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Market Opportunities, Government Policies, and Climate Change Sangay Wangchuk a & Stephen F This article was downloaded by: [University of Montana] On: 27 August 2013, At: 13:05 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/usnr20 Agricultural Change in Bumthang, Bhutan: Market Opportunities, Government Policies, and Climate Change Sangay Wangchuk a & Stephen F. Siebert b a Ugyen Wangchuck Institute for Conservation & Environment , Lamai Gompa , Bumthang , Bhutan b College of Forestry & Conservation, University of Montana , Missoula , Montana , USA Published online: 26 Jul 2013. To cite this article: Society & Natural Resources (2013): Agricultural Change in Bumthang, Bhutan: Market Opportunities, Government Policies, and Climate Change, Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal, DOI: 10.1080/08941920.2013.789575 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2013.789575 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. 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Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms­ and-conditions Downloaded by [University of Montana] at 13:05 27 August 2013 Society and Natural Resources, 0:1–15 Copyright # 2013 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0894-1920 print=1521-0723 online DOI: 10.1080/08941920.2013.789575 Agricultural Change in Bumthang, Bhutan: Market Opportunities, Government Policies, and Climate Change SANGAY WANGCHUK Ugyen Wangchuck Institute for Conservation & Environment, Lamai Gompa, Bumthang, Bhutan STEPHEN F. SIEBERT College of Forestry & Conservation, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA Interviews with elderly farmers and a review of government data, policies, and pro­ grams reveal that farmers in the Bumthang District of Bhutan have transitioned from cultivating a diversity of subsistence grains through swidden farming with no external inputs in the 1980s to intensive monocropping of potatoes utilizing fertili­ zers and tractors in 2011. During the same time, household diets changed from locally cultivated buckwheat and barley to make greater use of purchased rice. The primary underlying driving forces noted by farmers for the changes were improved road and market access, and government prohibitions against swidden agriculture. Farmers also stated that climatic conditions have changed; however, temperature and precipitation data do not reveal significant change, although the variability of mean monthly precipitation has increased. Understanding the site- and time-specific ways in which farmers respond to underlying forces is essential to the identification and development of effective agricultural policies, research, and development. Keywords cash crops, export markets, potato, roads, swidden Downloaded by [University of Montana] at 13:05 27 August 2013 Agricultural change occurs in response to interactions among many actors and forces, from farmers to national governments and global markets. While farmers ultimately decide what, when, where, and why to cultivate, their decisions are influenced by government policies, market opportunities, climatic conditions, and other underlying driving forces (Geist and Lambin 2001). State policies affect agricultural commodity prices and production quotas, subsidize the production of specific crops and practices, and control export marketing opportunities (Brookfield 2001; Fearnside Received 19 December 2011; accepted 3 August 2012. We greatly appreciate the assistance and insights provided by cooperating farmers and thank UWICE and CFC for logistical support. This research was supported by a generous grant from the MacArthur Foundation. Address correspondence to Sangay Wangchuk, Ugyen Wangchuck Institute for Conservation & Environment, Lamai Gompa, Bumthang, Bhutan. E-mail: wangchuk_s@ yahoo.com 1 2 S. Wangchuk and S. F. Siebert 2008; Geist and Lambin 2001). Government investments in agricultural research and extension and in infrastructure (particularly roads) influence the types and amounts of crops cultivated, agricultural practices, and where and how products are marketed, such as whether production is for household consumption or for domestic or export markets (Chhetri and Easterling 2010; Chomitz and Gray 1996; Geist and Lambin 2001; Salick et al. 2005). Climatic conditions obviously affect agriculture, and temperature, precipitation, and their seasonal distribution and variability are diver­ ging from historic norms around the world (World Meteorological Organization [WMO] n.d.; Zhao and Running 2010). Changing social, economic, political, and ecological forces confront land users with different and often challenging conditions, as well as new opportunities. Specific land user responses are mediated by individual and household-level decisions in light of variable interests, needs and conditions (e.g., labor availability, age, knowledge, experience, access to land, capital and other resources), local cultural traditions, insti­ tutions, religious beliefs, and other factors (Brookfield 2001; Hersberger et al. 2010; Saxena et al. 2005). The importance of underlying driving forces on tropical forest conversion, agricultural intensification, and general land use is well established (Angelsen 1999; Browder et al. 2008; Geist and Lambin 2001; Keyes and McConnell 2005; Thapa and Rasul 2006). Global change, particularly changes in land use and cli­ mate, economic globalization, market integration, technological innovation, and state policies and regulations, often challenges traditional, biologically diverse agroecosys­ tems (Brookfield 2001). However, great uncertainty remains regarding how these forces interact and their site-specific effects on agricultural systems (Zimmerer 2010). Documenting how and why agricultural practices change is essential to under­ standing farmer and household decision-making processes and adaptive capacities (Zimmerer 2010). This is particularly important where rapid and profound changes in historic agricultural practices are occurring, such as in Asia (Cairns 2007; Schmidt-Vogt et al. 2009). In addition, effective policy is dependent upon govern­ ment officials and development actors understanding and anticipating future inter­ actions among agricultural diversity, agroecosystem complexity, and global change (Zimmerer 2010). There is growing recognition that some historic agricultural prac­ tices, specifically swidden, are productive, sustainable, and well adapted to prevailing agroecological conditions (Cairns 2007; Kerkhoff and Sharma 2006). The Inter­ national Centre for Integrated Mountain Development concluded that traditional swidden agricultural practices in the eastern Himalayas, home to approximately Downloaded by [University of Montana] at 13:05 27 August 2013 400 million people, are not only productive and sustainable, but contribute to the conservation of biological diversity and are preferable to sedentary farming systems (Kerkhoff and Sharma 2006). In this article, we investigate agricultural change in the Bumthang District of Bhutan. Specifically, we document changes in agricultural crops and practices, and associated underlying driving forces as reported by elderly farmers locally considered to be knowledgeable about agriculture in their communities. We then use secondary data, including government statistics, regulations, and policies, changes in infrastruc­ ture and market conditions, climate data, and documented changes in socioeconomic and cultural conditions, to illuminate the underlying driving forces identified by farmers. This approach builds upon the well-established need to understand underly­ ing political and economic influences on land use change (Blaikie 1985; Blaikie and Brookfield 1987; Geist and Lambin 2001; Repetto and Gillis 1988; Zimmerer 2010) and employs the driving force=actor land change (DFA-C) model where the ‘‘focus Agricultural Change Bhutan: Markets, Policies, Climate 3 is neither on driving forces nor on actors nor on the causal chain from driving forces to actors to change, but on the interplay of driving forces and actors’’ (Hersperger et al. 2010). Our approach asks knowledgeable elderly farmers to identify both agri­ cultural changes they have observed over time and the underlying reasons (i.e., driv­ ing forces) for those
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