous diseases, especially in children. 102 (2011) 82 Fitoterapia / Hossain M.M. Gastrodia orobanchoides (Falc.) Benth. Alloo; Ban-alu (Hindi) Tuber Roasted cooked tubers which taste sweet are consumed by local folklore of [93] Kashadhar of Shimla District (India). Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. Kukurmuria, Donthula gadda Root, tuber Fresh root paste is taken orally on an empty stomach to regularize menstrual [3,89,90,98] cycle in women and applied externally for insect bite and wounds. Tuber extract is given orally for intermittent fever in cattle. The root powder is given orally to goat in dirrhoeal symptoms. Geodorum recurvum (Roxb.) Alston Tejraj Tuber A decoction made from dried tuber is taken for cure malaria. The root paste is [89] applied externally to suppress tumours. Habenaria acuminata Lindl. Kakoli, Chandal Tuber The tubers are used as tonic. [92] Habenaria commelinifolia (Roxb.) Wall. Jadu, Jaitjadu (Sadani); Desunda; Gondla Root The root and tuber furnishes salep. Root decoction administered orally on an [2,10,40,89,92] ex. Lindl. empty stomach to cure spermatorrhoea and urinary trouble. Habenaria crinifera Lindl. Kathakoli orchid Tuber Ethnic people of Bihar (India) used the tuber for curing headache. [112] Habenaria edgeworthii Hook. f. ex Collett. Vriddhi, Mangala, Rathanga, Siddhi, Tuber The tubers are used as an ingredient of Astavarga in ‘Chyavanprash Avleha’. [2,12,90,92,95,102, –

Risisrista, Sukha (Sanskrit) Regarded as tonic, blood purifier, and rejuvenator. H. pectinata and H. latilabris are 103,106,107,113] 140 also used in a same manner Habenaria foliosa (Sw.) Rchb. f. – Plant is used medicinally by the Zulus (Africa). [10] Habenaria furcifera Lindl. – Tuber The tuber paste is used as an ointment for cuts, wounds and poisonous bites. [98] Habenaria goodyeroides D. Don Tengnoupal The tuber is used as tonic. [92] Habenaria griffithii Hook. f. (D. Don) – Tuber The tuber is used as tonic. [92] Habenaria hollandiana Sant. – Tuber, Fresh plant paste is applied externally for scorpion sting and also for maggot [98] whole plant infested sores. Habenaria intermedia D. Don Riddhi, Laksmi, Mangala, Siddhi, Tuber, leaf, The tuberous roots are used in ‘Chyavanprash’—an important ingredient of [2,92,99,102, Rathanga, (Sanskrit) root Astraverga group of drugs. It is considered as general tonic, expectorant, 111,113] rejuvenator, life span promontory, cooling and spermopiotic. Tender leaves as well as tubers are edible and cooked as vegetables. In the market there is no clear cut distinction between Riddhi and Vriddhi. The larger tubers of various species of Hebenaria are used as Vriddhi and the smaller ones as Riddhi. Habenaria longicorniculata Graham Devsunda Tuber Tuber paste with turmeric is used as an external application for leucoderma. [89,98] Habenaria marginata Coleb. Humari Tuber A decoction made from tuber is taken orally to treat malignant ulcer. [3,89] Habenaria pectinata D. Don Safed musli Leaf, tuber The leaf are crushed and applied in snake bites. Tubers mixed with condiments [12,94] are used in arthritis. Habenaria plantaginea Lindl. Kusuma gadda Tuber A tablet made from pasted tubers with black pepper and garlic, is prescribed for [3,98,109] alleviate continual chest pain and stomachache. Habeneria roxburghii Nicolson Malle leena gadda Tuber A decoction made from tuber is applied externally for snake bite. [98] Hetaeria oblique Blume Poko tumbak hutan (Malay) Whole plant The plant is used by the Malayas for poulticing sores. [40] Liparis odorata (wild.) Lindl. – Pseudobulb The pseudobulbs of this plant are used to treat cancerous ulcers, gangrene, fever [91] and dropsy. Liparis paradoxa (Lindl.) Rchb. f. Wild lily orchid Pseudobulb It is one of the eight drugs of the ‘Astravarga group’ and used as a general tonic. [91,92] Liparis rostrata Rchb. f. – Tuber The tuber is used in stomach problems [2] Listera ovata (L.) R. Br. Common twayblade Whole plant It has featured in Sussex list of wound cures. It has also been identified with the [110] ‘dà-dhuilleach’, a principal ingredient in salep, a well-known Highland remedy for soothing stomach and bowel irritation. Luisia tenuifolia Blume – Rhizome, The rhizomes and leaves are used as an emollient. It is applied as a poultice to [2,15,97] leaf boils, abscesses and tumours. Luisia trichorhiza (Hook.) Blume Koira Leaf, root, Root extract is used as an anti-diarrhoea for cattle and to reduce muscular pains in [3,89,90,101] whole plant human body. A paste made from whole plant is taken orally for jaundice. It showed anti-bacterial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Salmonella typhi. Luisia zeylanica Lindl. Stem The stem is used as an emollient for boils, abscess and burns. Oily preparation is [3,102,120] used to treat fractures. Malaxis acuminata D. Don Rishbhaka, Bandhura, Indraksa, Matrika Rhizome, Used as a nutritive tonic, to cure tuberculosis and enhance sperm production, in [2,3,12,14,92–94, (Sanskrit) pseudobulb bleeding diathesis, burning sensation, fever and phthisis. It is also an ingredient 98,102–104] Chayvanprash of Astavarga group of drug. Preparations from pseudobulbs are useful in burning and fever. It is aphrodisiac, 102 (2011) 82 Fitoterapia / Hossain M.M. useful in thrust, emaciation and general body weakness and increase body freshness and vitality. Malaxis cylindrostachya (Lindl.) Kuntze Salep Pseudobulb Its pseudobulb preparation is considered as a physical tonic. It furnishes salep. [2,91–93] Malaxis mucifera (Lindl.) Kuntze Jivaka, Jeevak (Sanskrit) Adder's mouth orchid Pseudobulb, Pseudobulbs are used as Jeevak in Astraverga. Its preparations are considered as [2,8,12,91,92,102, root tonic and rejuvenating drug. It is also used in bleeding diathesis, burning 103,109,110] sensation, fever and phthisis. Roots are regarded as tonic and lactagouage. Malaxis rheedii Sw. Tuber The tuber paste is applied externally for insect bites and rheumatism. [98] Malaxis wallichii (Lindl.) Deb Rsabhaka, Rsabha (Sanskrit); Zans rtsi ba, Pseudobulb According to Tibetan system of medicine the plant is cold in potency. It promotes [91,102,104,108] Dzi ba ka (Tibetan) conception, corpulence of the body and semen. It alleviates rakta pita (a disease characterized by bleeding from different part of the body). It is said to cure tuberculosis and enhances sperm formation. It is an ingredient of Chyavanprash, an Ayurvedic medicine and regarded as a nutritive tonic. Microstylis mucifera (Linn.) Ridl. Jivaka (Sanskrit) Ji ba ka, Dzi ba ka (Tibetan) Root The roots of this plant are regarded as tonic and lactagouage. It promotes [91,108] –

conception, sperm formation and alleviates rakta pita. 140 Nervilia aragoana Gaud. Vantaelu dumpa Leaf, tuber The leaf/tuber paste is used as an ointment for wounds. The tuber chewed to [90,98,107] abate thirst. The decoction of leaves is used as a protective medicine after childbirth in Malaysia. Nervilia plicata (Andr.) Schltr. Satram dumpa Tuber Tuber paste is used as an external application for insect bites. [98] Oberonia anceps Lindl. Sakat lidah buaya (Malay) Leaf The Malays use the leaves for poulticing. [40] Oberonia pachyrachis Rchb. f. ex Hook. f. Rat-tail orchid Leaf It showed anti-bacterial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella aureus [101] and S. typhi. Oberonia wightiana Lindl. Rat-tail orchid Leaf Crushed leaf is used for tumour. [98] Orchis latifolia L. Cuckoo flower, Marsh orchid (English); Tuber The tuber is expectorant and astringent. Tuber powder diluted in milk or water is [9,10,40,91] Palma chriti (Spanish) administrated in intestinal irritation, chest irritations, phthisis, diarrhoea, and chronic dysentery. It is also used in pest and chocolate and regarded as an emollient and demulcent. It yields salep. Orchis laxiflora Lam. (Orchis ensifolia Vill.) Oriental salep, Marsh orchid (English) Bulb The tuber is astringent and expectorant. It is used in diarrhea, bronchitis and [12,85] convalescence. Paphiopedilum insigne (Lindl.) Pfitz. Slipper orchid Whole plant It is used against amoebic dysentery. [97] Pecteilis susannae (L.) Rafin. – Tuber The tubers are used in boils. [92] Peristylus lawii Wight – Tuber Tuber paste is used externally for insect bites. [98]

(continued on next page) 109 110

Table 1 (continued)

Name of the species Vernacular/tribal/common name Plant part(s) Medicinal uses References use

Phaius tankervilliae (Ait.) Blume – Pseudobulb, The pest of whole plant along with wild ginger is used as medicine in dysentery [3,90,97,98,117] whole plant and to heal bone fractures. Crushed pseudobulbs, roots and leaves are used as poultices for boils, infected wounds and abscesses. Paste of pseudobulbs used to heal swelling of hands and legs and a poultice applied on abscess to relieve pain. Women of Papua New Guinea take the smoked flowers with their food as an aid to conception. Pholidota articulata Lindl. Rattle snake orchid Whole plant It is used as tonic. The whole plant used in bone fractures. The polynodal [2,91,92,118] pseudobulbs are locally marketed as a substitute for those of Flickingeria macrei (Lindl.) Seiden. f. (Dendrobium macrei Lindl.) to prepare an Ayurvedic medicine 102 (2011) 82 Fitoterapia / Hossain M.M. ‘Jiwanti’ for curing a variety of skin diseases. Antibacterial activity of its shoot extract has been tested positively against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoiae. Pholidota imbricata L. Patherkela (Hindi) Whole plant The plant is used as tonic. Pseudobulb extract is used to cure abdominal pain and [3,90,91, rheumatism. Pasted leaves and roots are applied externally for healing bone 96–98,119] fractures. Pholidota pallida Lindl. Akongtong (Hindi) Pseudobulb The juice of pseudobulb is applied on cut as haemostate. [96] Platanthera chlorantha (Custer) Rchb. Greater butterfly orchid Rhizome Once an ointment of a delicate green colour was made in Dorset from this plant [110] and applied to ulcers. Pleione maculata (Lindl.) Lindl. – Rhizome Rhizome is used in liver complaints and stomachache. [90] Polystachya concreta (Jacq.) Garay & Sweet. Kucharla (Hindi) Tuber A decoction made from tuber is taken with honey for treatment of arthritis. [89] Rhynchostylis retusa Blume Banda, Rasna (Sanskrit) Seeta pushpa Leaf, whole Leaves of this plant are used to treat rheumatic diseases. It showed significant [2,3,89–93,97,98, (Hindi), Fox tail orchid; Cat tail orchid plant anti-bacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis and E. coli. 101,103,120,121] –

The fresh plant is used as emollient. Under the name ‘Rasna’ it is used in 140 indigenous system of medicines for the preparation of ‘Rasnaditaralsar’ useful in rheumatic diseases. A paste is prepared from fresh leaf buds is taken orally with water on an empty stomach to cure blood dysentery and applied externally to cure wounds and skin diseases. Various preparations of this plant is used as cure for asthma, tuberculosis, nervous twitching, cramps, infantile epilepsy, vertigo, palpitation, kidney stone, and menstrual disorders. Saccolabium papillosum Lindl. Kanbher, Rasna (Malaylam), Gandhata, Root It is medicinally instead of Vanda tessellata. A good substitute of sarsaparilla. It is [10,40] Nakuli, Rasna (Sanskrit) considered a specific for rheumatism. In the Kankon (India) its roots are used for their cooling properties. Satyrium nepalense D. Don. Satyrion, Salam misri, Ban-alu (Hindi) Tuber, root The sweet tubers are cooked and consumed. Dried ones sold as ‘Salam misri’ are [2,91–93,104] considered as tonic. The roots are used to treat malaria and dysentery. In local folklore prevalent in upper Shimla region (India), the tubers are tied to the armpits in case of hydrosele. As the tubers start drying, it is claimed that the swelling in the testicle starts subsiding. Seidenfia rheedii (Sw.) Szlach. Simil Root A decoction is made from boiled tuber is administered for curing cholera. [85] Taprobanea spathulata (L.) E. Christ. Pannam-ponmaraiva (Sanskrit) Flower, Dried flower powder is used in asthma and mania. Juice of the plant is given to [2] whole plant temper bile and abate frenzy. Tropidia curculigoides Lindl. Root Decoction of roots of this plant is used to treat diarrhoea. Boiled extract of whole [3,14,90,91,122] plant is used for treating malaria. Vanda coerulea Griff. ex Lindl. Blue vanda Flower The juice of flower is used as eye drops against glaucoma, cataract and blindness. [97] Vanda cristata Wall. ex Lindl. Leaf Leaves of this plant are used as expectorant. It showed anti-bacterial activity [91,101] against Klebsiella pneumoniae, E. coli and Salmonella typhi. Vanda parviflora Lindl. Leaf, root Leaves and roots are used to treat nervous disorders, rheumatism and scorpion [91,118,123] stings. Antiviral and anti-cancerous activities have been positively tested. Vanda spathulata (L.) Spreng. Ponnamponmaraiva (Malayalam) Flower It is supposed on the Malabar Coast to temper the bile and abate frenzy; and the golden [10,40] yellow flowers, reduced to powder, are given in consumption, asthma, and mania. Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G. Don. Kharkittan (Arabic); Rasna, Nai (Bengali); Leaf, root, In the Ayurveda, the root is bitter; heating; alexiteric, antipyretic; useful in [2,3,10,12,14, Banda, Nai, Perasara, Persara, Rasna, Vanda whole plant dyspepsia, bronchitis, inflammations, rheumatic pains, diseases of the abdomen, 40,91,92,98,107, (Hindi); Atirasa, Bandanika, Bhujangakshi, hiccough, tremors. 119,124,125] Chhatraki, Elaparni, Gandhanakuli, Muktarasa, In the Yunani system of medicine, the root is bitter; laxative, tonic to the liver and Rasana, Rasna, Rasya, Sarpagandha, Surasa, brain; good for bronchitis, piles, lumbago, toothache, boils on the scalp; lessens Suvaha, Vandaka etc. (Sanskrit), Banda (Urdu) inflammations; heals fractures. Leaf juice is used as ear-drop in otitis. Roots are used in dyspepsia, bronchitis, rheumatism fever and sexually transmitted diseases. In Chota Nagpur (India), the leaves pounded and made into a paste are applied to the body during fever, and the juice is introduced into the aural opening for inflammation of the middle ear and as a remedy for otitis media. A compound decoction of root is being administrated in a case of hemiplegia as the Indian physicians considered it useful in all nervous diseases, ear infections, 102 (2011) 82 Fitoterapia / Hossain M.M. boon fractures, fever and rheumatism. The plant is occasionally given as a cure for snake bite. Combined with other drugs it forms some of Charaka's and Sushruta's snake and scorpion remedies. The root is an ingredient of Ayurvedic medicine ‘Rasna’ is bitter, hot, alexiteric, antipyretic and useful in dyspepsia, bronchitis, rheumatic pains, diseases of abdomen, hiccough and tremors. The pasted roots are used as remedies of secondary syphilis, scorpion bite, rheumatism, fever and nervous disorders. A paste prepared from aerial roots with tender bud of Phoenix loureirii is used for plastering bone fractures. Powdered roots, leaves and flowers are used in scorpion sting; diseases of nervous system, rheumatism, bronchitis, piles, boils and inflammations Vanda testacea (Lindl.) Rchb. f. Banda, Rasna (Hindi); Malanga Whole plant The plant extract called ‘Rasna’ is useful in rheumatism, nervous disorders, and [89,90,93,98, scorpion sings. A paste made from leaf is applied as bandage on fractured bones of 104,126] cattle. A decoction made from root is taken orally for asthma. The plant is also –

used for earache. 140 Vanilla grifﬁthii Rchb. f. Akar punubal, Telinahkerbou bukit (Malay) Leaf, stem The leaves and stem, which contain an irritating latex, are mashed and applied to [40] the hair for strengthening it. Vanilla planifolia Andrews – Fruit This is stimulant and aphrodisiac. It is a main source of vanillin. [91] Vanilla walkeriae Wight – Stem Stem paste is administrated orally along with feed to treat fever in cattle. It is also [107] used as a nutritive supplement for cattle. Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schltr. Shwethuli (Bengali) Tuber The tubers are used to prepare salep and used as a source of tonic in combination [10,14,40,98,116] with roots of Cymbidium aloifolium. 111 112 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140

Bletilla hyacinthina and a Dendrobium species in his ‘Materia meaning ‘testicles’. He used the term to describe the root Medica’ in the 28th century B.C. [17]. Shen-Nung's herbal structure of these plants as the underground tubers of many ‘cures’ were probably published many times, but were European terrestrial orchids resemble a pair of testicles [4,16]. certainly published in 1600 B.C. in the ‘Pun-tsae’, a pharma- Even today these plants, found in the intermediate zone in copoeia [18–20]. Chinese word ‘lan’ was used to describe Europe are known by the same name. It was believed that the orchid which mean ‘superior man’, ‘elegant woman’ in flower of these plants mimicked animals as they grew on the addition to ‘strong’, ‘virile’ and ‘beautiful’. ‘Lan’ often spots where an animal had spilled its semen [22]. From this, the appeared in love poems and song of the early dynasties, belief came that Orchis (orchids) enhance virility and potency and was often used as a name for both men and women. when consumed. The name of the family Orchidaceae also came Confucius (551–479 B.C.) certainly knew Cymbidium orchid from the type genus Orchis. However, the majority of the orchid and called them ‘King of fragrant plants’. The oldest book on species do not have root that resemble Orchis.Inthefirst Chinese philosophy ‘Eki-Kyo’ written around 500 B.C., of century A.D., Dioscorides, born in Cilicia, Asia Minor (Turkey), a which Confucius was a co-author mentioned ‘lan’ [21].As physician who was working in Roman troops, wrote his ‘De early as 200 B.C., the Chinese pharmacopoeia ‘The Sang Nung Materia Medica’, possibly the first written evidence of orchids Pen Tsao Ching’ mentioned Dendrobium as a source of tonic, outside the Orient, described 500 medicinal plants including astringent, analgesic and anti-inflammatory substances [4]. two terrestrial orchids. He spent most of his life traveling The earliest Chinese manual of Materia Medica, the ‘Shen- around the Near East. His work is translated to Arabic and Farsi nong Bencao Jing’ (Shennong Emperor's Classic of Materia quite early and circulated in the Islamic world for many Medica), was compiled in the first century AD during the Han centuries. Islamic scientist such as Ibn-i Sina (a Persian, known dynasty, but it was attributed to the mythical Shennong. It as Avicenna in Latin; 908–1037) also mentions orchids as lists some 365 medicines of which 252 are herbs. The Chinese aphrodisiac and mentions their other healing properties. His were also the first to write books devoted to orchids. ‘Hou book and the ‘Materia Medica of Dioscorides’ were among the Han Shu’ (420 A.D.) an early reference recording the history most influential herbal books throughout the Middle Ages in of the Han Dynasty provides further evidence of the meaning Europe and the NE. Dioscorides commented on the usefulness of ‘lan’. In 1233, Chao Shih-Keng wrote ‘Chin Chan Lan Pu’,in of orchids as a determinant of sex of the offspring and adopted which he described 20 species and how to grow them [20].In and promoted the ‘Doctrine of Signatures’. Within 1550 A.D., a 1247, Wang Kuei-hsueh wrote his treatise ‘Lan Pu’ on Chinese number of orchid species recorded throughout Europe — most orchids, and described 37 species with cultural details and likely: Ophrys apifera, O. muscifera, O. fuciflora, O. sphegodes, stated that the orchid is a symbol of the perfect personality Orchis simia, O. mascula, Himantoglossum hircinum, Serapias and the quality of a superb person. The other two old treatises vomeracea, S. lingua, Dactylorhiza majalis, D. majalis foliosa etc. on orchids written by Kin-Sho and Chen Jen Yu were ‘Orchid Turner [23],thefirst English Herbalist described the uses of Book on Cymbidium’ and ‘Lan Pu’ respectively. Another book orchids for the treatment of alcoholic gastritis. About a decade also entitled ‘Lan Pu’ was attributed to Wang Kui Lio during later, Langham [24] in his ‘Garden of Health’ reported the Sung Dynasty (960–1279 A.D.). The ‘Zheng Lei Ben Cao’ (A antipyretic, anti-consumption and anti-diarrhoeal effects of Diagnosis of Medical Herbs), which was published in the European terrestrial orchids. Parkinson [25] in his ‘Theatricum North Sung Dynasty (960–1127 A.D.) mentioned medicinal Botanicum’ gave an opinion that some orchid tubers increased uses of orchids (Gastrodia elata and Dendrobium sp.). In Ming fertility and virility in men. He also named Cypripedium acaule. Dynasty (1368–1644) many references are available to the In ‘Gerard's herbal’ (John Gerard, 1542–1612), published in use of orchids as medicinal herbs. 1597, orchids had been called ‘Satyrion feminina’ because they History of orchids in Japan converse an interesting legend. were considered as satyrs' food and would provoke their The legend is that, Emperor Shi-Kotei (250–233 B.C.) following excesses of behavior. The first Western volume dedicated to the advice of his physician, placed an orchid, believed to be orchids was Georg Eberhard Rumphius' (1628–1702) ‘Herbar- Cymbidium ensifolium in the quarters of the Empress Yohki-Hi ium Amboinense’ which was eventually published in 1741– after some years of a childless marriage. The plant developed a 1755, two of 12 volumes being devoted to orchids. In Europe a spike of thirteen flowers, the Empress inhaled the inebriating preparation from roots of Epipactis gigantea, commonly known perfume of flower and conceived and gave birth to thirteen fine as ‘Giant Orchid’, have been used as a drink to combat mania sons [19]. The Japanese call the orchid ‘ran’ and during and in severe cases of illness, especially when the patient is Confucius period (551–479 B.C.), elite people of Japan grew unable to walk or move about. ‘Bastard Helleborine’ the orchids for their beauty and fragrance. ‘Igansai-ranpin’ the first common name of Epipactis helleborine which was valued as a book about orchids in Japan written by, Jo-an Matsuoka in 1728 remedy for gout in European folklore. The roots of E. latifolia A.D. described species of Cymbidium, Neofinetia, Aerides, were used in rheumatism. Several species of Spiranthes have Dendrobium and Bletilla. The Samurai grew Neofinetia falcata, also been used medicinally in various diseases, for instance the merchants grew Cymbidium, and possibly the peasants S. diuretica is efficacious as a diuretic in children, S. autumnalis's grew Bletilla [16]. roots are used as a strong aphrodisiac.

2.3. Europe 2.4. Africa

In the western hemisphere, the ﬁrst reference to orchids Although there is no authentic reports of exact time when was by Theophrastus, the father of botany. In his ‘Enquiry into the Africans started to use orchids as medicine, the Zulus Plants’ (372–286 B.C.), he coined the term Orchis to describe were used several orchids for therapeutic purposes for long some of the terrestrial species of orchids. Orchis is a Greek word past. They employed an infusion of Habenaria foliosa and M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 113

Ansellia humilis as an emetic. H. orbiculata is known in the known as ‘Pine-pink’ or ‘Wild-ginger’, were used as medicine mountains by the name of ‘Heal-All’.Theflowers of H. conopsea for their bitter juice of irritating properties while dried corms of were used quite extensively in dysentery. Several species of this plant were steeped to make a tea, which were used as a Eulophia were thought to prevent miscarriage and cure tonic, for stomachic purposes and as an antidote for fish- barrenness. E. flaccida in powdered form were applied to poisoning. The fresh corms were also used as a curative for cuts incisions made on the skin of painful limbs and it was said to and abrasions of the skin. relieve pain rapidly. E. aha, commonly known as ‘Wild cocow’, Several species of Goodyera have been used as herbal as introduced in South Africa in the early days of the slave trade remedy by the natives in North America. G. pubescens, either for their supposed healing powers or for use in commonly known as ‘Downy Rattlesnake Orchid’,wereused voodooistic practices. Ansellia humilis was also used by Zulus as infallible cure for the bite of a mad dog and to cure of scrofula. to harm an unmarried maiden to prevent her ever giving birth ‘Puttyroot’ or ‘Adam-and-Eve’ is the common name of to children. It was also used as an antidote to bad dreams and Aplectrum hyemale, the rootstocks and corms of which were madness. The Zulus also used the stems of Ansellia gigantea for used as a paste for boils. The roots of Bromheadia finlaysoniana their aphrodisiac intent. Morris [26] has described twelve were boiled and the resulting liquid were taken as drink for orchids currently used as medicine in Malawi. Nine of these are relieving the pain in body parts. The leaves of Vanda hookeriana used for stomach complaints and two for fertility problems. and Spathoglottis plicata were used as a hot poultice for the Interestingly, two species, Cyrtorchis arcuata and Eulophia treatment pains in the joints. The fibrous roots of Ponthieva cucullata, are employed to promote friendship, the former racemosa were used as a substitute for ipecac in Costa Rica [15]. being dried and pounded into a powder and the latter prepared Different species of Cypripedium were being used in North as an infusion of the roots. C. arcuata is also employed to treat America for long past both by indigenous and immigrant diabetes or skin infections and E. cucullata to prevent epilepsy. peoples for its sedative and antispasmodic properties and to An infusion of the leaves and pseudobulbs of Bulbophyllum counter insomnia and nervous tension [30].However, maximum is used to protect against sorcery, and ridactyle C. parvifolium was the most important medicinal lady's slipper tricuspis to treat madness. In Zambia and east sub-Saharan in North America. The Cherokees, Iroquois, Menominee, Africa, the boiled root tubers of some terrestrial orchid are used MicMac, Penobscot, and other tribes used Cypripedium to to make a food dish ‘Chikanda or Kinaka’ [27].InAfrica,an treat a variety of disorders [31]. Preparations have been taken amulet of leaves of Ansellia africana infused with a paste made internally in the treatment of insomnia, anxiety, fever, from the pseudobulbs of the same species is said to function as a headache, neuralgia, emotional tension, palpitations, tremours, short term contraceptive [20,28]. irritable bowel syndrome, delirium, convulsions due to fever and to ease the pain of menstruation and childbirth [32,33]. 2.5. America Herbalists generally consider Cypripedium preparations to be antispasmodic, anodyne, diaphoretic, hypnotic, nervine, seda- The earliest reference to orchids in this continent is tive, stimulant and tonic. In North America species that have recorded in the “Badianus' Manuscript”, an Aztec herbal of been collected for medicinal purposes include C. acaule, 1552 (Aztec is the term used to refer certain ethnic groups of C. reginae, C. candidum,andC. parvifolium [34–36]. central Mexico; In 12th century, Valley of Mexico was the nucleus of the Aztec civilization). It depicted Vanilla which 2.6. Australia has been used since ancient time to perfume and flavour cocoa. Though not illustrated there is also a record of a glue Medicinal use of orchids in Australia has been traced from flower, which has been associated with Bletilla campanulata the records of Australian aborigines and early settlers. Pseudo- and Epidendrum pastoris, or possibly Catasetum maculatum. bulbs of Cymbidium madidam were chewed for dysentery and its The first American book on medicinal plants ‘Badiano Codex’ seeds were used as an oral contraceptive. In addition, by Martin de la Cruz — Aztec Physician in 1552, referred to C. canaliculatum, Dendrobium teratifolium and D. discolor were Vanilla planifolia as a useful herb for the treatment of hysteria, used for treating different ailments as dysentery, relieve pain fevers, impotence, rheumatism, and to increase the energy of and control ringworm [37]. Many orchid bulbs were employed muscular systems. Few other orchids described in this treatise as emergency bush food, e.g. Gastrodia sesamoides, Dendrobium are: Encyclia citrina, used by natives on infected wounds; speciosum and Caladenia species [16]. The seed capsules of Laelia autumnalis for coughs; Stanhopea hernandezii for Selenipedium chica, which are considered as the tallest plants in sunstroke; Arpophyllum spicatum, Bletia catenulata, Cranichis the orchid family, were used occasionally as a substitute for speciosa and Epidendrum pastoris for dysentery. vanilla. Diuris maculata has sweet-testing tubers but some In some parts of America, the roots of Arethusa bulbosa, Australian orchid bulbs have toxic alkaloids; for example, Liparis commonly known as ‘Bog-rose’ were used to relieve toothache. reflexa is harmful for health [37]. If troubled by an earache, the people roasted the fruits of Bulbophyllum vaginatum andusedtheresultinghotjuice[29]. 3. Popular orchid preparations The pseudobulbs of Grammatophyllum scriptum were crushed and the paste applied to sores and the leaves of Hetaesia obliqua 3.1. Salep were likewise used in the treatment of such ailments. Stems of Corallorhiza odontorhiza —“Dragon's claw” were used as a Salep is a Turkish word (Greek ‘salapi’ Arabic word diaphoretic and febrifuge in severe illnesses while dried stems ‘sahlab’) refers to the tubers of terrestrial orchids. Ottomans of C. maculata reported to be helpful to build up the blood in used the term for both the hot drink and the orchid bulbs pneumonia patients. The corms of Bletia purpurea, commonly which produce the drink. It is a flour, made from grinding 114 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 dried tubers of Orchis mascula, Orchis militaris and related for invalids. Sassafras chips were sometimes added, or cloves, species of orchids, which contain a nutritious starch-like cinnamon and ginger for giving the drink a flavour [40].To polysaccharide called glucomannan. Turkey is the foremost allay irritation of the gastrointestinal canal, it is used in and best quality salep producer that exports it to many mucilage form, made by shaking 1 part of powdered salep European countries mainly in Germany. Around 120 taxa with 10 parts of water, boiling and agitated until it is belonging to the genera Ophrys, Orchis, Himantoglossum, uniformly diffused. This preparation is also recommended Serapias, Anacamptis, Compreria, Barlia, Dactylorhiza, Aceras, as an article of diet for infants and invalids suffering from and Neotinea are used to obtain salep in Turkey [38]. In the chronic diarrhoea and bilious fevers. In the German Pharma- East, Salep was (and is) mainly made from Orchis morio, but it copoeia, a mucilage of salep appears as an official preparation. could be made in the UK from Orchis mascula (the early purple orchid) or from O. maculata or O. latifolia. Salep were 3.2. Vanilla dispensed in London in Oliver Cromwell's time, and hot drinks of salep were sold at stalls in the streets of London The pods of the climbing orchid Vanilla planifolia is used for before the introduction of coffee [16]. Salep is also the name the commercial production of the prized vanilla flavour, of a beverage made from salep flour, whose popularity spread consisting of vanillin and other numerous flavouring com- beyond Turkey and the Middle East to England and Germany pounds, with the use of a curing process. Other few species of before the rise of coffee and tea and later offered as an Vanilla as V. pompona,andV. tahitensis also contain vanillin but alternative beverage in coffee houses. In England, the drink it is of low quality. It is the second most expensive flavouring was known as ‘saloop’ was very popular in the 17th and 18th spice after saffron [41]. Vanilla was introduced to Europe by the centuries. In England its preparation required that the salep Spanish Conquistadores in 1520 but commercial production of powder be added to water until thickened whereupon it vanilla started about 300 hundred years later. Vanillin was first would be sweetened then flavoured with orange flavour or isolated from Vanilla beans in 1858 by Gobley and its structure rose waters. Substitution of British orchid roots, known as was established by Carles in 1870. Goris [42] was the first to ‘dogstones’, were acceptable in the 18th century for the show that vanillin is formed from glucovanillin, during the original Turkish variants [39]. The Ancient Romans also used curing process of Vanilla beans. Other glycosyl and phenolics ground orchid bulbs to make drinks, which they called by a conjugates to mannose, galactose and rhamnose are also found number of names, especially ‘Satyrion’ and ‘Priapiscus’.Itis in trace amounts in the developing pods. Studies on the botany considered to be a powerful aphrodisiac. The Salep of the of Vanilla beans revealed that flavour precursors glucovanillin Indian markets, known as Salib misri, is derived from certain are found in the bean interior, where they are secreted onto the species of Eulophia, Orchis and Satyrium. placental region around the seeds. The hydrolytic or other The tubers used for preparing salep are taken up at the degradative enzymes (viz. β-glucosidase and glycosyl hydro- close of the summer, when the seed-vessels are fully formed. lases), which catalyze the flavour precursors to flavour At this time the tubers contain the largest amount of starchy compounds, are localized mostly in the outer fruit wall region matter and are full and fleshy. After the tubers string, these [43]. Now a day, due to scarcity of Vanilla pods and high are immersed for a short time in boiling water or milk. This production cost vanillin is largely produced synthetically by the scalding process destroys their vitality, remove the bitterness chemical route using lignin from wood or other petro-products. of their fresh state and make them dry more readily. The Natural vanillin, extracted from Vanilla beans cost between US$ outer skins are then rubbed off and the tubers are dried, 2000 and US$ 3000 per kg compared to synthetic vanillin either by exposure to the sun, or to a gentle artificial heat in costing between US$ 5 and US$ 15 per kg. In 2004 the world an oven for ten minutes and heated to about bread-making vanilla production was 5400 million tons which increase on an temperature. On removing from the oven, their milky average 4% in the recent years [41]. appearance is changed to an almost transparent and horny Vanilla is chiefly used in ice creams, dairy products, state, though the bulk will not be reduced. They are then biscuits, cakes, beverages, perfumery and cosmetics. Medic- placed in the fresh air to dry and harden for a few days, when inal powers were also attributed to Vanilla and vanillin. they are ready for use, or to be stored for as long as desired. Vanillin is compliant to European Pharmacopoeia, US Phar- The dried tubers are generally ground to powder before use. macopoeia NF and Food chemical codex. The Vanilla capsules The salep of commerce is prepared chiefly in the Levant, being are very cordial, cephalic, stomachic, aperative and carmina- largely collected in Asia Minor, but to some extent also in tive, opening all obstructions, attenuating viscous humors, Germany, France and other parts of Europe. provoking urine and menstrual discharge. It is administrated The constituents of Salep are subject to great variation, as powder consisting of ground capsules and sucrose syrup, according to the season of collection and orchid species. The or a tincture of 1 part vanilla to 6 part alcohol essence or most important constituent of salep is mucilage, amounting water infusion. It is also used as blood purifier, diuretic, to 48%. It also contains sugar (1%), starch (3%), nitrogenous vermifuge, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, stimulant and child- substance (5%), and when fresh a trace of volatile oil. It yields birth accelerator [44]. 2% of ash, consisting chiefly of phosphates and chlorides of potassium and calcium [15].Itisverynutritiveand 3.3. Chavanprash demulcent, for which properties it has been used from time immemorial. It forms a diet of especial value to convalescents It is considered as one of the best herbal nutrients product and children, being boiled with milk or water, flavoured and in Ayurvedic medicine, is a jelly, which contains high prepared in the same way as arrowroot. A hot drink of salep percentage of Vitamin C, many essential fatty acids, high flavoured with sugar and spices, or wine, is an agreeable drink bioflavonoids, carotenoids and a large amount of bioactive M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 115 phytochemicals that acts as an immune modulator. It is an strengthening and consolidation of lungs, as well as the antioxidant, blood purifier, a tonic for rejuvenation, a mild treatment of pus, boils, abscesses, malignant swellings, ulcers, laxative, an adaptogenic, anti-aging and anti-stress tonic for and breast cancer [19]. Additional medical applications are old age people. It has a special effect for relieving cough and treatment of the flatulence, dyspepsia, dysentery, fever, asthma, enhancing fertility, keeping menstruation regular malignant ulcers, gastrointestinal disorders, hemorrhoids, and strengthening the immune system. According to Sanskrit anthrax, malaria, eye diseases, tinea, ringworm, tumors, scripts some orchid species were used to prepare early necrosis, silicosis, traumatic injuries, coughs, chest pain, chavanprash as, Habenaria intermedia, H. edgeworthii and tuberculosis, vomiting of blood, gastrorrhagia, enterorrhagia, Malaxis wallichii. The ingredients of chyavanprash today are internal bleeding, inflammation, and chopped skin. Experi- unlike to the older one. It is a popular herbal product in India. mental studies showed that ‘Bai-Ji Jiao’, the main effective substance in Bai-Ji, shortens the coagulation time, inhibits the 3.4. Shi-Hu, Tian-Ma and Bai-Ji degradation of fibrin, and promotes thrombosis and the closure of the wound [50]. Bai-Ji has been tested in a Shi-Hu is a commonly used Chinese medicine derived controlled study and reported to be better than gelfoam from different species of Dendrobium but the most frequently embolization [51]. used species is Dendrobium nobile. It is included in the Chinese pharmacopoeia and considered as an important 4. Important phytochemicals in orchids remedy for kidney, lung and stomach diseases, low grade fever, red tongue, dry mouth, swelling, hyperglycaemia, Orchids, like other plants, produce a large number of atrophic gastritis and diabetes [45]. Experimental studies phytochemicals. Only a few of them have been investigated showed that Shi-Hu could promote the secretion of acid in the for their biological function, others are still unknown. Orchid stomach. It is also reputed to impart longevity, a tonic, a phytochemicals are generally categorized as alkaloids, flavo- strengthening medicine and serve as an aphrodisiac. The noids, carotenoids, anthocyanins and sterols. Among them stems preparations are used to alleviate thirst, calm restless- alkaloids and flavonoids are most important for their ness, accelerate convalescence, and reduce dryness of the biological properties. Studies of orchid alkaloids date back mouth. Additional properties of Shi-Hu are those of a to 1892, when E. de Wildeman had begun investigation of stomachic, pectoral, antiphlogistic, analgesic, and antipyretic orchid alkaloids in some European orchid species. From then medication. It is also used to treat rheumatism, excessive until 1896, E de Droog analyzed 104 species in 78 genera. In perspiration, weakness brought about by thirst, impotence, late 1890s, W. Boorsma studied orchid alkaloids at the Bogor entropion, leucorrhea, and menstrual pain. Recent studies Botanical Gardens and detected some in Paphiopedilum showed that the alkaloids in the Dendrobium species, such as javanicum and Liparis parviflora, among other species. The dendrobine, are a weak antipyretic and analgesic and it has first alkaloid isolated from orchid was dendrobine in the year been suggested that these preparations may increase immu- 1932 from a Chinese drug ‘Chin-Shi-Hu’ prepared from nity, decrease the oxidant stress in aging and have anti-cancer Dendrobium nobile [52]. Other investigations were carried activity. It decreases the level of blood glucose, promotes the out before World War II in Japan, Europe, the United States, secretion of insulin and increases insulin sensitivity in and additional countries [44]. After the war, Lüning and his diabetic rat models and patients [46,47]. associates in Sweden, Lawler and Slaytor in Australia, and ‘Tian-Ma’ is another Chinese herbal medicine derived several scholars in Japan studied the alkaloids in orchids from the tubers of Gastrodia elata which is one of the three [7,45]. Lüning [7] screened about 525 orchid species for their orchids listed in the earliest known Chinese Materia Medica alkaloid content. Prof. Dodson, at the University of Miami, is (Shennon bencaojing) [ca, 100 AD]. It is widely used to treat perhaps the first, and certainly the most influential scientist headaches, dizziness, blackouts, numbness of the limbs, who carried out a remarkable research on orchid alkaloids hemiplegia, epilepsy, limb cramps, spasms, migraine, expul- [19]. Among orchids, Dendrobium is the leading genus for sion of poisonous effluvia, rheumatism, vertigo, neuralgia, phytochemical content. Zhang et al. [48] reviewed 100 facial paralysis, dysphrasia, infantile convulsions, lumbago, compounds from 42 Dendrobium species, including 32 fever, hypertension and other nervous afflictions [19]. alkaloids, 6 coumarins, 15 bibenzyls, 4 fluorenones, 22 Gastrodin is the main effective substance of Tian-Ma [48]. phenanthrenes and 7 sesquiterpenoids. Williams together Experimental studies showed that gastrodin has anti-deliri- with Harborne conducted a major survey of leaf flavonoids at um and anti-convulsive effects. It may lower blood pressure the Plant Science Laboratories of the University of Reading in and protect the central nervous system by modulating the UK. They surveyed 142 species in 75 genera and found that expression of excitatory amino acids and the nitric oxide the most common constituents were flavone C-glycoside and system [49]. It is reported to increase glutamine, reduce flavonols [53]. To date, more than 2000 orchid species have gamma amino butyric acid, increase asparagine and act as a been screened for their alkaloids and/or flavonoids contents. vasodilator. High blood pressure may be prevented in Altogether, a single familial pattern of flavonoid distribution spontaneously hypertensive [45]. is not evident in orchids. On the subfamily and trivial levels, a ‘Bai-Ji’ is one more important and broadly used Chinese clear correlation does exist with plant geography. Flavone C- traditional drug prepared from the tubers of Bletilla striata.It glycosides are most common in the tropical and sub-tropical is used to treat tuberculosis, hemoptysis, gastric, and species of the Epidendroid and Vandoid subfamily, whereas duodenal ulcers, as well as bleeding, and cracked skin on flavonol glycosides are found in Neottioid orchids. Other the feet and hands. Other uses in China, Mongolia, and Japan flavonoids are less common. Highly methylated or glycosy- include the introduction of euphoria, purification of blood, lated derivatives of flavonoids have not been detected in 116 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 orchid leaves. Dendrobium species are known to produce a 72 h, respectively. A study performed in Mexico on mice variety of secondary metabolites such as phenanthrens, evaluating two complex organic chemicals from the orchid bibenzyls, fluorenones and sesquiterpenes, and alkaloids species Scaphyglottis livida as a potential relaxer of heart and are responsible for their wide variety of medicinal contractions caused by the excitatory hormone noradrenaline. properties [54]. Last three decades, additional studies on The results showed that the organic compounds, called Dendrobium orchids have been carried out and a number of stilbenoids, inhibited aortic contractions provoked by nor- phenanthrenes compounds isolated as dihydrophenan- adrenaline, and caused vasodialation, the relaxation and threne, ephemeranthoquionone, shihunidine, shihunine, widening of blood vessels in the body. Again, the implications dendrophenol, moscatilin, moscatin, moscatilin, denfigenin, of these chemicals for usage in human models may be defuscin, amoenumin, moscatilin, crepaditin, rotundatin, promising in cardiology, pending further examination [28]. cumulatin, and gigantol [55–61]. Some other orchid genera Another study conducted in India is to evaluate the species like Eulophia, Cypripedium, Gastrodia, Bletilla, Bulbophyllum, Vanda tessellata which has a long history of use by the native Anoectochilus, Arundina, Eria, Malaxis, Habenaria, Vanda, and population for its anti-inflammatory properties. Scientists Vanilla are enrich with different important phytochemicals. discovered its role as a potent aphrodisiac and fertility booster Some orchid phytochemicals with their molecular structure in mice. It was found that the male mice that had been given are listed in Table 2. an orchid extract showed more mounting (sexually active) behavior, and the females paired with these mice gave birth to 5. Pharmacological studies of orchid phytochemicals larger litters and more male offspring. A direct relationship between these outcomes was observed when the concentra- Although orchids have been and are being used as tion of the serum was increased. These results could be medicine in all parts of the world for long past, pharmaco- extrapolated to humans and preliminary tests could be done logical and toxicological studies of orchid phytochemicals on to see if researchers develop another drug like Viagra®. human body is rare which are irreversibly required for clinical In the recent years, a number of studies have been implementations. A few studies have been conducted on conducted to investigate the role of the promising chemical animal bodies like, mice, rabbits, frogs and guinea pigs that moscatilin, which is derived from the stems of the orchid created optimism that once it will be proved as life saving species Dendrobrium [64–66]. These species have been phytochemicals like Taxol, Vinblastine or Quinine. In this commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine as a tonic section some findings of the recent investigations of orchid to maintain a healthy stomach, to increase body fluid, to phytochemicals were discussed. reduce fever, and as a natural anti-platelet agent. Recently Khouri et al. [62] conducted an experiment to determine anti-cancer effects of moscatilin has been demonstrated in the effect of Orchis anatolica bulbs on the reproductive system Taiwan where 16 cell lines from different tissue origins, such of male albino mice. The bulb extract was fed to 20 male albino as from the placenta, liver, lungs, stomach, and other organs, mice (5 g/mouse/day) for 35 days and compared with a were used and cultured with moscatilin [65]. Mutagenic similar number of mice as controls. Total testicular germ cell activity was displayed in the study, but not uniformly across population, histometrical parameters, serum blood biochem- cell lines; it was found that 100% of the lung, 75% of the istry and hormonal assay were determined and reported that stomach, and 0% of the liver carcinoma cell lines were the ingestion of orchid bulb by mice induced a significant responsive to the cytotoxic effect of moscatilin. It can be increase in the following parameters: (i) testes and seminal concluded from the study that the role of moscatilin from vesicle weights, (ii) number of different testicular germ cell orchid does indeed expresses antiproliferative effects against population including interstitial leydig cells and fibroblasts, various types of cancers, including those from choriocarcino- (iii) testicular cell linage dynamics obtained from testes and ma (cancer of germ cells), lung cancers, and stomach cancers, cauda epidydimides, and (iv) significantly increased sperm but is ineffective against hepatocellular carcinomas (liver motility and sperm density, as well as viability. The finding cancers). Further investigation on moscatilin was conducted also noticed that an elevation in the number of impregnated by Chen et al. [66] at National Taiwan University to screen out females when allowed to mate with treated mice, an increase the effect on several human cancer cell lines. The results of in the impregnation sites, and an increase in the number of this study revealed that moscatilin induced a time-dependent viable fetuses and the offspring's male/female ratio. A slight arrest of the cell cycle at G2-M, with an increase of cells at sub- significant increase in the testosterone and follicular stimu- G1. It inhibited tubulin polymerization, suggesting that it lating hormone titers in the treated mice were found in their might bind to tubulins. It also induced the phosphorylation of blood serum. Obviously this is an additional evidence of the JNK1/2 (c-Jun NH2-Terminal Protein Kinase). SP600125 effect of the orchid plant on male fertility, suggesting the significantly inhibited the activation of caspase-9 and ingredients of this plant might be used to create a safe drug caspase-3 and the subsequent moscatilin-induced apoptosis. that increases male sexual potential to human body. Another The data suggest that JNK activation may contribute to investigation conducted by Wang and his associates [63] at moscatilin-mediated apoptosis signaling. A parallel experi- Nanjing University in China on human umbilical vascular ment showed that SP600125 significantly inhibits Taxol- and endothelial cell proliferation in vitro using a polysaccharide vincristine-induced HCT-116 cell apoptosis. This suggests from the traditional Chinese medicinal herb, Bletilla striata at that the JNK activation may be a common mechanism for different concentrations. The results indicated that the tubulin-binding agents. Moreover, moscatilin induces DNA polysaccharide stimulated the proliferation of human umbil- damage, phosphorylation of H2AX and p53, and up-regula- ical vascular endothelial cells and the expression of vascular tion of p21. Their HCT-116 xenograft models show the in vivo endothelial growth factor up to 156% and 147% of control after efficacy of moscatilin. M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 117

Table 2 Some important phytochemicals from orchids.

Structure Source plant

OH Aerides crispum Lindl. [86,131]

H3CO OCH3 OH Aeridin

OH Agrostophyllum brevipes King & Pantl. [11,87] OH O

CH3O Agrostophyllin

CH 2 Agrostophyllum brevipes King & Pantl. [11,87] H3C CH3 H3C

CH3 H3C H

CH3 O CH H3C 3 Agrostophyllinone

CH2 Agrostophyllum brevipes King & Pantl., Agrostophyllum callosum Rchb. f. [11,87,88] H3C CH3 H3C CH3 H3C H

O CH3 O H3C CH3 H3C Agrostophyllinol

OH Nidema boothii (Lindl.) Schltr. [134]

CH3O OCH3

OCH3 Aloifol

O Cypripedium macranthum Sw. [30,83]

O OCH3 Annoquinone

(continued on next page) 118 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

Arundina graminifolia (D. Don) Hochr. [84] OCH3

OH Arundinan

OCH3 Epidendrum rigidum Jacq. [135] OH

Batatasin III

OH Bletilla striata (Thunb.) Rchb. f. [45]

CH3O OH OCH3

HO OH Blestrianol A

OH Bletilla striata (Thunb.) Rchb. f. [45]

CH3O OH

HO HO OCH3 Blestriarene B

OH Bletilla striata (Thunb.) Rchb. f. [45]

CH3O OH

HO HO OCH3

Blestrirene-C

Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. [130] OCH3

HO OCH3

OH OH OH Bulbophythrin A M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 119

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

HO Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. [130]

HO OCH3 OH

OCH3 Bulbophythrin B

H CO Agrostophyllum callosum Rchb. f. [88] 3 OCH3

H3CO

H3CO Callosmin

OH Calanthe discolor Lindl. and C. liukiuensis Schltr. [136] HO OH O HO O

S N OH O

HO OH OH Calanthoside

Agrostophyllum callosum Rchb. f. [88] OCH3

OCH3 O

CH3O Callosinin

Chysis bractescens Lindl. [137] CH3 O O

N Chysin A

Chysis bractescens Lindl. [137] CH3 O O

N Chysin B

Cypripedium macranthos Sw. [138] OH O

HO O Chrysin

(continued on next page) 120 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

Dendrobium aurantiacum Rchb.f. var. denneanum (Kerr.) Z. H. Tsi [80] H3CO

H3CO OCH3

H3CO OCH3 Chrysotobibenzyl

H CO 3 Dendrobium aurantiacum Rchb. f. var. denneanum (Kerr.) Z. H. Tsi [80]

OCH3 H3CO OCH3 Chrysotoxin

OH OCH3 Cremastra appendiculata (D.Don) Makino [139]

HO OH

OCH HO 3 Cirrhopetalanthin

OCH OH 3 Pholidota yunnanensis Rolfe [140]

HO Coelonin

OCH3 Coelogyne cristata Lindl. [141] OCH3

OH HO OH Coeloginanthrin

OCH3 Coelogyne cristata Lindl. [141] OCH3

HO OH Coeloginanthridin

O Coelogyne cristata Lindl. [141]

HO OCH3

O H3CO OCH3

CombretastatinC-1

CH3O Dendrobium aurantiacum Rchb. f. var. denneanum (Kerr.) Z. H. Tsi [80]

HO OH

OCH OCH3 3 Confusarin M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 121

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

O O Dendrobium aurantiacum Rchb. f. var. denneanum (Kerr.) Z. H. Tsi [80]

Coumarin

OH Cremastra appendiculata (D.Don) Makino [142] O H CH3 O H3C N Cremastrine

Dendrobium crepidatum Lindl. & Paxton [44,56] C6H5 H C H OH 3 CH HO 3 O N CH3C H H Crepidine

Dendrobium crepidatum Lindl. & Paxton [44,56] H H3C

C6H5 N HO O H3C Crepidamine

OCH3 Bulbophyllum kwangtungense Schltr. [143]

OCH3 HO

CH3O Cumulatin

H3CO O Cypripedium calceolus L., Cypripedium macranthum Sw. [30,83,85]

HO OCH3

O OCH3 Cypripedin

H O 3 Cypripedium calceolus L., Cypripedium macranthum Sw. [30,83,85]

N CH3 H3O H

H O O R(-)-Cryptostylin

HO (CH2)29CH3 Dendrobium auranticum var denneanum (Kerr.) Z.H. Tsi [146]

O Defuscin

N H CH3 H Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Dendrobium monoliforme Sw. [45,129,148]

O O CH3 H CH3 (-)-dendrobine

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Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [148] OCH3 O

OH CH3O O Denbinobin (5-hydroxy-3,7-dimethoxy-1,4-phenanthraquinone)

O Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [148]

H3CO

O HO OCH3 Dendrobinobine

H CO 3 Dendrobium candidum Wall ex Lindl. [61] CH3 HO OCH3 HO Dendrocandin A

OH OCH3 Dendrobium candidum Wall ex Lindl. [61,144] O

OCH O 3

H3CO OH

OCH3 Dendrocandin B

CH O 3 Dendrobium candidum Wall ex Lindl. [145] OCH3 HO OH HO Dendrocandin C

CH3O Dendrobium candidum Wall ex Lindl. [144,145] OCH2CH3 HO OH HO Dendrocandin D

H Dendrobium candidum Wall ex Lindl. [144,145] HO OH HO OH Dendrocandin E

OCH3 OH OH Dendrobium candidum Wall ex Lindl. [144]

OCH3

OH H3CO

OCH3 Dendrocandin F M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 123

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

OH OH OH Dendrobium candidum Wall ex Lindl. [144]

OCH3

H3CO OCH3 Dendrocandin G

H3CO OH OH Dendrobium candidum Wall ex Lindl. [144]

OCH3

O O

OH HO Dendrocandin H

OCH Dendrobium candidum Wall ex Lindl. [144] OCH 3 3 H O OH O H OH

OCH3 OCH3 Dendrocandin-I

H Dendrobium crepidatum Lindl. & Paxton [44,56] H3C

C6H5 N HO O

HO N C6H5

H3C H Dendrocrepine

OH Dendrobium chrysotoxum Lindl. [146]

O O OCH3 CH3O O

HO OH Dendrochrysanene

(continued on next page) 124 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

OH Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [148] HO OH

O OHO H OH OH H

HCH3

CH3 Dendroside A

OCH3 OH Dendrobium auranticum var denneanum (Kerr.) Z.H. Tsi [146]

HO O OH Dendroflorin

OCH3 OH Dendrobium auranticum var denneanum (Kerr.) Z.H. Tsi [146]

HO O H Dengidsin

OH Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [148] HO OH O O H OH OH

H O H3C H O O H H OH H3C O HO OH OH

Dendroside D

OH Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [148] HO OH OH H HO O O H H H3C H H OH H3C Dendroside E

OH Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [148] HO OH

O O HOH H C HO 3 O H O H H H3C CH3 Dendroside F M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 125

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

OH Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [148] HO OH

O O H OH H C HO 3 O H O H H OH H3C CH3 Dendroside G

OH Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [148] HO OH

O O OH H H3C OH O OH

O H3C CH3 OH

OH Dendronobiloside A

OH H3C Dendrobium monoliforme Sw. [137] H3C HO O

O O HO OH HO H3C CH3 Dendromoniliside A

O OH HO Dendrobium monoliforme Sw. [137] H3C HO O

O H HO OH O HO H3C CH3 Dendromoniliside B

OH Dendrobium monoliforme Sw. [137] OH O O

H3C OH HO H OH

H3C CH3 Dendromoniliside C

H Dendrobium primulinum Lindl. [74] H3C

CH3 Dendroprimine

(continued on next page) 126 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

O Bulbophyllum kwangtungense Schltr. [143] O

CH3O Densiflorol A

H3CO O O Dendrobium thyrsiﬂorum Rchb. f. ex André [73]

O OCH3 H3CO

OCH Denthyrsin 3

O Dendrobium thyrsiﬂorum Rchb. f. ex André [73]

CH3O OH OCH O 3

CH3O OH

OH Denthyrsinone

H3CO OH Dendrobium thyrsiﬂorum Rchb. f. ex André [73]

HO OCH3

H3CO Denthyrsinine

HO OCH 3 Dendrobium thyrsiﬂorum Rchb. f. ex André [73]

HO OCH3 Denthyrsinol

OCH3 Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [147]

OH HO 4,7-Dihydroxy-2-methoxy-9, 10-dihydrophenanthrene

OH Gymnadenia conopsea (L.) R.Br. [148]

CH3O

OH Dihydroxy-2,6-bis(4-hydroxybenzyl)- 5-methoxybibenzyl M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 127

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

OH Pholidota yunnanensis Rolfe [140]

CH3O OCH3

OCH3

3,7-Dihydroxy-2,4,8-trimethoxyphenanthrene

OH Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. [149]

CH3O OCH3

CH3O

HO 3,7-Dihydroxy-2-4-6-trimethoxyphenanthrene

OH Pholidota yunnanensis Rolfe [140]

CH3O OCH3

3,7-Dihydroxy-2-4-dimethoxyphenanthrene

OH Bletilla striata (Thunb.) Rchb. f. [150]

CH3O OH

2,7-Dihydroxy-1,3-bis(p-hydroxybenzyle)- 4-methoxy-9-10-dihydrophenanthrene

OH Maxillaria densa Lindl. [151]

OCH3 OCH3 HO 9,10-Dihydro-2,5-Dihydroxy-3, 4-dimethoxy-phenanthrene

OH Maxillaria densa Lindl. [151]

OCH3

HO OCH3

2,5-Dihydroxy-3,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene

(continued on next page) 128 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

OH Bletilla striata (Thunb.) Rchb. f. [150] OH

HO OCH3 OH 3,3'-Dihydroxy-2',6'-bis(p-hydroxybenzyl)- 5-methoxybibenzyl

OH Bletilla striata (Thunb.) Rchb. f [150]

HO OCH3 OH 3,5'-Dihydroxy-2'-(p-hydroxybenzyl)- 3-methoxybibenzyl

O Dendrobium monoliforme Sw. [132] OCH3

O O

OCH3 2,6-Dimethoxy-1,4,5,8-phenanthradiquinone

OCH3 Epidendrum rigidum Jacq. [135]

OCH3 OH HO 2,3-Dimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene-4,7-diol

Ephemerantha lonchophylla (Hook. F.) P. E. Hunt & Summerch [152]

HO OH

O H C 3 CH3 O Ephemeranthrone

OCH3 Dendrobium chrysotoxum Lindl. [133,153] OCH3 HO OCH3

CH3O Erianin

OH Maxilaria densa Lindl., Ephemerantha lonchophylla (Hook. F.) P. E. Hunt & Summerch [151,152]

OCH3 OCH HO 3 Erianthridin M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 129

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

Maxillaria densa Lindl. [153] OCH3 OH

OCH3 OCH OH 3 Fimbrinol A

OH Agrostophyllum callosum Rchb. f., Coelogyne ﬂaccida Lindl. [88] OCH3 O

HO Flaccidin

HO Cymbidium goeringii (Rchb.f.) Rchb.f, Epidendrum rigidum Jacq., Scaphyglottis livida (Lindl.) Schltr., Dendrobium aurantiacum Rchb. f. var. denneanum (Kerr.) Z. H. Tsi [80,135,146,153,154]

CH3O OCH3 Gigantol

OH Gymnadenia conopsea (L.) R. Br. [155]

OH H3CO OH Gymconopin A

Gymnadenia conopsea (L.) R. Br. [155]

OH CH3O OH

OH Gymconopin B

OH Gymnadenia conopsea (L.) R. Br. [155]

HO OCH3

OCH3 Gymconopin D

CH3O OH Bulbophyllum gymopus Hook. f. [11]

OCH3 OCH HO 3 Gymnopusin

Dendrobium thyrsiﬂorum Rchb. f. ex André [73] OH

HO OCH3 Hircinol

(continued on next page) 130 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

Dendrobium densiﬁorum Lindl. ex Wall. [156] OH O

OCH3 HO O

OH Homoeridictyol

OH O Cremastra appendiculata (D.Don) Makino [139]

CH3O OH

HO O OCH3

Homoisoflavanone

OH Bletilla formosana (Hayata) Schltr. [157]

OCH3 CH3O 1-(4-Hydroxybenzyl)-4,7-dimethoxy-9, 10-dihydrophenanthene-2-ol

O Dendrobium moniliforme Sw. [158]

O OCH3

OCH3 7-Hydroxy-5,6-dimethoxy-1, 4-phenanthranequinone

O Dendrobium primulinum Lindl. [74]

N Hygrine

Agrostophyllum callosum Rchb. f., Coelogyne ﬂaccida Lindl. [88] OCH3 OH O

HO Imbricatin

OCH3 Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl. [159]

OCH3

OH Isoamoenylin M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 131

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

Dendrobium auranticum var denneanum (Kerr.) Z.H. Tsi [146] HO O OH

OH OH O Kaempferol

Liparis kurameri French & Sav. [45]

glu O COOH

Kuramerine

Cypripedium macranthos Sw. [138] OH OH

CH3O Lusianthrin

Ephemerantha lonchophylla (HOOK. f.) P. F. Hunt & Summerh [137] H3C O

CH3 HO OH

H3C CH3 Lonchophylloid A

Ephemerantha lonchophylla(HOOK. f.) P. F. Hunt & Summerh [137] H3C O

CH3 OH

HO H C 3 CH3 Lonchophylloid B

HO OH Nidema boothii (Lindl.) Schltr. [134]

HO Lusianthridin

Malaxis congesta (Lindl.) Deb. [89] glu O COOH

Malaxin

HO Ephemerantha lonchophylla (Hook. F.) P. E. Hunt & Summerch [160] OH

CH3

CH3O OCH3 3-Methylgigantol

(continued on next page) 132 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

Bletilla formosana (Hayata) Schltr. [161] OH OH

OCH3 HO OH 4-Methoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene-1,2,7-triol

O Dendrobium moniliforme [129,162] OCH3

O O CH3O Moniliformin (2,6-dimethoxy-1,4,5,8-phenanthradiquinone)

Dendrobium moschatum (Buch.-Ham.) Sw., Dendrobium aurantiacum Rchb.f. var. denneanum (Kerr.) Z. H. Tsi, Dendrobium thyrsiﬂorum Rchb.f. ex André, Dendrobium loddiesii Rolfe OH [50,64,73,78,79,80]

HO OCH3 Moscatin

H3CO Dendrobium moschatum (Buch.-Ham.) Sw., Dendrobium aurantiacum Rchb.f. var. denneanum OCH3 (Kerr.) Z. H. Tsi, Dendrobium loddiesii Rolfe [50,64,73,79,80] HO

OCH3

OCH3 Moscatilin (4,4-dihydroxy-3,3,5-trimethoxybibenzyl)

OCH3 Dendrobium loddigesii Rolfe [64]

O CH3

CH3O O O OCH3 O H3C Moscatilin diacetato

CH3O Vandopsis longicaulis Schltr. [45]

N CH O 3 CH3

O O N-methylpiperidine

CH3O Dendrobium auranticum var denneanum (Kerr.) Z. H. Tsi [146]

HO OCH3

CH3O OCH3 n-Octacosyl furolate

HO O Dendrobium auranticum var denneanum (Kerr.) Z. H. Tsi [146] OH

OH O Naringenin M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 133

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [45,60,75–77,148] H3CO OH OCH3 HO OH

H3CO Nobilin D

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [45,60,75–77,148] HO OH

CH3O OCH3

OCH3 CH3O Nobilin E

– OCH3 Dendrobium nobile Lindl. [45,75 77] HO

O Nobilone

OH Eulophia nuda Lindl. [72]

HO OCH3 Nudol

NH Gastrodia elata Blume [163] N HO N N N O OH

HO OH N6-(4-hydroxybenzyl)adenine riboside

Agrostophyllum callosum Rchb. f. [88]

HO OH Orchinol

Coelogyne ochracea Lindl. [138] OCH3 O

HO O Ochrone-A

Phalaenopsis mannii Rchb. f., Phalaenopsis equestris (Schauer) Rchb. f., Phalaenopsis ambilis (L.) CH3COOCH 3 Blume [45] CH2 C COOCH 2 OH H

N Phalaenopsine

(continued on next page) 134 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

OH Pholidota chinensis Lindl. [164]

CH3O

O OH O Pholidotol A

O Pholidota chinensis Lindl. [164] O

CH3O

O OH O Pholidotol B

H Dendrobium pierardii Roxb. ex Hook. [Syn. Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C.E.C. Fisch. [45] CH2CH2CH2N(CH3)2 O

O Pieradine

Dendrobium plicatile Lindl. [16,58]

OH HO CH3O Plicatol B

OH Bletilla striata (Thunb.) Rchb. f [150]

OCH3

OH CH3O

OH 1-(p-hydroxybenzyl)-4-8-dimethoxy phenanthrene-2-7-diol

OCH3 Cremastra appendiculata (D.Don) Makino [139] OCH3

HO OH

OCH3 CH3O

2,7,2',7',2''-Pentahydroxy-4,4',4'',7''-tetramethoxy-1,8,1', 1''-triphenanthrene

OH Dendrobium tosaense Makino [165] OH

HO O

OH OH O Quercetin M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 135

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

Cryptostylis fulva Schltr. and C. erythroglossa Hayata H3O

N CH3 H3O H

H O O R(-)-Cryptostylin

H3CO Dendrobium densiﬁorum Lindl. [156]

O O H3CO Scoparone

Dendrobium loddigesii Rolf., Dendrobium lohohense Tang & Wang [44,64,79] NCH3 O

O Shihunine

Dendrobium loddigesii Rolfe [79,166] N

NH CH3

O Shihunidine

OH Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames var. amoena (M. Bieberson) Hara [167]

OCH3

OCH HO 3 Sinensol A

OH Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames var. amoena (M. Bieberson) Hara [167]

CH3

H3C OCH3

HO OCH3

Sinensol B

OH Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames var. amoena (M. Bieberson) Hara [167]

CH3

H3C OH

HO OCH3

Sinensol C

(continued on next page) 136 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames var. amoena (M. Bieberson) Hara [167] OH

OCH3

H3C O OH H3C

Sinensol D

OH Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames var. amoena (M. Bieberson) Hara [167]

OCH3

H3C HO O OH H3C

Sinensol E

OH Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames var. amoena (M. Bieberson) Hara [167]

H3C OCH3 H3C

OH HO

OH Sinensol F

OH Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames var. amoena (M. Bieberson) Hara [167]

OCH3

H3C O OH H3C Spirasineol B

OCH3 Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames var. amoena (M. Bieberson) [164]

H3C HO O OH H3C Spiranthol-C

Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames var. amoena (M. Bieberson) [164] H3C O OCH3 H3C

O HO Spiranthoquinone M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 137

Table 2 (continued)

Structure Source plant

Dendrobium auranticum var denneanum (Kerr.) Z.H. Tsi [146]

H HO H Taraxerol

HO Bulbophyllum triste Rchb. f., Dendrobium aurantiacum Rchb.f. var. denneanum (Kerr.) Z. H. Tsi [80,132]

OH HO

OCH3 Tristin

HO Bletilla formosana (Hayata) Schltr. [157]

HO CH3O

OH 1,3,6-Tri(4-Hydroxybenzyl)-4-methoxy dihydrophenanthrene-2,7-diol

HO OH Pholidota yunnanensis Rolfe [140]

HO 2,4,7-Trihydroxy-9,10-dyhydrophenanthrene

CH3O OH Epidendrum rigidum Jacq. [135]

OCH3

OCH3 OH 3,4,9-Trimethoxyphenanthrene-2,5-diol

A series of experiments were conducted on Anoectochilus yielding a purpuric residue which named Anoectochilus formosanus, an important ethnomedicinal orchid, known as formosanus effective fraction (AFEF). This crude extract

‘King Medicine’ in Taiwan and accentuated the possibility of showed inhibition of chronic hepatitis induced by CCl4 in its commercial application for healing of different diseases. mice [67]. Bioactivity guided fractionation and spectroscopic The scientists of the Institute of Integrated Chinese Western analysis of this extract revealed that it contained kinsenoside Medicine, Taiwan investigated the effect of fresh plant extract which have significant antihepatotoxic activity and activation on the innate immune response in mice. Fresh whole plants of innate immunity [68]. Treatment with AFEF was effective were extracted with water and the filtrate was partitioned in reducing the amount of collagen-I mRNA expression which with ethyl acetate successively. The aqueous fraction was confirms that it could abrogate the actions of hepatic fibrosis. further filtered and evaporated under reduced pressure Another report [69] suggested that AFEF significantly 138 M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 increased interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production from lymph node and Zambia every year. Similarly in Turkey, tubers of terrestrial cells by Co-A stimulation. IFN-γ is known to be potent a orchids are used to make salep. The official record of Turkey in macrophage activator as well as immunomodulating agent. 1993 was that they have exported 75 tons salep in different The ELISA tests of treated mice confirmed that AFEF do not European countries for which it took approximately 150 mil- affect IgG and IgM levels in the serum rather activate lion of orchids. Due to unavailability of huge tubers, production macrophage by upregulating the synthesis and production of salep has been reduced remarkably in Turkey. Nowadays of this cytokine. Moreover, AFEF has ability to modulate Turkey is producing on an average 20 tons salep every year phagocyte functions which offer obvious therapeutic benefits [38]. That meant, approximately 40 million orchids are being for bacterial infections, since phagocytes play an essential role destroyed to produce this much of salep. Taking into consid- in the host's defense against infection by ingesting invading eration the threat, orchids have been placed on Appendix II or microorganisms and by mediating inflammation process. higher of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Undoubtly these findings are the additional evidences of the Species (CITES). Therefore, it is the high time to save of orchid phytochemicals for developing drugs for control of this potential source of medicine for sustainable utilization in human diseases. mankind. Wound healing properties of the extract of Vanda roxburghii is investigated [70] as it is reported in Ayurveda 7. Conclusions as a strong candidate of medicinal plant used in anti- inflammatory, antiarthritic, treatment of otitis externa and About a century ago Dr. Ischirch, Professor of Practical sciatica. Local administration of the crude extract to rats for Chemistry in the University of Berne commented on traditional wound healing reveled 60% reduction in wound diameter medicine that “we may assuredly hope that medicine, when has compared to controls. It significantly increases the dry thoroughly ruined its digestion with synthetical remedies and granulation tissue weights, hydroxyproline, hexosamine and tested all the organs of the animal body, will return to the most protein content in the test group. These findings are ancient remedies of mankind, to the medicinal plants and consistent with wound healing at cellular levels. There are drugs, for the utility of which the experience of the thousands of several phases in wound healing, namely, coagulation, years vouches.” Although his comment does not fully move to inflammation, granulation, fibroplasia, collagenesis, wound reality, it is true that many people now preferring traditional contraction, and epithelization. The pro-healing action of this medicines over synthetic ones. Moreover, thousands of disease extract may be attributed either to increased collagen specific medicines already developed by the grace of modern deposition or to better alignment and maturation or both. science and technology, it could not diminish the demand of The test wounds were fully healed by the 13th day, whereas traditional medicine especially to millions of people in the vast the control group healed by the 20th day. These data suggest rural areas of developing countries. It is due to some good that the extract of Vanda roxburghii administered topically properties of traditional medicines over synthetic medicines as has wound healing potential in rats. The results suggest i) least side effect, ii) low production cost, iii) easy availability further studies of toxicity and application to man in whom and wide effectiveness. Meanwhile, consumers in developed lower extremity wounds present a growing clinical and countries are becoming disillusioned with modern healthcare therapeutic challenge. and are seeking alternatives. Since herbal medicines serve the health needs of about 80% of the world's population, and 6. Threats to orchids orchids contain a large number of bioactive phytochemicals can be used as a promising source of medicine. For this purposes Orchids might be considered as the essence of herbal orchidaceous preparations should typically been subjected to medicine. Unfortunately, they are among the most threat- the precise scientific clarification and standardization to ened of all flowering plants due to ruthless collection by confirm traditional wisdom in the light of a rational phytother- increasing orchid lovers, over-exploitation as herbal health- apy. Finally, I want to conclude this assessment quoting a care, destruction of habitats by reclamation, shifting cultiva- speech of Professor Dr. Bulpitt, Chairman of the Orchid Society tion and deforestation, loss of pollinator, fragmentation of of Great Britain that “I shall continue to grow orchids despite populations, genetic drift, anthropogenic pressures and their lack of therapeutic efficacy, and hope that one day a unauthorized trade. There is no doubt some of the orchid medicinal use will finally be established for these beautiful species have already been extinct from the wild, for instance plants.” Paphiopedilum vietnamense and a large number of species have become rare and endangered, for example Habenaria Acknowledgments intermedia, Malaxis mucifera, Eulophia dabia, Satyrium nepalense, Dactylorhiza hatageria, etc. More than 200 species of The author wishes to thank Dr. Md. M. H. Bhuiyan and Dr. native orchids of China are driven into endangered, critically Md. M. Matin of Chemistry Department of Chittagong endangered or even at the edge of extinction in the wild. University and Giovanni Appendino, Managing Editor, Fito- Similar status might be for other countries also. Among the terapia, for their sincere help and guidance for preparing the different causes of depletion of orchids, over-exploitation in manuscript. traditional system is the foremost reason. For example, tuberous terrestrial orchids are collected in east sub-Saharan References Africa for the production of a cake called ‘chikanda’. Each cake requires 100 tubers and it has been estimated that [1] Dressler RL. Phylogeny and classification of the orchid family. USA: 2.2–4.0 million tubers are traded illegally between Tanzania Cambridge University Press; 1993. M.M. Hossain / Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 102–140 139

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