Archaeobotanical Studies at the Urartian Site of Ayanis in Van Province, Eastern Turkey

Turkish Journal of Botany Turk J Bot (2013) 37: 282-296 http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/botany/ © TÜBİTAK Research Article doi:10.3906/bot-1204-3

Archaeobotanical studies at the Urartian site of Ayanis in Van Province, eastern Turkey

Tuğba SOLMAZ, Emel OYBAK DÖNMEZ*

Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hacettepe University, 06800 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey

Received: 03.04.2012 Accepted: 18.09.2012 Published Online: 15.03.2013 Printed: 15.04.2013

Abstract: Archaeobotanical macro remains recovered from the Ayanis fortress and the outer town of the Urartian period of the Iron Age (685–645 BC), located in the area of Van (Turkey), were investigated. Most of the remains were charred due to fire. Large quantities of Hordeum vulgare L. (hulled barley), Panicum miliaceum L. (broomcorn millet), and Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauvois (foxtail millet) were found at the study site, indicating the storage of agricultural surplus. Other types of cereal remains were also recorded, including Triticum aestivum L. (bread wheat) and Secale cereale L. (rye). Ground wheat grains were also recovered and their starch microstructure under scanning electron microscope suggests that these remains represent a bulgur-like food preparation. The data suggest that in the area of Ayanis plant-based agricultural activities were based mainly on cereals in the Iron Age. The findings also include fruits of Carum carvi L. (caraway, Persian cumin), Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander), and Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss (parsley). In view of the folkloric use of these plants, it is thought that the material from Ayanis represents condiments and/or medicinal herbs used by the Urartians in Anatolia about 2600 years ago.

Key words: Archaeobotany, Urartu, Ayanis, Van, Turkey, Iron Age

1. Introduction (Rusaipatari) (Hopf & Willerding, 1988) in Nakhchivan, The Iron Age Kingdom of Urartu emerged around Lake and Karmir Blur (Teishebaina) (Bedigian, 1985) in Van in present-day eastern Turkey and existed from 860 BC Armenia, provided some significant information on until 585 BC. During its maximum territorial expansion in Urartian plant-related activities. the eighth and seven centuries BC Urartu was a large state, The present investigation was performed on plant extending from north-eastern Mesopotamia and eastern remains from a highly defensible Urartian fortress, Ayanis and south-eastern Anatolia to the southern Caucasus and (Rusahinili), situated in Van Province (Figure 1). There the Caspian Sea (Çilingiroğlu, 1994; Belli, 2007). has been only a preliminary report of 2 archaeobotanical The people of Urartu were mostly farmers. The kingdom samples from the site so far (Cocharro et al., 2001). The exercised its central authority to control the planting and main objective of the present study was to provide further harvesting of crops, and the storage and redistribution information on Urartian plant-related activities in the of the products from its territories. Agricultural surplus area, based on many archaeobotanical samples. The site and products were stored in huge storerooms of several has been excavated under the direction of Prof Dr Altan fortresses, which served as economic administrative centres (Sağlamtimur, 2005). Çilingiroğlu (Çilingiroğlu, 1991). Previous archaeobotanical studies carried out in Van Province in eastern Turkey report on the analysis of 2. The study area plant remains recovered from Early Bronze Age levels at The province of Van is situated in the east Taurus Dilkaya Höyüğü (Nesbitt & Samuel, 1996). The Urartian Mountains in eastern Turkey. Ayanis lies 35 km north of texts contain few data on agricultural activities. However, the city of Van, near the modern village of Ağartı, on the archaeobotanical investigations at several Urartian eastern shore of Lake Van (Figure 1). The site overlooks sites, such as Anzavurtepe and Değirmentepe at Patnos a large plateau where there are several tributaries of the (Ağrı) (Oybak Dönmez, 2003) and Yoncatepe (Van) Karasu Stream at an altitude of about 2000 m, supporting (Oybak Dönmez & Belli, 2007) in eastern Turkey, Bastam agricultural activities by irrigation. * Correspondence: [email protected] 282 SOLMAZ and OYBAK DÖNMEZ / Turk J Bot

Mount Tendürek Patnos T U R K E Y

Aladağlar

Mount Süphan Lake Haçlı Bendimahi Plain

Lake Nazik Lake Erçek

AYANİS Karagündüz Lake Van Mount Varak Van Mount Mount Erek Tushpa Yoncatepe Nemrut Dilkaya Çavuştepe

0 50 km

Figure 1. Location map of Ayanis in the area of Van and some of the sites mentioned in the text.

The sediments of Lake Van have been investigated to charcoal analysis from the Ayanis site suggested that the document environmental changes in the region in the area of Lake Van would have supported a vegetation with past (Kempe & Degens, 1978; Landmann et al., 1996a, different species of Pinus L. (pine) about 2600 years ago 1996b; Lemcke & Sturm, 1997; Wick et al., 2003; Litt et (Cocharro et al., 2001). In addition, a study by Newton and al., 2007). In addition, widely exposed terraces around Kuniholm (2007) revealed that a variety of wood species, Lake Van have provided complementary data on the including elm (Ulmus L.), juniper (Juniperus L.), oak, chronology of past lake-level and lake-volume changes, and poplar (Populus L.), was employed in construction at and their link to past climatic change (Kuzucuoğlu Ayanis. According to Wick et al. (2003), human impact in et al., 2010). Litt et al. (2007) have suggested that the the catchment of Lake Van has increased over the last 600 >400-m-thick sediments deposited at the bottom of years. the lake could correspond to several stages. They have Today, the climate in the Van region is continental. published the first evidence of a Last Glacial maximum Average monthly temperatures are below 0 °C from record in Lake Van sediments. December to February and around 20 °C during the Based on high-resolution pollen, charcoal, isotopic, summer months (Kuzucuoğlu et al., 2010). The annual and geochemical analyses, the study of sediments from precipitation shows a strong spatial gradient, declining Lake Van, which span about 13,000 varve years, indicated from 907 mm year–1 in Tatvan in the south-west to 396 several different climatic phases and vegetation change mm year–1 in the city of Van in the centre and 487 mm during the Late Quaternary in the region of Ayanis (Wick year–1 in the north-east of the region (Kuzucuoğlu et al., et al., 2003). The study showed that the Late-Glacial period 2010). in the region was cold and dry. Steppe vegetation was The present natural vegetation of Van Province has dominant at that time. Geochemical and isotopic records received a great deal attention from botanists, and many have proved a strong increase in moisture, high fire floristic studies have been conducted in various parts of frequencies, and rising lake level at the beginning of the the region [Çadır (Artos) Mountain by Boynukara and Holocene. Meanwhile, Pistacia L. (pistachio) and Quercus Öztürk (1992), Toprakkale by Öğün and Altan (1992), the L. (oak) started to expand. The steppe–forest vegetation islands of Lake Van by Behçet and Altan (1993), Kurubaş was dominated by oak and it advanced at about 6200 BP. Pass by Öztürk and Behçet (1998), and Özalp by Özgökçe After 4000 BP, aridity increased again. The modern climatic and Behçet (2007)]. New dicotyledonous species and situation was set at about 2000 BP. In the pollen diagram, some lichen species have been recorded from the province human activity has been traced since 3800 BP. The forest (Hamzaoğlu et al., 2011; Karagöz & Aslan, 2012). There is, elements declined and herbs expanded. However, wood however, no detailed floristic study in the area of Ayanis.

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The natural vegetation of the Van region belongs to 3.1.1. Temple complex the Irano-Turanian phytogeographic region (Özgökçe The temple complex is located in the middle of the & Behçet, 2007). The region is in general dominated by fortress. There is a square core area built in the name of steppic formations, including species of Astragalus L., the Urartian god Haldi. Some weapons, a bronze cauldron, Acantholimon Boiss, Centaurea L., Euphorbia L., Salvia and bone fragments were found to have been filled with L., and Verbascum L. There is little woodland left in plant products (Çilingiroğlu, 2004). the province, probably owing to thousands of years of In the south, several storerooms built adjacent to the human impact. However, in the south of the region some complex were excavated and they are supposed to be patches of oak forest are present at elevations of 2500– related to the temple. The storerooms contain many large 2700 m. The forest includes several oak species [Quercus and small vessels, including pithoi (large storage jars) and infectoria Oliver subsp. boissieri (Reut.) O.Schwarz, Q. plates. A total of 18 pithoi were found to have been placed brantii Lindley, and Q. libani Olivier], Celtis L. species in 2 rows. Each pithos is 2.15 m high and 1.5 m wide, (C. glabrata Steven ex Planch. and C. tournefortii Lam.), without any descriptions. The vessels would have stored Juniperus species (J. oxycedrus L. subsp. oxycedrus and crops, food, and liquids. It is thought that the vessels in J. excelsa M.Bieb.), Crataegus meyeri Pojark., Rhamnus the complex may have been maintained for rituals and the pallasii Fisch. & C.A.Mey., Ephedra major Host, and Rosa temple personnel. pisiformis (Christ) D.Sosn. 3.1.2. Storerooms The storerooms were found in the south-west of the mound 3. The Ayanis site and are also called “western magazines”. In the storerooms The Ayanis excavations have been carried out in the 2 main hundreds of pithoi were found to have been half buried in the areas of the site: the fortress and the outer town. ground, mostly in 3 rows. They are 1.5–2.5 m high and 0.78– 3.1. Fortress 1.5 m wide. Among these pithoi, several small pots were also The Ayanis fortress was built on a rocky hill at an altitude recorded. The pithoi recovered bear both cuneiform and of 1866 m, covering an area of approximately 40,000 m2 hieroglyphic inscriptions on their upper sections, indicating (Çilingiroğlu, 1991; Çilingiroğlu & Erdem, 2006). During measurement units (Sağlamtimur, 2005). It is estimated that the excavations, 2 main occupation levels, Medieval (11th these vessels would have stored crops, food, and liquids. All century AD) and Iron Age II, have been recovered in these finds indicate that the site was also used as a centre for the fortress (Çilingiroğlu & Derin, 2000; Çilingiroğlu et the storage of agricultural surplus and liquids. al., 2002). Here, the Iron Age II features of the fortress 3.1.3. Houses representing the Urartians are summarised in the light A total of 8 houses have been found, located on the western of the results of the excavation studies by the team. Three side of the temple complex. It is thought that the houses main features have been unearthed in the fortress: the may have been inhabited by the elites of the fortress. The temple complex, storerooms, and houses (Figure 2). houses have been identified by their installations: metal objects, pits, mortars, grinding stones, pounders, baskets, stone pots, ovens, and hearths. 3.2. Outer town The outer town, located outside the fortified walls of the citadel, covers an area of about 80 ha (Çilingiroğlu & Derin, 2000). It is characterised by settlement complexes, Rampart probably inhabited by the local people during the Urartian Temple period. In the houses many objects, some of which have Comple x been related to crop processing and cooking activities, such as mortars, grinding stones, pounders, and ovens, were recovered (Çilingiroğlu & Sağlamtimur, 2003). It is known from the Urartian texts found in the citadel Houses that the fortress was built by the king Rusa II (680–640 Monumental Gate BC) (Çilingiroğlu & Salvini, 2001; Çilingiroğlu, 2007). Storerooms According to the dendrochronological studies, the N citadel was constructed just after 673–672 BC (Newton & Kuniholm, 2007). Display rock inscriptions found in front of the monumental gate of the fortress and those recovered Figure 2. A general plan of Ayanis Fortress (modified from the in the temple explain the activities of Rusa II (Çilingiroğlu plan of the fortress in the Ayanis excavation archive). & Derin, 2000).

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It is thought that the Urartian site of Ayanis was damaged remains are charred, while some the husks of millets are by a catastrophic fire, probably caused by an earthquake. uncharred. The samples predominantly include remains Archaeobotanical remains come from both the Urartian of hulled barley, broomcorn millet, and foxtail millet fortress and the outer town burnt during the fire. with some remains of Triticum aestivum L. (bread wheat), Triticum L. (wheat), Secale cereale L. (rye), cereal stem 4. Materials and methods fragments, and condiments/medicinal herbs, namely The Ayanis archaeobotanical samples were taken from Carum carvi L. (caraway, Persian cumin), Coriandrum various contexts in the fortress and outer town, such as sativum L. (coriander), and Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) pithoi, vessels (pots), and floor. A total of 162 samples Fuss (parsley). The identification criteria for these plant were taken. Seventy-nine samples produced seeds. Large remains are given below. grain samples, with the exception of fragile millet remains Charred Sitophilus granarius L. (granary weevil) [Panicum miliaceum L. (broomcorn millet) and Setaria remains have been retrieved from the 2 barley deposits italica (L.) P.Beauvois (foxtail millet)], were floated to in the fortress area. An evaluation of the granary weevil remove soil particles. remains from the site is given elsewhere (Oybak Dönmez Plant remains were identified using the reference & Solmaz, 2012). collections in the Department of Biology at Hacettepe 5.1. Cereals University and also identification manuals (Schoch et Hordeum vulgare (barley): All grains are hulled (Figure al., 1988; Cappers et al., 2006). Some weedy/wild plant 3). Cross sections of the grains of the genus are angular. seeds could not be identified because they were severely While 98% of grains are symmetrical, 2% are asymmetrical corroded and they are grouped under unspecified taxa. (ventral furrow not symmetrical), suggesting 2-row barley. Since most of the samples contain numerous grains, Few rachis fragments were found and they were also about 1000 grains/remains were randomly taken and identified as 2-rowed barley characterised by the bases analysed to estimate the quantities of the grains/remains of the side florets being somewhat stunted (Figure 4). on the basis of the weight of the bulk. Estimated quantities The mean dimensions of well-preserved grains (n = 200 are indicated by asterisks in Appendix 1. The plant remains grains) are 7.06 (length) × 2.9 (width) × 2.2 (thickness) in small samples were counted. Since broomcorn millet mm. The (mean) dimensions of rachis fragments (n = 3) and foxtail millet remains were similar and mixed, their are 2.76 (rachis segment length) × 0.8 (basal width) × 1.43 quantities were estimated together. In addition, to obtain (maximum width) mm. a broad indication as to relative abundance of broomcorn Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) and Setaria millet and foxtail millet, 100 identifiable millet grains italica (foxtail millet): Grains are rounded. In broomcorn from 5 large samples were randomly taken and separated millet the embryo groove is short and wide (Figure 5). In (Appendix 2). Ground cereal grains and cereal stem foxtail millet it is longer and narrower than in broomcorn fragments were weighed. Codes for the samples were millet (Figure 6). The husk fragments belong to both given by the excavation team. species; in the former fragments are smooth and glossy, In order to examine the starch microstructure of the while in the latter they are finely rugose or punctuate. ground cereal grains, some grains were coated with gold. The husk fragments have been designated as broomcorn Their starchy endosperms preserved were investigated millet/foxtail millet (Figure 7). All grains and some husks under a Zeiss EVO 50 EP scanning electron microscope (SEM). The SEM photographs were compared with those given in Valamoti et al. (2008). The measurements of the archaeobotanical remains were made using a Nikon SMZ-800 zoom stereomicroscope. Percentage of embryo length of millet grains (embryo L %) was also calculated. The rachis internodes of Hordeum vulgare L. (barley) and Triticum L. (wheat) found in some samples were measured according to the criteria given by Jacomet (1987) and Nesbitt (1993), respectively. Photographs were taken with a Coolpix-995 digital camera connected to the stereomicroscope. 1 mm 5. Results The results of the archaeobotanical analysis are presented in Appendices 1 and 2. Most of the Ayanis archaeobotanical Figure 3. Grains of barley.

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1 mm Figure 6. Grains of foxtail millet.

1 mm

Figure 4. Rachis fragment of barley. 1 mm

Figure 7. Husks of millets.

1 mm 1 mm 4 mm Figure 5. Grains of broomcorn millet. Figure 8. Uncharred husk fragments of millets. of the millets are charred. Some husks recovered in the lower levels of several contexts are uncharred (Figure 8). a single kernel are 5.8 × 3.4 × 3.1 mm. The designation of The mean dimensions of broomcorn millet and foxtail T. aestivum seeds is based on the presence of T. aestivum millet grains are 1.82 × 1.47 × 1.24 mm (n = 250) and 1.6 × rachis internodes. The rachis internodes found is obovate 1.4 × 1.07 mm (n = 100), respectively. The embryo groove with thin lips left below the gluma bases (Figure 10). The on average is 70% of the length of the grain (range 60–90) dimensions of 2 fragments are 2.2–3 (rachis internode in the former (n = 100), while it is 102% (range 90–130) in length) × 1 (basal width) × 1.4–1.5 (maximum width) × the latter (n = 100). 0.6–0.8 (thickness) mm. Triticum aestivum (bread wheat): Grains have rounded Ground cereal grains: In some contexts, pure charred flanks, being rounded in cross section. They have a compact and ground cereal remains with a few intact bread wheat form (Figure 9). Most are deformed and measurements of grains have been recovered (Figure 11). The endosperm

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4 mm 1 mm Figure 11. Ground cereal grains.

1 mm

Figure 9. Grain of bread wheat.

sg sg

2 µm Figure 12. Endosperm area of ground cereal from Ayanis with starch granules (sg) having lumpy pancake form (under SEM).

Secale cereale (rye): Only 2 grains were found. The grains have pointed embryo ends and truncated upper ends. The ventral side is slightly convex, with a narrow furrow, and the dorsal side is laterally compressed (Figure 1 mm 13). Measurements of the 2 grains: 4.9 × 2.1 × 1.1–6.8 × 2.4 × 3 mm. 5.2. Condiments/medicinal herbs The fruits of 3 condiments/medicinal herb species were Figure 10. Rachis internode of bread wheat. recorded. Carum carvi (caraway, Persian cumin): Fruits are slender, spindle-shaped, bent into an arch, tapering at both microstructure of these ancient fragments is characterised ends (Figure 14). There are longitudinal ribs on the dorsal by lumpy pancake-shaped starch granules that survive, side. Surface between the ribs is slightly wrinkled or has suggesting a bulgur-like food preparation (Figure 12). longitudinal stripes. Ventral side is rather narrower than Cereal stem fragments: Some charred cereal stem the width of the fruit, more or less flat, with a central ridge. fragments have been found either alone or mixed with Measurements (n = 100): 2.9 (length) × 1.07 (width) mm. barley grains. Coriandrum sativum (coriander): Composite fruits are Triticum sp. (wheat): Some wheat grains could not be spherical and pointed below (Figure 15). There are distinct determined because of deformations due to carbonisation. vein traces running along the meridian. Measurements (n They were determined as wheat (Triticum). = 100): 2.03 × 1.8 mm.

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1 mm

Figure 16. Fruits of parsley. 1 mm

5.3. Weedy/wild taxa Seeds/fruits of some weedy/wild taxa were also recorded in small amounts in the Ayanis archaeobotanical samples, including Adonis L. (pheasant’s eye) and Ajuga L. Figure 13. Grains of rye. (bugle), Aizoon hispanicum L., Asteraceae (aster family), Centaurea L., Chenopodium L. (goosefoot), Euphorbia L. (spurge), Galium L. (bedstraw) (Figure 17), Lithospermum tenuiflorum L., Lolium L. (rye grass) (Figure 18), Malva L. (mallow), Peganum harmala L. (harmal), Polygonaceae (knotweed family), Ranunculus arvensis L. (corn buttercup), Silene L. (campion), Teucrium L. (germander), Vaccaria Medik. (cowherb), and Trifolieae (clover tribe) and Vicieae tribes of Fabaceae.

6. Discussion and conclusion 1 mm Archaeobotanical reports from Early Bronze Age sites in Van Province indicate that plant cultivation was established in the region before the Iron Age (Nesbitt & Figure 14. Fruits of caraway. Samuel, 1996). The remains of hulled barley and bread wheat from Dilkaya Höyüğü give some direct evidence of prehistoric farming activities. The Ayanis archaeobotanical samples yielded a larger spectrum of cereals, including hulled barley, broomcorn millet, foxtail millet, bread wheat, and rye. Combined

1 mm

Figure 15. Fruits of coriander.

Petroselinum crispum (parsley): Composite fruits are broadly ovate and pointed on top (Figure 16). Dorsal side 1 mm is strongly domed with narrow ribs. Measurements (n = 11): 1.40 × 0.76 mm. Figure 17. Fruits of bedstraw.

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summers. For many crops, the growing season is limited to a few months of the spring and early summer, and grain is harvested in July (Zimansky, 1998). However, it appears that, despite harsh environmental conditions, the Urartians would have achieved extensive cultivation of crops to meet the needs of a large population, possibly mainly in the plains of their land. This would be in part judged by the emphasis that royal inscriptions give to the creation of agricultural fields, orchards, vineyards, and irrigation canals; the large-scale of storage of crops; and the enormous capacities of storerooms seen in the excavated citadels, such as the study site Ayanis (Sağlamtimur, 2005) and Çavuştepe (Erzen, 1988) in the region of Van. In addition, more than 30 irrigation facilities have been discovered in the Urartian land (Belli, 1997). Display rock inscriptions found in front of the monumental gate of the Ayanis fortress mention that Rusa II built a new town, fortress, and temple, and created agricultural fields, 1 mm orchards, and vineyards (Çilingiroğlu & Derin, 2000). In the study area, the fertile plains in the area of Karasu Stream would have also supported crop fields. The predominance of barley at Ayanis and other Urartian sites suggests that it was the most important staple of Urartian agriculture. Barley may have been preferred at least in Figure 18. Fruit of ryegrass. part in the Urartian land because it has a shorter growing season than wheat, and thus it would give better crop with some archaeological findings, such as storerooms security, with or without irrigation. containing pithoi for crop storage, the present data provide Barley was also the dominant crop at some other some complementary data to the studies of Urartian plant- Anatolian Iron Age sites: Troy VIIb (1190–950 BC) and based agricultural activities in the Iron Age of eastern Miletus (750–650 BC) in the west (Riehl & Nesbitt, 2003) Anatolia. and Gordion (800 BC) in central Anatolia (Miller, 2010). Large-scale storage of cereals, mainly hulled barley and This is consistent with the contention of Nesbitt (2005) millets, found at Ayanis points to an agricultural economy that barley was abundantly used as food as well as fodder based mainly on grain production during Iron Age times and for brewing in the past. Today barley is chiefly grown in the study area, as is the case today. It also indicates in most areas of Turkey and in other temperate regions for the storage of agricultural surplus. Archaeobotanical animal feed and for brewing. According to the information information from other Urartian settlements, such Patnos gathered during our interviews with the local people at (Oybak Dönmez, 2003), Yoncatepe (Oybak Dönmez & the modern village of Ağartı near Ayanis, barley is mainly Belli, 2007), Karmir Blur (Bedigian, 1985), and Bastam grown as fodder and to produce flour to soften wheat (Hopf & Willerding, 1988) also suggested that heavier bread paste. In addition, it has been used in traditional reliance was placed mainly on cereals in the times of medicine as a diuretic and for strengthening the body in Urartian dominance. Based on the botanical remains found case of illness (Baytop, 1999). in association with the archaeological finds recovered Large samples of grains of millets, broomcorn millet from the temple at Ayanis, Çilingiroğlu (2004) writes that and foxtail millet, were collected from both the fortress cereal grains may have also played an important role in the and outer town at Ayanis. The former appears to be more religious rites of the Urartians. He suggests that the grains abundant than the latter. Numerous husks of the millets would have been used as ritual offerings to the Urartian have been also found in the study area. It is likely that god Haldi and that the grains would be related to a fertility the grain was stored in the husk, which then somewhat cult. disintegrated on charring. Most of the millet remains are It has been widely assumed that agricultural production charred, while some husks in the lower levels of some would have been difficult in the land of Urartu, which is contexts are uncharred (for example, those unearthed on described as mountainous with long winters and warm the floor of the storerooms, and in Pithos 1 recovered in the

289 SOLMAZ and OYBAK DÖNMEZ / Turk J Bot temple complex), which would be related to both context the archaeological record of the kingdom, spanning the features, such as distance to fire, and to large quantities of period from the 17th to the 12th century BC (Ünal, 2007). silica present in husks. The purity of the deposits, with no Rye grains occur very occasionally in the barley remains of straw or rachises of the millets, shows that they samples of Ayanis. Rye may have infested the barley fields were stored after threshing, sieving, and winnowing. The and entered the agricultural production during harvesting presence of many millet remains found in both the temple in the study area. It occurs commonly as a tolerated weed complex of the fortress and the outer town suggests that of wheat in Anatolia (Hillman, 1978). However, it would the elites of the fortress and the inhabitants of the outer be considered that the grains found at Ayanis show typical town consumed similar plant products. features of the cultivated type. The archaeobotanical data Millet was also recovered from some other Urartian from Karmir Blur suggest that the Urartians would have settlements, such as Karmir Blur (Tumanian, 1944) and cultivated rye (Bedigian, 1985). Bastam (Hopf & Willerding, 1988), and from the Iron There are no pulses or grapes in the Ayanis samples. Age levels of Sos Höyük (Erzurum) in eastern Anatolia Both are in general less abundantly represented at other (Longford et al., 2009), Tille Höyük (Adıyaman) in the Urartian sites. However, the scarcity of the Near Eastern south-east (Nesbitt & Summers, 1988), and Gordion pulses (lentil, garden pea, grass pea, bitter vetch, chickpea, (Miller, 2010). According to Zohary and Hopf (2000), and fava bean) does not necessarily indicate a minor role neither broomcorn millet nor foxtail millet belongs to the in the economy. At Urartian Yoncatepe (Oybak Dönmez Neolithic Near East crop assemblage. It is likely that they & Belli, 2007) and Upper Anzaf Fortress in the region of entered this assemblage during the Middle–Late Bronze Van (Aydaş et al., 2010) lentil is well presented. Lentil was and Iron Ages. Based on chronology and context of early also recovered from the Iron Age Sos Höyük (Erzurum) records of these millet species, Hunt et al. (2008) suggest (Longford et al., 2009), while chickpea was recovered from that broomcorn millet may have been domesticated in some Urartian settlements, such as Yoncatepe (Oybak China or Central Asia, while foxtail millet may have been Dönmez & Belli, 2007), Karmir Blur (Bedigian, 1985), and domesticated in northern China. Bastam (Hopf & Willerding, 1988). Around the Lake Van area today millet is still grown Concerning grapes, there are definite signs of grape and used for bread making after mixing with milk or cultivation in the Levant from (at least) the Early Bronze “ayran”, a drink made with yogurt and water (Özçelik, Age (Miller, 2008). Several Urartian texts also mention 1989). In many areas of Turkey the seeds of broomcorn plantation of vineyards and wine production (Belli millet are used to make a fermented drink called “boza”, 2006). As stated above, vineyards are also mentioned in while those of foxtail millet are sold as green fodder and the display rock inscriptions found in the Ayanis fortress as food for birds. Millet flour is also used traditionally (Çilingiroğlu & Derin, 2000). for treatments related to respiratory health, fever, and Fruits of caraway, coriander, and parsley found at the diarrhoea (Baytop, 1999). study site are of special interest here because, among the No ancient pure wheat grain deposits have been found Urartian sites, these plants have been recovered only at yet at the study site. Wheat grains (bread wheat) occur Ayanis so far. They may have been used by the Urartians occasionally in the barley and millet samples of Ayanis. for their aromatic fruits as condiments and/or medicinal However, in some vessels found in the houses pure charred herbs about 2600 years ago. The remains of these plants and ground wheat remains with a few intact bread wheat have been found to be mixed on the floor of Building 2 in grains have been recovered. Since the starch microstructure the area of Houses at the Ayanis fortress. In the same area of the wheat fragments is characterised by the presence of 20 vessels have also been recorded. It is likely that these lumpy pancake-shaped granules, it is thought that these taxa were stored separately but became mixed when the remains may represent bulgur. Mortars and grinding building was destroyed in the fire. stones have also been found in the same area (Çilingiroğlu Evidence of caraway was found in the Near East about & Erdem, 2006). Transformation of cereal grains into 5000 years ago and the plant was well known to the ancient easily cooked products such as cracked wheat, bulgur, or Egyptians (Malhotra, 2006). The fruits have been mainly flour has been common practice since prehistoric times used as a condiment for flavouring food preparations. (Valamoti et al., 2008). Remains of ground cereals were The plant is also popular for its use in folk medicine as a also recorded at the Neolithic site of Kapitan Dimitrievo digestive (improves appetite), carminative, galactagogue, in Bulgaria and on 2 Greek Bronze Age sites, Mesimeriani anticolic, antiseptic, antianaemic, antibacterial, anticancer, Toumba and Archondiko (Valamoti, 2002). Use of ground antihistamine, antispasmodic and stimulant, and to treat cereals is also mentioned in the Hittite written sources, the scabies and mycosis (Baytop, 1999; Malhotra, 2006). cuneiform tablets, recovered from the capital Boğazköy Coriander remains were retrieved from several (Hattusha) in north–central Anatolia, complementing archaeological places in the Near East, for example in

290 SOLMAZ and OYBAK DÖNMEZ / Turk J Bot the Pre-Pottery Neolithic Nahal Hemel Cave in Israel, still important elements of forage in the Lake Van Basin 1325 BC Tutankhamun tomb in Egypt, and the Iron Age (Deveci & Andiç, 1992). Deir Alla in Jordan (Diederichsen, 1996; Zohary & Hopf, The common weedy taxa, such as bedstraw and rye 2000). Coriander seeds are also known for their medicinal grass, would have infested the cereal crop fields. They may properties and are considered carminative, diuretic, tonic, have arrived on the site of Ayanis as weeds of cultivated stomachic, antibilious, refrigerant, and aphrodisiac (Başer et fields. al., 1986; Baytop, 1999; Kaya et al., 2000; Özbek et al., 2006; In conclusion, the archaeobotanical assemblage of the Sharma & Sharma, 2006). Today in the area of Van coriander Ayanis site indicates that in the area heavier reliance was is grown and used as a condiment (Tunçtürk, 2011). placed mainly on hulled barley and millets in the Iron Age It is thought that parsley originated in Asia, and the (685–645 BC). The inhabitants also cultivated bread wheat. plant and its seeds were important for culinary, medicinal, Cereal cultivation may also have included rye at that time. and cult purposes in classical antiquity in Asia and Europe One of the remarkable contributions of this study is the (Charles, 2004; Çağın, 2005; Özsoy et al., 2005; Altunbaş & finding of fruits of caraway, coriander, and parsley, which Türel, 2009). Parsley is said to increase female libido, also may have been used as condiments and/or medicinal helping to promote menstruation and ease the difficulties herbs. This finding provides a new insight into such plants of childbirth. It can also be used to treat hives and other used by the Urartians in Anatolia about 2600 years ago. allergy symptoms. In addition, it has been used as a liver tonic and helps in the breaking up of kidney stones. The Acknowledgements powdered seeds of parsley are a folk remedy for hair This paper is a result of MSc research carried out by the growth and scalp stimulation. It also has strong antioxidant first author at Hacettepe University. We are indebted properties and anti-inflammatory effects (Charles, 2004; to the director of the Ayanis excavation, Prof Dr Altan Altunbaş & Türel, 2009). Parsley and its seeds have been Çilingiroğlu, for giving us the opportunity to work at found mainly in classical texts and archaeobotanical the site. Thanks are due to Dr Aylin Erdem for kindly records of the classical periods in Europe so far (Livarda & giving information about the archaeological contexts van der Veen, 2008; Bosi et al., 2009). However, the present and providing the plan of Ayanis Fortress, and to Assoc study in Urartian archaeobotany provides earlier evidence Prof Dr Osman Sert for confirming the identification of for parsley seed use in Eurasia. the carbonised remains of granary weevil. We also wish The clover tribe Trifolieae, Vicieae, and other plants of to express our sincerest thanks to Gamze Pişkin and pastoral lands would have formed a part of the vegetation Volkan Serin for their help during the separation of some of grazing terrains in the study area. They may have been archaeobiological remains, to Research Assistant Çiğdem brought to the site of Ayanis incorporated in animal Özenirler and Soner Günel for their help during the dung. The archaeozoological evidence from the study organisation of the figures, and to the Electron Microscopy area includes some domestic species, but it has not been Unit of the Department of Geology at Hacettepe University published yet. Today, some legumes, including Trifolium for access to their SEM. We also gratefully acknowledge L. (clover) and Vicia L. (vetch), and many grass species are the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments.

Appendix 1. Temple Complex Context: Pithos 1; Code CNZ; cereals: Hordeum vulga- Quantities of Urartian plant remains from the Ayanis fort- re (barley) (grain) 29000* ress and outer town. Estimated quantities are indicated by Context: W Floor; Code DAY; cereals: Panicum milia- an asterisk. Abbreviations N, NW, E, NE, W, S, SE, and SW ceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet) have been used for directions. Codes for the samples were (grain and husk) 23000* given by the excavation team. Context: NW Floor; Code DKE; cereals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet) Fortress (grain and husk) 8200 Monumental Gate Context: SE Vessel 2; Code HHB; cereals: Hordeum Context: Building 4, NW corner, Floor; Code CUC; vulgare (barley) (grain) 20000* cereals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria Context: W of hearth, Vessel 4; Code HHP; cereals: italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 140000* Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 16200*; weedy/wild Context: Building 4, Floor; Code CRE; cereals: Pani- plant (fruit/seed): Galium (bedstraw) 2 cum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (fox- Context: SE, Hearth; Code HHV; cereals: Hordeum tail millet) (grain and husk) 50000* vulgare (barley) (grain) 33000*, Triticum sp. (wheat) (gra-

291 SOLMAZ and OYBAK DÖNMEZ / Turk J Bot in) 3; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed): Adonis (pheasant’s tivum (bread wheat) (grain) 2; weedy/wild plants (fruit/ eye) 1, Aizoon hispanicum 3, Ajuga (bugle) 1, Asteraceae seed): Galium (bedstraw) 22, Lolium (rye grass) 1, Vicieae (aster family) 5, Galium (bedstraw) 157, Malva (mallow) 3, unspecified taxa 1 43, Polygonaceae (knotweed) 2, Ranunculus arvensis (but- Context: E wall, Building 2, Floor; Code JLU; cereals: tercup) 2, Teucrium (germander) 2, Vaccaria (cowherb) Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica 26, Vicieae 39, unspecified taxa 7 (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 17000* Context: NE Building 7, Bronze cauldron; Code IAU; Context: S wall, Building 2, Floor; Code JLY, JLZ; ce- cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 980000* reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 16000*, Panicum Context: E, Building 7; Code IBT; cereals: Hordeum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail vulgare (barley) (grain) 24000*, Panicum miliaceum millet) (grain and husk) 550000*, Triticum aestivum (bre- (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet) (gra- ad wheat) (grain) 1, Triticum sp. (wheat) (grain) 1 ; weedy/ in and husk) 14, Triticum aestivum (bread wheat) (gra- wild plants (fruit/seed): Adonis (pheasant’s eye) 1, Galium in) 1, (rachis segment) 1; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed): (bedstraw) 48, Malva (mallow) 17, Vicieae 3, unspecified Galium (bedstraw) 43, Malva (mallow) 13, Polygonaceae taxa 2 (knot-weed) 7, Silene (campion) 1, Trifolieae (clover tribe) Context: Building 2, Floor; Code JNU; cereals: Hor- 15, Vicieae 21 deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 266, Panicum miliaceum Context: E corner, Pithos 1; Code IFG; cereals: Pani- (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet) (grain cum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (fox- and husk) 41; Condiments/medicinal herbs (fruit) Carum tail millet) (grain and husk) 380000* carvi (caraway, Persian cumin) 32000*, Coriandrum sa- Context: NE, Pithos; Code COF; weedy/wild plants tivum coriander 61000*, Petroselinum crispum (parsley) (fruit/seed): Asteraceae (aster family) 5, Galium (bedst- 2600; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed): Adonis (pheasant’s raw) 40, Lolium (rye grass) 2, Malva (mallow) 9, Polygo- eye) 1, Chenopodium goosefoot 2, Peganum harmala har- naceae (knotweed) 2, Vaccaria (cowherb) 9, Vicieae 13, mal 3 unspecified taxa 1 Context: Building 2, Vessel 27; Code JNZ; cereals: Hor- Storerooms deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 18000*, (rachis segment) 2, Context: SE mudbrick wall, Floor; Code CCF, CFZ, Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) (grain) 1, Triti- CMU; cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 30000* cum aestivum (bread wheat) (grain) 11, (rachis segment) Context: near W wall; Code COF, CMK; cereals: Hor- 1, Triticum sp. (wheat) (grain) 6, Secale cereale (rye) (gra- deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 50000*, Triticum aestivum in) 2; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed): Galium (bedstraw) (bread wheat) (grain) 8 9, Lolium (rye grass) 4, Malva (mallow) 2, Polygonaceae Context: Room, Floor; Code CRT; Panicum miliaceum (knotweed) 4, Vaccaria (cowherb) 7, unspecified taxa 8 (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet) (grain Context: Building 5, Basin; Code JOA; cereals: Hor- and husk) 62000* deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 9400, (rachis segment) 2, Context: S wall of room with a platform, around ves- Triticum aestivum (bread wheat) (grain) 1, (rachis seg- sels; Code DCD; cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) ment) 3, Triticum sp. (wheat) (grain) 7, cereal stem frag- 8300 ments 12; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed): Galium (bedst- Context: S of wall 2, Floor; Code KJZ; cereals: Hor- raw) 65, Lithospermum tenuiflorum1, Lolium (rye grass) deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 30 3, Malva (mallow) 4, Polygonaceae (knotweed) 4, Vaccaria Houses (cowherb) 3, Vicieae 12, unspecified taxa 5 Context: SE corner of Building 2, Vessel; Code JEP; Context: Building 2, Vessel 1; Code JOE; cereals: Hor- cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 34000*, Pani- deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 5, Panicum miliaceum (bro- cum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (fox- omcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet) (grain and tail millet) (grain and husk) 37, Triticum aestivum (bread husk) 350000* wheat) (grain) 3, Triticum sp. (wheat) (grain) 8; weedy/ Context: S wall, Building 2, Floor; Code JOG; cereals: wild plants (fruit/seed): Galium (bedstraw) 58, Lolium Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (rye grass) 4, Malva (mallow) 3, Polygonaceae (knotweed) (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 420000* 2, Trifolieae (clover tribe) 3, Vaccaria (cowherb) 1, Vicieae Context: N wall, Building 2, Vessel; Code KBN; cereals: 5, unspecified taxa 2 Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 18000* Context: SE corner of Building 2, Floor; Code JKI; ce- Context: Building 2, Vessel 2; Code KCZ; cereals: Hor- reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 14000* italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 16000* Context: E wall, Building 2, Vessel 3; Code KDA; ce- Context: W wall of Building 2, Vessel 4; Code JLH; cereals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 574, Triticum aes- italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 234000*

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Context: E wall, Building 2, Vessel 4; Code KDB; ce- Context: Building 7, S of Silo, Floor; Code KTF; cere- reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria als: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria ita- italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 123000* lica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 22000* Context: Building 2, Vessel 13; Code KDK; cereals: Context: SW corner, Building 7, Floor; Code KUC; ce- Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 24000* reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 226000* Context: E wall, Building 2, Vessel 4; Code KDL; ce- Context: E wall, Building 7, Vessel 2; Code KVN; Cere- reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria al stem fragments 49 g italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 432000* Context: E wall, Building 7, Vessel 8; Code KVS; Cereal Context: N wall, Building 2, Floor; Code KDM; cereals: stem fragments 30 g Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 12000* Context: NW corner, Building 7, Vessel 21; Code KYH; cereals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria Context: S wall, Building 4, Floor; Code KGH; cereals: italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 132000* Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 7000 Context: NW corner, Building 7, Vessel 22; Code KYI; Context: Building 4, Floor; Code KGM; cereals: Hor- cereals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 89000* italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 1000000* Context: Building 4, Vessel 23; Code KIZ; cereals: Hor- Context: SW corner, Building 7, Vessel 24; Code KYT; deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 74000* cereals: ground cereal grains 55 g Context: N Building 4, Vessel 4; Code KMH; cereals: Context: SW corner of Building 7, Floor; Code KZB; ground cereal grains 826 g cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 25000* Context: N Building 4, Vessel 11; Code KMI; cereals: Context: NE of Building 7, Silo 1; Code LAG; cereals: ground cereal grains 737 g Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 100000* Context: W Building 4, Vessel 6; Code KMJ; cereals: Context: SW corner, Building 8, Floor; Code LCG; ce- Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 5230 reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 22000* Context: NW corner, Building 4, Gate; Code KMK; Context: Building 8, Floor; Code LDD; cereals: Hor- cereals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 70000* italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 158000* Context: E wall of Building 9, Floor; Code LGO; cere- Context: NW corner, Building 5, Basin; Code KJA, als: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 18000* KHV; cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 666000* Context: Middle, Building 9, Floor; Code LHH; cere- Context: W wall, Building 5, Vessel 1; Code KJH; ce- als: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 20000* reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria Context: Middle, Building 9, around bronze belt; Code italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 173000* LIF; cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 14; weedy/ Context: S wall, Building 5, Vessel 4; Code KJI; cereals: wild plants (fruit/seed): Ajuga (bugle) 1, Asteraceae (aster family) 1, Centaurea 6, Chenopodium (goosefoot) 1, Gali- Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica um (bedstraw) 7 (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 290000* Context: N wall, Building 9, Vessel 6; Code LIH; ce- Context: W Building 7 (outer), Floor; Code KLZ; cere- reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria als: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 55 italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 177000* Context: W Building 7, Floor; Code KMB; cereals: Context: Middle, Building 11, Floor; Code LUP; cere- ground cereal grains 360 g als: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 28 Context: SW Building 7, Floor; Code KMC; cereals: Context: N wall, Building 11, Vessel 1; Code LUR; ce- Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 37200* reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 50 Context: S wall, Building 7, around vessel; Code KOY; Context: NE corner, Building 11, Floor; Code LUS; ce- cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 4000 reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 66000* Context: SW corner, Building 7, Floor; Code KRO, Context: E, Building 11, Floor; Code LVU; cereals: KSB; cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley)S (grain) 65000 Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 100 Context: SE corner, Building 7, Vessel; Code KSI; ce- Outer Town reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria Context: 0096 NW; Code JFG; cereals: Panicum milia- italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 49000* ceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet) Context: SW corner, Building 7, Floor; Code KSJ, KTK; (grain and husk) 75200* cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 37300* Context: 0070 SW; Code MHF; cereals: Hordeum Context: SE corner, Building 7, Floor; Code KTD; ce- vulgare (barley) (grain) 23; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed): reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria Ajuga (bugle) 1, Centaurea 1, Euphorbia (spurge) 1, Galium italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 22000* (bedstraw) 6, Lolium (rye grass) 1, Vaccaria (cowherb) 7

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Appendix 2. E wall, Building 2, Vessel 14: Panicum miliaceum Relative abundance of broomcorn millet and foxtail (broomcorn millet) 60%, Setaria italica (foxtail millet) 40% millet grains from Ayanis. SW corner, Building 7, Vessel 24: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) 98%, Setaria italica (foxtail millet) 2% Fortress Temple Complex Houses E corner, Pithos 1: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn S wall, Building 2, Floor: Panicum miliaceum millet) 92%, Setaria italica (foxtail millet) 8% (broomcorn millet) 90%, Setaria italica (foxtail millet) 10% S wall, Building 2, Floor: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) 98%, Setaria italica (foxtail millet) 2%

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