Medicinal Plant Conservation

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MEDICINAL Medicinal Plant PLANT SPECIALIST

GROUP Conservation Silphion

Volume 11

Newsletter of the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission

Chaired by Danna J. Leaman

Chair’s note ...... 2 Sustainable sourcing of Arnica montana in the International Standard for Sustainable Wild Col- Apuseni Mountains (Romania): A field project lection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants – Wolfgang Kathe ...... 27 (ISSC-MAP) – Danna Leaman ...... 4 Rhodiola rosea L., from wild collection to field production – Bertalan Galambosi ...... 31 Regional File Conservation data sheet Ginseng – Dagmar Iracambi Medicinal Plants Project in Minas Gerais Lange ...... 35 (Brazil) and the International Standard for Sus- tainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aro- Conferences and Meetings matic Plants (ISSC-MAP) – Eleanor Coming up – Natalie Hofbauer...... 38 Gallia & Karen Franz ...... 6 CITES News – Uwe Schippmann ...... 38 Conservation aspects of Aconitum species in the Himalayas with special reference to Uttaran- Recent Events chal (India) – Niranjan Chandra Shah ...... 9 Conservation Assessment and Management Prior- Promoting the cultivation of medicinal plants in itisation (CAMP) for wild medicinal plants of Uttaranchal, India – Ghayur Alam & Petra North-East India – D.K. Ved, G.A. Kinhal, K. van de Kop ...... 15 Ravikumar, R. Vijaya Sankar & K. Haridasan . 40

Taxon File Notices of Publication ...... 45 Trade in East African Aloes – Sara Oldfield . . . . 19 Towards a standardization of biological sustain- List of Members...... 48 ability: Wildcrafting Rhatany (Krameria lappacea) in Peru – Maximilian Weigend & Nicolas Dostert ...... 24

ISSN 1430-95X 1 August 2005 and several additional events during the Congress, Chair’s Note including a workshop on developing a standard for sustainable wild collection of medicinal and aromatic plants, sponsored by the German Federal Agency for As this 11th volume of Medicinal Plant Conservation Nature Conservation (BfN), and a round-table discus- is ready for printing, the Species Survival Commis- sion of the Guidelines on the Conservation of sion (SSC) and its specialist groups are once again Medicinal Plants, currently being revised. A motion preparing to launch a fresh programme of work and urging IUCN members to support the revision of membership for a new IUCN intersessional period. these Guidelines, sponsored by the Government of Under the direction of the new Commission Chair, Dr India (Ministry of Environment and Forests), WWF – Holly Dublin, the procedures for reconstituting the Germany, and the Canadian Museum of Nature, was Commission membership are being reviewed and up- adopted by a large majority of the Members Business dated, including a more efficient electronic member- Assembly (see Box 1). ship information management system. The process of Project Updates invitation / re-invitation of Medicinal Plant Specialist Group (MPSG) members for the 2005-2008 IUCN Revised Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal quadrennium should be underway soon. In the mean- Plants: I wish to thank the MPSG members and other time, MPSG members continue to work on global readers of this newsletter who have commented on and regional projects, to move forward with the for- the outline and two circulated drafts of the revised mation of regional sub-groups, and to lay the founda- Guidelines during a global consultation process tion for a global assessment project intended to make which began in 2003. The 2nd draft was circulated for a significant contribution to the work of SSC identi- comments in December 2004 to more than 700 indi- fied in the SSC Strategic Plan 2001-2010. viduals and institutions world-wide. Comments

Box 1. Resolution 3.073 Conservation of medicinal plants. Adopted by the Members Business Assembly, 3rd IUCN World Conservation Congress, Bangkok, Thailand, November 2004.

[…] The World Conservation Congress at its 3rd Session in Bangkok, Thailand, 17-25 November 2004: 1. SUPPORTS the revision of the 1993 Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants as a joint underta- king of WHO, WWF, TRAFFIC, and IUCN in consultation with a broad spectrum of stakeholders; 2. URGES the herbal products and pharmaceuticals industries, donors, development aid agencies, national governments, conservation and rural development NGOs, and other stakeholders, to endorse and implement the revised Guidelines; and 3. REQUESTS the IUCN Director General and the SSC to provide technical and scientific assistance to this process and institutional partnership, and especially to civil society and local communities, where this is possible within funding and other constraints, in order to complete the revision, and to publish and make widely available the revised Guidelines.

3rd IUCN World Conservation Congress received are currently being incorporated into a 3rd Interest in the sustainable use and conservation of draft, which will then be submitted for approval to the medicinal species – animals as well as plants – was four author agencies – WHO, IUCN, WWF, and evident during 3rd IUCN World Conservation Con- TRAFFIC. On behalf of IUCN, the MPSG and the gress, held in Bangkok, Thailand, in November 2004. Wildlife Trade Programme are working to raise the A day-long workshop during the World Conservation funds required to support finalization and implemen- Forum, entitled “Conserving Species – Securing tation of the Guidelines, including through regional Medicine for the Future” featured relevant work workshops and translation into French, Spanish, undertaken by members of the IUCN, as well as with- Chinese, Arabic, and other regional languages. A in the IUCN programmes and commissions. (The workshop to launch the Guidelines in Latin America proceedings of this workshop are available on the is being coordinated by the MPSG regional sub- IUCN website: www.iucn.org/congress/wcforum/fo group for the Caribbean and South America during rum_th_biodiversity-proceed.htm) MPSG members the IX Latin American Botanical Congress, 19-25 and project partners were involved in this workshop June 2006, in the Dominican Republic, and plans are

2 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 also underway for implementation activities in South the MPSG, as it is currently stated, is: Asia, coordinated by the MPSG sub-group for this To support and promote efforts leading to medici- region. nal plant conservation and rational, sustainable Revision of CITES #-Annotations for medicinal and use. Our approach is to provide information, tools, aromatic plants: As part of an ongoing consultancy and strategy coordination that builds on the efforts undertaken by the MPSG to the CITES Secretariat to of local, national, regional, and global partners to identify problems that may arise because of unclear conserve and use medicinal plants sustainably, annotations regarding medicinal plant species includ- focusing particularly on actions that reduce threats ed in the Appendices of CITES, a second interim to endangered species and habitats. report was submitted to the CITES Plants Committee A workplan for the current IUCN quadrennium for consideration during the Fifteenth meeting of the (2005-2008) that will enable the MPSG to contribute Plants Committee in Geneva (Switzerland), 17-21 to the priority targets of the SSC Strategic Plan, with- May 2005. The report is available on the CITES web- in the boundaries of our stated aim, might have the site (www.cites.org/eng/com/PC/15/index.shtml). following objectives: Recommended changes to the current annotations for medicinal plant species are based on an initial MPSG • Establishment of regional sub-groups and pro- report and recommendations approved at the 13th grammes of work for the MPSG in the Pacific, meeting of the Conference of the Parties (CoP13, Europe, North America, Southeast Asia, North Bangkok, 2004; see also p. 38 f.). Asia, and Africa (regional sub-groups have already been established in South Asia and the Carib- International Standard for Sustainable wild Collec- bean/South America). tion of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP): The German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation • Expansion of global conservation assessment of / Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN) has provided start- medicinal plants through regional Red List trai- up funding for the development of an international ning and assessment projects, identification of re- standard and performance criteria for the sustainable gional Red List Authorities for medicinal plants in wild collection of medicinal and aromatic plants. The collaboration with other SSC Specialist Groups, project is outlined in further detail in this issue of and support for regional medicinal plant conserva- MPC (p. 4 f.). tion data management capacity. Red List Assessment and Management Planning: Re- • Ongoing contributions to the development of a sults of conservation status assessment and manage- practical and widely relevant standard for sustain- ment planning workshops for priority medicinal plant able wild collection of medicinal plants. species in the Dominican Republic, Panama, Nica- • Ongoing partnership through IUCN with WHO, ragua, and Honduras are being completed for submis- WWF, and TRAFFIC enabling the publication, sion to the IUCN Red List programme. These work- distribution, and implementation of the revised shops were supported by the Global Environment Guidelines for the Conservation of Medicinal Facility (GEF) through United Nations Environment Plants. Programme (UNEP) support for a Medium Size Pro- • Continued publication of Medicinal Plant Conser- ject: “Biodiversity Conservation and Integration of vation and enhanced use of the MPSG website to Traditional Knowledge on Medicinal Plants in Na- effectively communicate current issues and tional Primary Health Care Policy in Central America actions relevant to the overall aim of the MPSG. and Caribbean”. The project was developed by enda- caribe, with technical assistance from the MPSG. Comments and contributions are welcome. Proposed MPSG Workplan for 2005-2008 Editor's note: All websites in this article were viewed on 5.7.2005. The SSC Strategic Plan 2001-2010 (www.iucn.org/ themes/ssc/news/stratplanintro.htm) identifies priority targets for the Commission to which all SSC specialist groups are expected to contribute. These targets are The production and mailing of this issue was clearly reflected in the broader conservation agenda of made possible through the generous support of the IUCN. The MPSG also has its own global and the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. regional objectives, which have been developed through various members’ discussions and ideas since the MPSG was established in 1994 (iucn.org/themes/ ssc/sgs/mpsg/main/Goals.html). The overall aim of

1 August 2005 3 International Standard for Sustainable The mission of this standard is to ensure the long- Wild Collection of Medicinal and term survival of MAP populations in their habitats, Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) while respecting the traditions, cultures and livelihoods of all stakeholders. Danna Leaman The objective is to provide a framework of principles The German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation/ and criteria that can be applied to the management of Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN) has provided start- MAP species and their ecosystems. It provides guid- up funding for the development of an international ance for sustainable wild collection of MAPs, and a standard for the sustainable wild collection of medi- basis for audit and certification. cinal and aromatic plants. The project is being imple- An international advisory group has been established mented by members of the MPSG through IUCN- with members from the medicinal plant / herbal pro- Canada, and by WWF and TRAFFIC Germany.

Table 1. Components of the ISSC-MAP (Draft 2)

Sections Principles Criteria 1. Legitimacy MAP collection and management activities 1.1 Management authority, tenure, and are carried out under legitimate tenure use rights arrangements, in compliance with relevant 1.2 Compliance laws, agreements, and guidelines. 1.3 Prevention of illegal / unauthorized activities

2. Customary Rights I. Local communities’ and indigenous peo- 2.1 Access, use, and tenure rights LEGAL AND ples’ customary rights of use and manage- 2.2 Benefit sharing ETHICAL REQUI- ment of collection areas and wild collected 2.3 Cultural heritage and traditional MAPs are recognized and respected. REMENTS uses 2.4 Participation and integration of local interests 3. Transparency MAP collection and management activities 3.1 Information are carried out in a transparent manner 3.2 Consultation with respect to sharing information and consulting stakeholders.

4. Assessments Regular assessments of the target MAP 4.1 Basis for assessment resources and habitats, and of social / cul- 4.2 Knowledge about target MAP spe- tural / economic issues related to MAP col- cies lection, are performed, documented, and 4.3 Knowledge about MAP habitat / col- reflected in management planning, II. lection area implementation, and monitoring. RESOURCE 4.4 Social / cultural / economic issues ASSESSMENT, 5. Management Planning MANAGEMENT PLANNING, AND A management plan is written and revised 5.1 Consistency and coordination of the as needed to direct / guide MAP wild col- MONITORING management plan lection operations. 5.2 Content of the management plan 6. Monitoring The impacts of collection practices and 6.1 Basis for and application of moni- conformity of management with planning toring are monitored at regular intervals.

4 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 Table 1. ...continued.

Sections Principles Criteria 7. Collection Practices The collection of MAPs is conducted at a 7.1 Rationale for MAP collection scale and rate and in a manner that: a) 7.2 Growth / regeneration does not undermine the long-term availabi- 7.3 Age / size class lity, viability, and quality of MAP species and populations; and b) does not exceed 7.4 Quantity (collectable yield) III. the target species’ ability to regenerate 7.5 Frequency over the long term. 7.6 Timing RESPONSIBLE COLLECTION 7.7 Density / abundance AND COLLEC- 7.8 Good Collection Practices TION AREA 8. Environmental Impact and PRACTICES Conservation Measures Collection management maintains ecosy- 8.1 Sensitive taxa stem structure, function and services with 8.2 In situ / ex situ measures a focus on conservation measures essential to the long-term sustainability of MAP 8.3 Prevention of negative impacts resources in the ecosystems in which they occur.

9. Market Requirements Wild collection of MAPs is undertaken 9.1 Financial sustainability according to quality requirements of the 9.2 Transparency and traceability market without sacrificing sustainability of the resource. IV. RESPONSIBLE 10. Worker Relations BUSINESS PRAC- Systems of management for wild collection 10.1 Training and capacity building TICES of MAP resources ensure the capacity of 10.2 Workplace requirements collectors and other workers to comply with the requirements of this standard, and meet or exceed applicable policies, laws, and regulations with respect to health, safely, and compensation. ducts industry, small-scale collection enterprises, The current draft standard and proposed revisions for non-government organizations working with commu- a 3rd draft has been presented in two venues during nity collectors, conservation organizations, and certi- the recent XVII International Botanical Congress in fication organizations. The advisory group met on the Vienna, Austria, 17-23 July 2005 and during an IBC island of Vilm, Germany, in December 2004 to revise Side Event: From Source to Shelf: Sustainable Sup- a first draft, agreeing on the mission, objective, and ply Chain Management of Medicinal and Aromatic central principles of the standard (for principles see Plants (http://www.floraweb.de/proxy/floraweb/map- Table 1). pro/ibc.html). A second draft was distributed for comment in April Information on the status and activities of this project 2005. The project steering group (consisting of BfN, is available via the project website (http://www.flora- IUCN, WWF and TRAFFIC) is currently reviewing web.de/map-pro) and will soon be available via the comments received. The criteria, indicators, and veri- MPSG website (http://mpsg.org) (all websites viewed fiers developed through this consultative drafting 5.7.2005). process will be tested in several field projects begin- For Danna Leaman’s address see imprint. ning in September 2005. Plans are currently underway to develop implementation models and strategies in four target areas: certifiers, governments through CITES and CBD, industry and donor agencies.

1 August 2005 5 Iracambi Medicinal Plants Project in Iracambi has been chosen as a Field Consultation site Minas Gerais (Brazil) and the Inter- for the ISSC-MAP (LEAMAN 2005; LEAMAN & SAL- national Standard for Sustainable Wild VADOR 2005). The purpose of the field consultations is to bring global negotiations surrounding sustain- Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic able harvesting into local contexts, and to see how Plants (ISSC-MAP) understood principles function in a practical sense. Eleanor Gallia & Karen Franz Iracambi Medicinal Plants (IMP) Introduction Located at the boundary of the Atlantic Rainforest in Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) are of global Brazil, one of the world’s most threatened ecosystems, significance, both within the context of the commu- the Iracambi Medicinal Plants (IMP) project, or Medi- nity and within the realm of international trade. cina da Mata, has identified twelve indigenous plant Between 40,000 and 50,000 plant species are known species of traditional, medicinal and commercial value to be used in traditional and modern medicinal (table 1). systems on the global scale. The majority of these The project aims to provide an alternative source of MAP species are provided by collection from the income for local farmers through the sustainable har- wild (LANGE & SCHIPPMANN 1997, SRIVASTAVA et al. vesting of these plants. At a later stage, the ISSC- 1996, XIAO PEI-GEN 1991). MAP shall be applied as a framework to inform the Many MAP species and populations are threatened by collection area management plan, in so formalizing over-harvesting, land conversion, and habitat destruc- an economic incentive to conserve the forest. tion. This reality necessitates the development of pro- The medicinal plants grow within an initial project active approaches for MAP collection and the incor- area of 35 square kilometres. This initial area, known poration of integrated principles to ensure the sustai- as Graminha, is located in South-eastern Minas Gerais nability of the plant utilization. in Brazil, in the municipality of Rosário da Limeira. International recognition of the need to “save the The identified species of plants are traditional medici- plants that save lives” has been gathering momentum nes, identified and commonly used by members of the since 1988. Guidelines for the Conservation of Medi- local community. This initial study and collection area cinal Plants are currently under revision and work is is anticipated to expand within an area of approxi- now focused on the development of International mately 250 square kilometres in the following ten Standards and Criteria for the Sustainable Sourcing years, contingent upon the results received from the of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP). efforts executed in the initial study area. Iracambi Medicinal Plants operates with the Table 1. Twelve indigenous plant species of traditional, medici- support of its host organization, the Iracambi nal and commercial value identified for the IMP project. Atlantic Rainforest Research Centre, establis- Scientific name Common name1 hed in 1999. The Research Centre is dedicated to promoting sustainable development Baccharis drauculifoliae Alecrim de campo through research and action, and to improving Baccharis genistelloides Carqueja the quality of life of local farmers by making the conservation of the rainforest more attrac- Bauhinia forficata Pata de Vaca tive than its destruction. Iracambi Forest Carpotroche brasiliensis Sapucainha Research and Conservation Centre is largely a volunteer-run organization with volunteers Casearia silvestris Guacatonga participating between one week and six Croton urucurana Adrago months. Since 1999 IMP has relied on exper- tise from its volunteers to continue the rese- Cecropia glaziovii / hololeuca Emba uba arch and to meet the objectives of the project. Echniodorus macrophyllus Chapeu de Couro A lack of continuity due to volunteer turnover Hymenea coubaril Jatoba presents a challenge, but at the same time the high quality of volunteer work has proved Passiflora alata Maracuja invaluably to the project. Pothomorphe umbellate Capeba IMP is presently funded by the Manfred- Tabebuia heptaphylla Ipe roxo Hermsen-Stiftung, Germany. This specifically supports the harmonising of traditional har- 1in Brazilian Portuguese

6 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 vesting practices with formal collection criteria of An ISSC-MAP field consultation visit is scheduled for sustainable harvesting. Thus it has allowed IMP to cre- autumn 2005, during which an independent panel will ate an infrastructure that employs members of the local be on-site to assess the practicability and relevance of community in the nursery and a forest engineer as pro- the current draft ISSC-MAP at Iracambi. Wolfgang ject manager to oversee these two years (2005/2006) of Kathe and Ximena Buitrón will co-ordinate the field the development of a pilot project for economically consultation. Results from the various field consulta- viable use of medicinal plants from the Atlantic Forest. tions will be discussed with the advisory panel and fed It also facilitates support within the pre-assessment and back into the ISSC-MAP development process in assessment of Iracambi as an ISSC-MAP Field December 2005 on the Isle of Vilm. Consultation project. Project implementation Community involvement and contributions to local livelihoods Medicinal plants are a bridge between people and the land on which they live. They offer an insight into the wild that brings both health and understanding. Through their healing they touch the core of the community. Thus it is natural that local participation lies at the root of the IMP project. Stemming from this we see community involvement, the creation of direct em- ployments and links to outside regional organizations. IMP facilitates community involvement through two main channels: workshops and meetings. Workshops are held both formally and informally, at the homes of Figure 1. Land use: A view of the topography and differ- community members and at the on-site laboratory, ent land uses in Iracambi’s study area (Photo KAREN where medicines are made. Workshops focus on the FRANZ 2005). sharing of information about plants, including traditional medicinal uses and harvesting techniques. Meet- Purpose and objectives ings focus on the institutional components of Iracambi The Iracambi Medicinal Plants (IMP) project is and ensure that other organizations are aware of the founded on a holistic approach that recognizes the workshops and the events that are held within the com- interaction between people and plants. Seeking to munity. These gatherings provide a way for IMP to treat the cause rather than the symptoms of deforesta- broaden its contact and knowledge base, and to react to tion, the project aims to strengthen both the economic the activities of other organizations working towards and cultural value of the forest. In so doing, IMP is similar goals. determined to revitalise the links between local peo- Local involvement in the project begins with the natu- ple and the forest, as well as fostering support for the ral distribution of the current market favourite, capeba preservation and application of traditional medicinal (Pothomorphe umbellate). Found growing on west knowledge within the local community. facing slopes in open pasture, reclaimed forest edge The twelve plant species selected for the project were and sparsely covered forest areas, capeba is found in chosen using three main criteria: (1) traditional ethno- abundance in six farms in the immediate hill commu- botanical knowledge; (2) existing species-specific nities of Graminha. Here there is specific interest on economic information, including pharmacological the part of the farmers to pursue the sale of capeba as analysis and existing market success; and (3) the role a supplement if not alternative to the current cattle and of the species in local forest ecosystems. coffee crops. IMP employs one woman from the Graminha com- IMP and ISSC-MAP munity on a part-time basis to work in the nursery. The opportunity to act as one of the field sites for the Also within the local context, IMP is working to revi- testing of the draft ISSC-MAP fits into the vision of talize the community herbal practice in the nearby Iracambi and can help providing it with a methodolo- community of Sao Pedro. In Rosário da Limeira the gy and framework within which to operate. Participa- mayor and counsellors are in support of the develop- tion in the process of developing the ISSC-MAP en- ment of the medicinal plant project. Project collabo- sures that efforts to respect the people, plants, and ration also extends to the university towns of Viçosa environment are all reflected in the final product.

1 August 2005 7 and Muriaé, further developing knowledge surroun- Iracambi uses a system of enrichment planting where- ding phyto-technology, forest engineering, and phar- by propagated species are planted out into secondary macology. IMP facilitates information feedback be- forest. In the first stage of propagation, seeds and cut- tween the local agricultural, political, and scientific tings are collected from the wild and brought into the communities. forest nursery. This shade nursery was created in 2001, specifically located within the forest to emulate the natural environments of the indigenous forest species. By exploring different methods of propagation, and by growing plants in various conditions (including different light and drainage levels), the nursery works to identify the optimum sustainable yield of the plants. These techniques combine traditional plant knowledge, elements of experimentation, and basic botanical study to identify optimal conditions for plant growth and medicinal strength. The second stage of enrichment planting involves the introduction of the plant species into three primary areas for continued monitoring and study: along the medicinal plants educational trail, alongside forest edges (creating buffer zones between the forest and Figure 2. Nursery: Seedlings being grown in the shade of degraded land), and amongst other plants or with Iracambi’s forest nursery (Photo: JOSH KOHLER 2005). other seedlings in the secondary forest. Once returned In 2002, IMP cleared a medicinal plant trail through to their natural environment, selected mature plants the various forest ecosystems of different medicinal take their place in harvesting trials. In these trials, plants. Workshop participants, visitors and school plants are harvested according to three severities: groups are invited to follow a self-guided tour along light, moderate or severe. The re-growth patterns of the trail to view the natural habitat and re-growth these plants are monitored to eventually determine stages for each of the medicinal plant species. their optimum sustainable yield. CTA (Centro de Tecnologia Alternativa, Viçosa) is an- In addition to their medicinal uses, many of the spe- other local organization, consisting of community cies within the IMP project have ecological characte- leaders and university instructors who have links with ristics that are useful for land restoration planting. the area. Within the context of sustainable develop- Capeba is a locally identified species that is very ment, CTA also works towards the improvement of effective in restoring degraded land by stimulating local livelihoods through alternative land uses and ag- earthworm activity, which improves soil structure ricultural practices. IMP and CTA are collaborating to and helps balance soil Ph (GOETSCH 1992). Pata de host joint field days. These field days will address vaca (Bauhinia forficata) is a leguminous, nitrogen- sustainable development, sustainable harvesting of fixing plant that improves nutrient availability in medicinal plants and ecotourism in the communities of soils. The Emba uba (Cecropia glaziovii / hololeuca) the buffer zone of the Serra do Brigadeiro State Park. tree is a pioneer species that grows quickly and pro- IMP is also developing a relationship with EMATER vides shade, opening habitat niches and allowing (the state agricultural extension agency) and the Rural other forest plants to begin to grow. Workers Union (Sindicato das Trabalhadores Rurais). Development of Collection Area Management Plans With the help of these organizations, IMP hopes to (CAMP) broaden the scope of its project and to identify addi- IMP recognizes the difference between “wild craf- tional communities who will be able to benefit from ting” and “aggressive harvesting” and seeks to deter- the Medicina da Mata’s work. mine a balance between economic return and plant Understanding cultivation, wild harvesting and en- health for each of its twelve identified species. richment planting Cultivation techniques can be used responsibly to Sustainable harvesting has specific indicators for each benefit the ecosystem, to ensure a sustainable yield plant species. Iracambi recognizes that each plant has and to meet commercial demand. The CAMP assesses its own ecological footprint that allows it to create a each species by investigating its biological, ecological niche within the environment. and cultural characteristics.

8 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 A brief description of the biological and ecological However, the ISSC-MAP presents an enormous range characteristics and cultural significance is being de- of challenges in their development and consequently veloped for each of the twelve species. Initially a lite- in their application. As IMP seeks to translate the rature search is conducted to determine the general relevant international documents into practical appli- biological, ecological, and pharmacological features cations, it works to ensure that original objectives are of each identified medicinal plant. This information is preserved and reflected. Still in the pre-assessment then supplemented with field studies, examining phase, IMP is incorporating the structure and princi- growth characteristics such as height, and number of ples of the ISSC-MAP into its evolving framework. leaves and flowers. This information is acquired As such, IMP should prove to be a valuable field through enacting sustainable harvesting trials and per- implementation project and source of feedback on the forming a geographic inventory of species popula- effectiveness and applicability of the ISSC-MAP. tions within the study area. Specifically, with the help Meanwhile, the value attributed through the ISSC- of Iracambi’s on-going GIS project, IMP works to MAP to the local understanding of sustainability is locate and map areas in which medicinal plants are helping to establish the vital need for responsible har- naturally growing. This information contributes to vests and so help revitalise a deeply rooted tradition project management, and agro-ecosystems knowl- of medicine, and with it a way to save the plants that edge. Traditional medicinal uses and local harvesting save lives. practices indicate the cultural significance of the plants, and these are supported by local and regional References ethnobotanical studies. Finally, the commercial im- LANGE, D. & U. SCHIPPMANN (1997): Trade Survey of Medicinal portance of each plant is considered. Plants in Germany. – 128 pp., Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn. LEAMAN, D. (2005): International Standard for Sustainable Wild Documentation and reporting Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) – IMP is developing an integrated knowledge manage- Medicinal Plant Conservation 11: 4-5. ment system that complements that of its parent or- LEAMAN, D. & SALVADOR, S. (2005): International Standard for ganization, the Iracambi Forest Research and Conser- Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal And Aromatic Plants vation Centre. All studies are recorded for future refer- (ISSC-MAP); Draft 2. ence in a document management structure that is sepa- GOETSCH, E. (1992): Natural succession of species in agroforestry and in soil recovery. Available at: www.agrofloresta.net/artigos/ rated into two main categories: natural systems and agroforestry_1992_gotsch.pdf (viewed 3.8.2005). artificial systems. Natural systems are composed of SRIVASTAVA, J., J. LAMBERT & N. VIETMEYER (1996): Medicinal three sub-components: people, plants, and the envi- Plants: An Expanding Role in Development. – 21 pp., The World ronment. Similarly, the sub-components of the artifi- Bank, Washington DC (World Bank Technical Paper 320). cial systems are interlinked: law, institutional manage- XIAO PEI-GEN (1991): The Chinese Approach to Medicinal Plants. ment and commercial / market analysis. Due to the Their Utilization and Conservation. – In: AKERELE, O., V. HEY- nature of Medicina da Mata’s work and the intercon- WOOD. & H. SYNGE. (eds.): Conservation of Medicinal Plants. pp. nected nature of these sub-components, the bounda- 305-313, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ries between them are often blurred, and thus not Eleanor Gallia • Nether Cerne Farm, Godmanstone • Dor- mutually exclusive. chester, Dorset, DT2 7AJ • United Kingdom • Tel. Standardized documentation and reporting is a key ++44/1300/341-750 • E-mail: [email protected]. component of the current draft of the ISSC-MAP. For many of the smaller operations around the globe, the specific information and compliance documentation Conservation aspects of Aconitum species requested can be difficult and cumbersome. Iracambi in the Himalayas with special reference is dedicated to meeting these requirements to the best to Uttaranchal (India) of its ability, given a limited staff and its status as an Niranjan Chandra Shah emerging medicinal plant enterprise. Support in the pre-assessment phase of data collection has been Introduction much appreciated under the guidance of ISSC-MAP Aconitum species are distributed in Europe, Asia, and in representative, Ximena Buitrón. the Himalayas including Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan Conclusions and South Tibet, where they are used in indigenous and traditional systems of medicine. They are also used in The development of the ISSC-MAP is essential to other countries where Ayurvedic and Unani Systems meet social, cultural, ecological and economic objec- are en vogue, e.g. Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, South East tives, all centred upon the sustainable use of medici- Asia, and in the Middle East countries. nal plants sourced from the wild.

1 August 2005 9 In this article an effort has been made to present a Myanmar has been tabulated in Table 1. brief profile of the medicinal aconites, which are used Non-poisonous aconites: Among the non poisonous in the traditional system of medicine and in folk medi- aconites, only three medicinally used species are in cines in the Great Himalayas or the Asian Himalayas. trade. The non-poisonous and poisonous aconites, their uses, vernacular names, chemistry, detoxification or mitiga- 1. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle. (trade tion, their trade, and with special reference to aconites names: Atees, Atish, Atibish). of Uttaranchal the efforts and measures so far taken It is one of the most used non-poisonous aconites and for their conservation are subject to this paper. distributed within the country in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal. It also occurs in The Indian Himalayas and the political boundaries Afghanistan, Pakistan and central Nepal. Earlier, the The Great Himalayas or the Asian mountain system main supply of the crude drug came from Pakistan, passes through Pakistan, five states of India, the South- Jammu and Kashmir, and later from Nepal. MEHRA & Tibet region of China, Nepal and Bhutan. It is further PURI (1968) have reported 6 forms from the North- divided physiographically into three main regions such western and Western Himalayas according to morpho- as (i) the Northwest and the Western Himalayas, (2) logical characters of the flowers and morphological the Central Himalayas, and (3) the Eastern Himalayas. and anatomical features of the root tubers. Aconitum Broadly speaking, there are three main types of cli- kashmiricum Stapf ex Coventry, which is distributed matic zones in the Himalayas: (i) the dry alpine zone, only in a part of Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir, (ii) the wet alpine zone, and (iii) the temperate zone. was reported to be its adulterant. The anatomical dif- Usually, the dry alpine zone is found above 4000 m ferences to separate the adulterant from the genuine above sea level (asl), where rainfall is very scarce. was also given. Chaerophyllum villosum Wall (Um- The wet alpine zone ranges between 3000-4000 m asl belliferae) has also been reported to be an adulterant with plenty of rainfall. The dry alpine and the wet of A. heterophyllum (SHARMA et al. 1969). alpine zones are usually covered with snow for six to Indigenous uses: The tuberous roots are used in Ayur- eight months. The temperate zone usually occurs bet- vedic and Unani formulations listed by DEY (1980) ween 2500-3000 m asl with or without snow fall and KUMAR et al. (1997). These products are not only during winter season. The aconites in the Himalayas used in India but also in other countries, where these are usually found in the wet alpine zone, however, in are also being exported. Kashmir Himalayas these have been reported to occur in the temperate zones. 2. Aconitum laeve Royle, syn. A. lycoctonum auct. non L. Hook. f. & Thoms. (trade names: Nirbishi, Jangli Distribution of aconites in the Himalayas Atees or Atish in Jammu and Kashmir and Pakistan). There are about 300 species of Aconitum in the world. Its distribution pattern is the same as for A. hetero- Out of these, 33 species in total are found in the Great phyllum. In Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir its Himalayas all along the stretch of the Hindu-Kush and tuberous roots are eaten. Possibly, it was or is still Himalayan ranges from Afghanistan in the west to used in Pakistan and India as Nirbishi, and possibly Myanmar (Burma) in the east, and out of these only also as an adulterant of Atees, a local name of A. about 12-13 medicinal species are used in traditional heterophyllum. This needs further investigations. and indigenous systems of medicines. 3. Aconitum rotundifolium Kar. & Kir., syn. A. napel- The distribution of Aconitum species has been studied lus L. var. rotundifolium. by various botanists and taxonomists. STAPF (1905), RAU (1981-82) (medicinal and non-medicinal), and It is distributed from Pakistan to Nepal and its tube- CHAUDHARI & RAO (1998a, b) described the threaten- rous roots are eaten as a tonic (CHOPRA et al. 1956). ed taxa and their distribution in the Western and Cen- The poisonous Aconitum species: The main poiso- tral and Northeastern Himalayas. POLUNIN & STAIN- nous species are Aconitum chasmanthum and TON (1984) reported the distribution in Nepal and in Aconitum ferox. The rest of the species are conside- other parts of the Himalayas, and STEWART (1972) stu- red as substitutes that are generally used after mitiga- died their distribution in West Pakistan and Kashmir. tion. Critically studying the above literature and updated 4. Aconitum chasmanthum Stapf ex Holmes, syn. A. with personal observations, the distribution of napellus auct. non L. (trade names: Mohri or Mohra, Aconitum species of the Great Himalayas including Shringi, Singya, Meetha Zahar, Lahori Bachnag, the Himalayan countries like Pakistan, Indian Hima- Bamblang, Balnag, and also Indian Aconite). layan states, Nepal, Bhutan, South Tibet (China), and

10 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 It is distributed only in the NW Western Himalayas Pradesh to Eastern Nepal, but HENRY & SHARP (1928) (Pakistan) and in the Kashmir Himalayas (Jammu & report its collection from Sikkim. The specimen was Kashmir) (see Table 1) and is the most commonly identified by O. Stapf of Royal Botanic Gardens, used species among the poisonous aconites. Earlier, Kew. However, presently it is not recorded from Sik- its main supply used to come from Pakistan, and now kim. Therefore, it can be assumed that either the spe- from Jammu and Kashmir, where it is also distributed. cies has depleted or that there was a mistake in iden- Presently, it is straight away marketed to Amritsar tification. from the region of occurrence for detoxification and 9. Aconitum moschatum (Bruehl) Stapf, syn. A. ferox from there it is marketed to all over the country. var. moschatum Stapf is commonly known as Bish. Its root tuber is 5-8 cm long and conical. More than The species, which is endemic to Jammu and Kashmir, 60 alkaloids, glycosides, sugars and elements have is known to be extremely poisonous and therefore its been reported. After mitigation or detoxification, it is root tubers are mixed with A. ferox and A. chasman- used in a number of Ayurvedic formulations (ANON. thum as a substitute. There is another species, A. soon- 1978, DEY 1980). garicum Stapf, which has been subjected for chemical 5. Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. (trade names: Vish, and pharmacological analysis. However, it is used in Vikh, Vatsa-Nabh, Meetha-Vish). indigenous medicine and is poisonous (ATTA-UR- RAHMAN et al. 1986). It is not clearly recorded whether It is the second most used species and distributed from it is used as a substitute for the poisonous aconite. Nepal to Arunachal Pradesh. It is not recorded botani- cally from the Western Himalayas, i.e. Jammu & 10. Aconitum violaceum Jacqu. ex Stapf, syn. A. Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal (U.P. napellus var. multifidum (Royle) Hk. f. & Thoms. Himalayas) (STEWART 1972, RAU 1975, POLUNIN & (trade names: Telia-Vish, Telia Bachnag) is distribu- STAINTON 1984, CHAUDHARY & RAO 1998a, CHAUDHA- ted from Pakistan to Nepal. RY & RAO 1998b) (Table 1). However, a number of 11. Aconitum spicatum (Bruehl) Stapf (trade names: publications show its distribution in the Western Hima- Kalo-Bikh, Bikh, Bachnag, and also Nepal aconite) is layas, which requires botanical reinvestigation of the distributed from Nepal to Bhutan. A. spicatum is herbarium sheets of A. ferox reported from the Western brought to Calcutta (Kolkatta) for mitigation, and then Himalayas and lodged in different herbariums. marketed mostly to the eastern part of the country. Its tuberous roots are 5-8 cm long and conical. They are first sweet in taste and then bitter and with tingling 12. Aconitum bisma (Buch.-Ham.) Rapaics., syn. A. effects. India receives its supply mostly from Nepal. palmatum D.Don (trade names: Bikhma, Kalo Bikhma in Darjeeling; Seto-Bikhma’, Surja Haushi in Nepal) is 6. Aconitum deinorrhizum Stapf, syn. A. ferox var. distributed from Sikkim to Myanmar. It is traded from laciniatum sensu Watt (trade names: Mohra or Mohra Darjeeling (West Bengal), Sikkim and Bhutan. vish, Bashar-mohra, Dudhia or Safed vish). 13. Aconitum laciniatum (Bruehl) Stapf., syn. A. ferox It is distributed right from Jammu and Kashmir to Wall ex Ser. var. laciniatum Bruehl (trade names: Kalo Bhutan. Being one of the most poisonous species A. Bikha in Darjeeling, Soorja Haushi in Nepal) is distri- deinorrhizum is much exploited and marketed. buted from Nepal to Bhutan and Tibet and used as 7. Aconitum falconeri Holmes ex Stapf, syn. A. ferox arrow poison in Nepal and Central Bhutan. Also A. var. atrox Bruehl, syn A. ferox auct. non Wall. ex Ser ferox in Nepal and A. spicatum in Sikkim (BISSET (trade names: Meetha-Telia, Telia-Vish). 1989) are used as arrow poisons. It is endemically distributed in Himachal Pradesh and Mitigation (detoxification) Uttaranchal. A. falconeri is used as substitute of mar- As we know the root tubers of poisonous aconites are keted poisonous aconites. toxic. Therefore, before using them in indigenous 8. Aconitum balfourii Holmes ex Stapf, syn. A. ferox Ayurvedic and Unani medicinal formulations they are var. atrox Bruehl, syn. A. atrox Bruehl Mukerjee. detoxified or mitigated by indigenous pharmacies. The simple process of detoxification mainly consists Presently, it is reported to be distributed from Hima- of soaking the roots in cow’s urine at ordinary tem- chal Pradesh to Western Nepal. It shows that not only perature for three days or prolonged boiling with it the tuberous but also the aerial parts bear the toxic for as long as 48 hours. In this manner, the root loses alkaloids. Therefore, the browsing animals do not its toxic action and is at the same time retaining the graze the plant. In Table 1 the distribution chart beneficial medicinal properties. However, TRIVEDI shows that A. balfourii is only limited from Himachal (1967) reports a number of other mitigation methods.

1 August 2005 11 Trade in aconites in India Gobar means buffalo or cow dung, and Vish means About 70-75 years ago, when Afghanistan, Pakistan, aconite or poison, i.e., ‘the aconite which smells like and Burma (now Myanmar) were united under the dung’ (SHAH 1987). Possibly, the Shaukas knew regime of British India, the aconites were sold under about the toxicity and the medicinal values of the the following main trade names: Atis or Patis and herb. Only the village physicians use the species in Vikh or Vish’ or Vatsanabha. Aconitum heterophyllum ailments and diseases. root tubers were traded under Atis or Patis. A. napel- Apart from A. balfourii other poisonous Aconitum lus (a European aconite imported from Europe) and species (such as Aconitum falconeri, A. laeve, A. vio- A. chasmanthum from Lahore (the older Panjab, now laceum, and A. rotundifolium) have been recorded in Pakistan) and Kashmir (now Jammu and Kashmir) from this region above 3500 m asl. Although used were traded under Vikh, Vish’ or Vatsanabha. A. chas- locally, they are not marketed. manthum is very much alike to A. napellus L., and Conservation aspects of Aconites earlier it was often referred to as A. napellus. Now A. chasmanthum is used as its synonym but with diffe- SHAH (1968) cautioned that in the Indian Himalayas rent authorship (A. napellus auct. non L.). the aconites are being exterminated due to ruthless collection and due to indiscriminate exploitation. The other species used, Aconitum ferox, is also known Later, SHAH & KAPOOR (1978) reported that A. hete- as ‘Indian Aconite’. The tuberous roots of other dead- rophyllum was under depletion in U.P. Himalayas ly poisonous species such as A. deinorrhizum, A. bal- (now Uttaranchal Himalayas), and based on a number fourii, A. spicatum, A. falconeri, etc. are also used in of surveys on medicinal plants in the alpine region of indigenous medicine after mitigation. Uttaranchal done from 1965 to 1983 and from the Actually, the retail traders receive the supply from the information collected from the herb-collectors of the mitigators (detoxifiers), who mitigate or cure the poi- region, SHAH (1983) forcefully pointed out that A. sonous aconites. Retail traders do not receive the sup- heterophyllum and A. balfourii have become endan- ply of poisonous aconites directly from the collectors gered in the region of U.P. Himalayas (Uttaranchal or wholesale traders. At present, the main centres for Himalayas). In the last three decades, A. heterophyl- poisonous aconites are Lahore (Pakistan), Amritsar lum has been mercilessly exploited. Consequence of (Punjab), Kanpur (U.P), Delhi and Kolkatta (West which is that it has become difficult to find a single Bengal). plant in nature in the region where it grew abundant- Aconitum species in Uttaranchal ly. The species has been listed as an endangered taxon in the Kumaon Himalaya (SHAH 1983). In Uttaranchal, the medicinal and economic species used are A. heterophyllum, A. balfourrii, and A. dei- SHAH (1997 and 1998) again repeated that A. hetero- norrhizum (SHAH & JOSHI 1971). phyllum has become a much depleted species in the Indian Himalayas and suggested its systematic culti- Aconitum heterophyllum, a perennial erect herb of vation In those years the market rates were already 30-90 cm, occurs in high elevations in the wet alpine about just ten times higher than reported in 1968. zone. However, in Uttaranchal it has meanwhile as- cended upwards due to certain biotic factors such as The following assessments were made in respect of indiscriminate collection by the local inhabitants and threat and trade information on Aconitum species (CR unrestricted grazing. Earlier, it was common in shady = Critical): Aconitum balfourii (CR), A. deinorrhizum forests up to 2700 m in meadows, but now it has (CR), A. falconeri (CR), A. ferox (CR), A. violaceum become very rare. Its upper limit of occurrence was (CR), and A. heterophyllum (CR) (ANON. 1998). reported to be above 3355 m in Uttaranchal (SHAH & First initiative for conservation: In 1985 a commit- YADAVA 1970). tee of experts coordinated by the author was consti- Aconitum balfourii is an erect, robust, glabrous shrub tuted by the Forest Department of Govt. of U.P. The that becomes more than 1.5 m high. Root tubers are committee recommended the ban of the collection 7-12 cm long and extraordinary heavy. Generally, the and marketing of 34 medicinal species from Uttar- species is found above 2800 m on the fringes of the anchal. Among them, Aconitum heterophyllum, A. alpine meadows under the trees of shaded locations. balfourii, A. deinorrhizum, and A.falconeri were in- Locally, it is known as Bikh, Bish (Kumaoni), Bhang- cluded to be banned from all the Himalayan districts wa, Kidyamoru (Garwali), Shauk-Bish, Gobaria-Vish of Uttaranchal for a period of four years, vide State (Bhotia), or Vachnag Mitha (trade name). Bikh or Govt. Order no. 535/1-9-20 dated Jan 1986. This was Bish is meaning poison. Shauka (a sub tribe of Bho- the first serious step undertaken by any Indian tias) is meaning the poison of Shauka, Gobaria-Vish: government for conservation.

12 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11

poison ‘Atees’ Kashmir Endemic Endemic Remarks Subst. of Subst. ‘Vatsanabha ’ Subst. of ‘Vatsanabha ’ Possible Adult. of Adult. Possible ‘Atees’ Locally used Locally ‘Vatsanabha ’ Adult. of ‘ Atees’/ Endemic Vatsanabha’ of W. Himalayas / ‘Vatsanabha’ East. of the Him. ‘ Common subst. of ‘Vatsanabhaof Common subst. ’ J in used as tonic Roots ammu & Common. subst.of ‘Vatsanabha ’ Subst. of ‘Vatsanabha’and arrow Subst. of Subst. ‘Vatsanabha’ Endemic / Subst. of ‘Vatsanabha’ W. in Him. / 12 Him. E. South Myanmar

11 Him Tibet Tibet. South. 10

Nagaland

(2005). Himalayas 9 Assam & S. & Assam East Pradesh HAH Arunachal

2005).

HAH 8 S

Him. Bhutan Bhutan Bhutan

Eastern Himalayas

7 Him. Sikkim Sikkim Sikkim

6 Darjeeling Dt. (W.B.) Darj. Him. Darj.

species in the Himalayas (N.C. S 5 Nep. Nep. Him. Him. Cent. Nepal

species in the Himalayas the in (N.C. species

Aconitum 4 Him. Aconitum Kumaon Uttranchal

3 Him. Punjab Punjab Pradesh Himachal

2 &

Him. Jammu

Kashmir Kashmir

↔ ↔

Western Himalayas 1 NW NW Pakistan Himalayas

Distribution pattern of common medicinal Distribution pattern of common medicinal medicinal common of pattern Distribution

Species Table 1. chasmanthumA. moschatumA. A. kashmiricum deinorrhizumA. A. falconeri balfouriiA. violaceumA. heterophyllumA. A. laeve A. rotundifolium A. ferox bismaA. spicatumA. laciniatumA. Shankar Saxena by Shiv tabulated Information . Table 1. Table

1 August 2005 13 Experiment for rapid reproduction: An experiment, Himalayas on a commercial scale. When the species is in which the plant was grown at an elevation of 1677 unavailable, it is obvious that the species is adulterat- m asl instead of its normal habitat at 3660 m asl showed. However, presently, there are no methods to prove ed that, comparing the morphological characters of an adulteration of Atees in the complex Ayurvedic and the original plant with the plant regenerated from the Unani formulations, where a number of other herbal same root tuber, the size of the stem, leaves, pedicels, ingredients are also used. The present market rates of nectaries, lower sepals and filaments increased in size, Atees are Rs. 600 to 700 per/kg (1 USD = Rs. 44 while the size of the fruits and seeds decreased appre- approx.). ciably, and the seeds did not germinate when sown. The poisonous aconites are marketed under the trade The development of the root was poor and the flower- names Meetha or Vatsanabha or Vish. Some of the ing was noted one month earlier as usual. This was the poisonous Aconitum species are only sold after mit- first experiment to bring the plant from higher to low- igation as already discussed. The main species, which er elevation and acclimatize it, which, however, failed are traditionally used are A. chasmanthum and A. (SHAH & YADAVA 1970). ferox. When these species were decreasing they were Techniques for rapid reproduction: Rawat et al. first substituted by the species found in NW (1992) have also found a technique for reproduction Himalayas to Central Himalayas (Nepal), such as A. of the species. The raising of the crop from seeds is a moschatum, A. deinorrhizum, A. falconeri, A. balfou- lengthy process which at least requires about 5 years. rii, and then by the species occurring in Central and Growing the crop through tuber segmentation seems Eastern Himalayas such as A. bisma, A. spicatum and to be advantageous not only for eliminating the diffi- A. laciniatum. Actually, the mitigators mainly control culties associated with seed germination and handling the substitution of the species in the market. of seedling survival, but also for reducing the length Therefore, as further conservation measures, additio- of the cultivation, which, however, can also be achiev- nal studies of the distribution of the Aconitum species ed through hormonal treatment. in the Himalayan countries are recommended, and a Establishment of nurseries: Ex-situ cultivation, as it list of the non-poisonous and poisonous species oc- is done at the subalpine garden at Kyangnosla in Sik- curring in that region along with the conservation kim in a model conservation project (PRASAD 2000), strategy should be compiled in case of commercial is recommended as a means of conservation. Earlier, species. the Forest Dept. of U.P. had established a number of References medicinal plant nurseries in the alpine region of Uttaranchal, where A. heterophyllum and A. balfourii ANON. (1978): The Ayurvedic formulary of India. Volume 1. – were grown. The present state of these nurseries is, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi. however, unknown. ANON. (1998): Proceedings of the Biodiversity Conservation Ban on export: Only in the year 1994, the Govt. of Prioritisation Project (BCPP) - Endangered Species Project. – India Ministry of Commerce through their circular Zoos’print XIII (6): 5 & 22-23. Public Notice No. 47 (PN)/92-97 dated 30th March ATTA-UR-RAHMAN, H., M. SAID & V.U. AHMAD (1986): Pakistan 1994, prohibited the export of 56 plant species. First Encyclopaedia Planta Medica. Vol. I & II. – Hamdard Foundation items in the list were Aconitum species and their deri- Press, Karachi. vatives and extracts. The list was further amended BISSET, N.G. (1989). Arrow and dart poisons. – J. Ethnophar- through Notification no. 24 (RE-98)/1997-2002, in macol. 25: 1-41. which 29 plant species were prohibited for export. CHAUDHARY, L.B. & R.R. RAO (1998a): Notes on the genus Aconitum L. (Ranunculaceae) in North-West Himalaya (India). – Aconitum species were included as item no.19 in that Feddes Repertorium 109(7-8): 527-537. list. It was the right step taken but too late as already CHAUDHARY, L.B. & RAO, R.R. (1998b). Some highly threatened the banned species were being exported under faulty taxa of Aconitum L. (Ranunculaceae) in Indian Himalaya. Stra- export policies (SHAH 1997). tegies for conservation. – J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 22(3): 631-634. Discussion CHOPRA, R.N., S.I. NAYAR & I.C. CHOPRA (1956): Glossary of Indian medicinal plants. – CSIR, New Delhi. The non-poisonous roots of Atees mainly consist of A. DEY, A.C. (1980): Indian medicinal plants used in Ayurvedic pre- heterophyllum. It is estimated that the present demand parations. – pp. 202, Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh. Dehra of Atees in India is more than 30 tonnes p. a. to manu- Dun. facture the Ayurvedic and Unani medicines. In nature, HENRY & SHARP (1928) The alkaloids of some Indian Aconites the species is not sufficiently available to meet the (A. balfourii, A. deinorrhizum and Chumbi Aconite). – J. Chemic- demand of the manufacturers, and the species has not al Soc. part. I: 1105-1121. yet been brought under cultivation anywhere in the

14 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 KUMAR, S., J. SINGH, N.C. SHAH & V. RANJAN (1997): Indian Promoting the cultivation of medicinal Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Facing Genetic Erosion. – Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow. plants in Uttaranchal, India MEHRA, P.N. & H.S. PURI (1968): Pharmacognostical Investi- Ghayur Alam & Petra van de Kop gations on Radix Aconite Heterophyllum (Ativisa) and its adul- terants. – Res. Bull. Panjab Univ. 19, Parts III-IV, pp. 439-449. Introduction PRASAD, P. (2000): Impact of cultivation on active constituents of The Indian state of Uttaranchal, located in the Hima- the medicinal plants Podophyllum hexandrum and Aconitum layan region, is richly endowed with a large variety of heterophyllum in Sikkim. – Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter 124: 33-35. plant species, many of which have medicinal properties. Medicinal plants play an important role in the POLUNIN, O. & A. STAINTON (1984): Flowers of the Himalaya. – 580 pp., Oxford University Press, Delhi. lives of people in Uttaranchal. Besides providing basic health care, the plants generate income and em- RAU, M.A. (1975): High Altitude Flowering Plants of West Hi- malaya. – 234 pp., Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. ployment and also have implications for the preservation of biodiversity and traditional knowledge. RAU, M.A. (1981-82). An Annotated List of the Indian Ranun- culaceae. – Journal of the Mysore University, Section 28: 42-80. With the decline in farm incomes, the importance of the medicinal plant sector as a source of employment RAWAT, A.S., A.S. PHARSWAN & M.C. NAUTIYAL (1992): Propaga- tion of Aconitum atrox (Bruhl) Muk. (Ranunculaceae), a regional- has increased significantly in the mountain areas. The ly threatened medicinal herb. – Economic Botany. 46(3): 337-338. sector can provide an important source of income to

SHAH, N.C. (1968): The Alpine Medicinal Herbs. – Indian Drugs the rural population (ALAM 2003). Furthermore, they 6(1): 13-16. are an important source of material for the Indian and SHAH, N.C. (1983): Endangered medicinal and aromatic plants of global pharmaceutical industries. U.P. Himalaya. – In: JAIN, S.K. & RAO, R.R. (ed.): An assessment of threatened plants of India. Proceedings of the seminar held at Need for the conservation of medicinal plants Dehra Dun, 14-17 September, 1981. pp. 40-49, Botanical Survey An increased market demand, most of which is met of India, Howrah. through collection from the wild, threatens numerous SHAH, N.C. (1987): Ethnobotany in the Mountainous Region of medicinal plant species in Uttaranchal with extinc- Kumaon Himalaya. Thesis submitted to the Kumaon University, Nainital for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Botany. – pp. tion. This poses a serious threat to bio-resources and 1-255. can have a particularly negative impact on the in-

SHAH, N.C. (1997): Faulty Export Policy of Herbs and Crude comes of the poorest sections of rural societies. Drugs in India. – Medicinal Plant Conservation 4: 4-5. The Uttaranchal government has a policy to promote SHAH, N.C. (1998): The Status of Medicinal plants in the Indian the conservation of medicinal plants. In spite of this, Himalayas. Workshop on “Himalayan Medicinal Plants” held at excessive and illegal collection of medicinal plants con- G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Katarmal, Kosi (Almora). tinues to take place on a large scale. This includes the collection of species considered endangered, whose SHAH, N.C. & M.C. JOSHI (1971): An Ethnobotanical Study of the Kumaon Region of India. – Economic Botany 25(4): 414-422. collection is legally prohibited. The contractors who organise legal collection are often involved in illegal SHAH, N.C. & B.B.L. YADAVA (1970): Behaviour of Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. (Ativisha) at low altitude. – Journal of Re- collection as well. As they have connections with both search in Indian Medicine 5(1): 119-124. official agencies and large traders, it is easy for them to

SHAH, N.C. & L.D. KAPOOR (1978): Depletive Medicinal Plants undertake illegal activities alongside legal trade. of Kumaon Himalayas. – Journal of Research in Indian Medicine, Large-scale collection has led to the depletion of Yoga & Homoeopathy 13(3): 38-43. important species in the area. This is reflected in a SHARMA, B.M., P. SINGH & C.K. ATAL (1969): Pharmacognosy of significant decrease in the amount of material a per- root of Chaerophyllum villosum Wall: An adulterant of Aconitum heterophyllum Wall (Atis). – Journal of Research in Indian Medi- son can collect in a day. For example, in Johar valley cine 4(1): 68-72. in the State Uttaranchal, collectors reported that until

STAPF, O. (1905): The Aconites of India: A monograph. – Ann. five years ago, they were able to collect about 200 Royal Bot. Garden, Calcutta 10(2): 116-181. grams of dry Atish (Aconitum heterophyllum) in one

STEWART, R.R. (1972): Annotated catalogue of the vascular plants day. Now they do not get more than 70 to 100 grams of West Pakistan and Kashmir. – Fakhri Printing Press, Karachi. a day (BELT et al. 2003, ALAM & BELT 2004). TRIVEDI, K.P. (ed.) (1967): Vachnag (Kala) (Aconitum ferox). – There are a number of reasons for the excessive col- Dhanwantri IV: 411-412. Dhanwantri Karyalaya Vijaygarh (Ali- lection. Firstly, both collectors and contractors are garh). In Hindi. primarily interested in higher incomes in the short run Niranjan Chandra Shah • MS-78; Sector ‘D’ • Aliganj, and have little concern for sustainability. As the con- Lucknow – 226 024 U.P. • India • Tel. ++91/522/2326489 tracts are given for only one year, the contractors are • E-mail: [email protected]. primarily interested in maximizing the volume of col-

1 August 2005 15 lection, irrespective of long-term effect. Secondly, the a permit for the cultivation of restricted species. In collectors are paid according to volume. Their main many areas farmers report that they face serious dif- interest is to harvest as much as they can in the limit- ficulties in obtaining these permits. ed time available to them, irrespective of the conse- 2. Economic factors quences. Thirdly, many collectors do not have the traditional knowledge necessary for sustainable collec- a) High risk. There is general feeling among farmers tion and have no ownership over the resources that that the cultivation of medicinal plants is a high risk they exploit. They use collection methods, which are activity. For this reason they are reluctant to convert often detrimental to any long-term availability of large parts of their land to medicinal plants. The ten- resources (BELT et al. 2003, ALAM & BELT 2004). dency is either to convert a small area or use fallow land. The size of plots on which medicinal plants are Cultivation as a means to conserve biodiversity cultivated ranges between 2-4 nalis1. The majority of and diversify farmer’s incomes farmers in Uttaranchal have small land-holdings, so Motivated by the dual needs to conserve biodiversity this problem is serious. and increase farmers’ incomes through agricultural b) Long growing period. Many medicinal plants diversification in 2002, the Government of Uttar- can be harvested only after three years or more. This anchal formulated a policy to regulate the collection is particularly true of the plants grown in the high of medicinal plants from the wild and promote their altitude areas. As most farmers are poor, they can not cultivation (GOU 2002). wait this long for returns. As part of the conservation policy, the state Forest c) Low yields. As the cultivation of medicinal plants Department is responsible for the regulation of col- is a comparatively new activity, the yields are low. lection from the wild. The Department permits the Therefore as long as large-scale collection continues collection of only those species which are not consi- and improved cultivation technologies are not de- dered endangered. In order to prevent illegal and ex- veloped and transferred to farmers, the latter are reluc- cessive collection the Forest Department is required tant to undertake the cultivation of medicinal plants. to monitor collection activities. 3. Lack of technological support The policies to promote the cultivation of medicinal plants are being fostered through various government As they require specific soil, climate, moisture condi- departments, such as the Horticulture Department, For- tions, and interaction with other species, medicinal est Department, Department of Rural Development, plants are difficult to cultivate. This particularly ap- and research institutes. The measures to promote culti- plies to plants grown in high altitude areas. The far- vation include: mers face serious difficulties that they have no expe- rience in solving, and there is a clear need for the a) activities to familiarize farmers with the potential development of technologies related to cultivation, of medicinal plants as cash crops; harvesting, storage, transportation and quality con- b) the training of farmers; trol. Although many research institutes in Uttaranchal c) the development and diffusion of cultivation and are doing research on medicinal plants, their work has other technologies; contributed little to rural livelihoods. This is for a number of reasons, including: a) sub-optimal use of d) setting up nurseries and other facilities to propa- resources; b) weak linkages between institutes and gate and deliver planting material to farmers; farmers and a lack of resources to effect any large e) loans and subsidies linked to the cultivation of scale diffusion of technologies to farmers. c) weak medicinal plants. linkages between research institutes and the user Our research shows that in the past these policies industry; d) a shortage of good quality planting mate- have failed to promote the cultivation of medicinal rial, and finally e) the focus of research activities is plants on a large scale. A number of reasons are found on developing cultivation technologies for endange- to be responsible for this. Some of these are discussed red species. This should be re-examined to include in the following paragraphs. species with greater economic relevance for a large number of farmers. 1. Regulatory policies The state government has introduced a number of 4. Low prices and other market related problems regulatory policies to ensure that material collected Our studies found that the marketing of medicinal from the wild is not sold as cultivated material. The most important of these policies is the need to receive 1 One nali is about 250 square meters.

16 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 plants is one of the central problems faced by far- Need for interventions mers. They are completely dependent on local traders It is important that these obstacles to the cultivation of for the marketing of their products. Even the whole- medicinal plants are removed through appropriate sale markets are controlled by a handful of traders: interventions. The important objectives of these inter- none of these centres has more than 6-7 traders, and ventions are to provide the farmers with technical and this provides them with considerable opportunity for marketing support so that the risk of cultivating these price fixing (VIRDI 2004). species is reduced and farmers’ income is increased. Furthermore, the traders exercise strong control over This paper describes one example of such intervention collectors as the latter depend on them for loans. This in Uttaranchal. It deals with the cultivation of Kutki practice, which is widespread, keeps the collectors (Picrorhiza kurrooa) by farmers in Uttaranchal for ex- tied to local contractors, and limits access to markets port to a European firm based in The Netherlands. The in bigger cities. Also, as they have only small amounts initiative has been possible due to close collaboration to sell, they do not have the option of selling directly between a number of public and private sector actors. to wholesalers. Currently, this situation limits the mar- Initiative to promote the cultivation of Kutki for keting options available to collectors and will also the export market limit the options available to the farmers who undertake the cultivation of medicinal plants. Kutki (Picrorhiza kurrooa) is a high altitude perennial herb that grows between 2,500 and 4,600 metres. Many farmers feel that the prevailing prices of most Its cultivation does not require good land, and it can medicinal plants would not compensate for the diffi- be grown on poor quality land where other crops, culties and uncertainties involved in their cultivation. such as vegetables, cannot be grown. The roots of The prices are low for two important reasons. Firstly, Kutki are used for the treatment of influenza and diar- the low cost of collection (both legal and illegal) puts rhoea. Its active ingredients are also cited to protect a downward pressure on the price, making cultivation the liver against jaundice and the negative effects of unattractive. Secondly, the producers have compara- alcohol. The dried plant parts are used for the treat- tively low bargaining power. Although the costs of ment of fevers and cholera. It is a laxative in small collection are increasing (because of longer distan- doses. It is also considered to be a valuable bitter ces, lower yields and more competition), they conti- tonic. Kutki can also be used for liquor production, nue to be lower than cultivation. since it contains many bitters. Direct selling to industry by groups of farmers is sometimes suggested as one way of reducing the con- The choice of Kutki was made for a number of rea- trol of contractors and traders. However, as the tra- sons. Firstly, there is a large global demand for Kutki, ders play a crucial role in the smooth functioning of both from the users of traditional medicine and pro- the supply chain, it is unlikely that direct selling to ducers of allopathic drugs. Although poor quality industry could become a practical option. substitutes are available from China, India is the main source of Kutki for the global market: it exports about Buy-back arrangements between farmers and large 100 tonnes/year. Secondly, and more importantly, user companies are also suggested as an effective Kutki is listed on Appendix II of CITES (CITES way of increasing farmers’ earnings and reducing 2005) as well as Vulnerable on the Red List of en- their risk. However, our study of the supply chain dangered species in India (ANON. 1987). Additional- suggests that the current system of purchase is ideal- ly, there is a trade ban in India on Kutki collected ly suited to meeting the industry’s requirements. They from the wild. It is expected that, with a view on this are unlikely to change this in favour of direct purcha- trade ban, cultivated Kutki would fetch a large pre- se from farmers. mium in the European market. It is largely this factor It is, however, possible to find buyers in the global which has attracted a Dutch firm. market for species listed by CITES, as the requirement of traceability is becoming increasingly impor- The initiative consists of Indian farmers, the Dutch tant in the international market. At the moment, it is buyer IHC/VanderStelt, Centre for Sustainable De- very difficult to trace the origin of any material from velopment, Himalayan Organics and KIT (Koninklijk India as there is little transparency and documenta- Instituut voor de Tropen), The Netherlands. It is ex- tion. Contract farming and buy-back arrangements pected that about 70 farmers in Uttaranchal will cul- provide the only practical alternatives to exporters tivate Kutki and other medicinal plants for the Euro- whose customers require traceability. pean market. The Dutch firm has given an under- taking to purchase all the production at a price considerably higher than the prevailing market price in

1 August 2005 17 India. The Dutch company already imports Ayurveda these species. The large availability of collected mate- herbs from India and distributes them in the Nether- rial ensures that the prices of most medicinal plant lands and Germany as health products (capsules and species are low. This makes their cultivation unprofit- tablets) to pharmacies, chemists, health shops and able. The situation in the western markets, however, is therapists. It is interested in broadening its supply different. As their regulations are more strictly enforc- base from the South of India to the North where gro- ed, cultivated material with traceability will find a wing conditions for many high altitude medicinal higher price in these markets. Our initiative to promote plant species are favourable. The company is particu- the cultivation of Kutki for European markets is pri- larly interested in procuring cultivated medicinal marily based on this premise. Realising that it can plants listed by CITES as endangered. receive a considerable premium in the European market, the Dutch company has agreed to pay a price at The following are the salient features of the initiative: which the cultivation of Kutki is more profitable than • About 70 farmers will cultivate Kutki and other the crops currently being cultivated by farmers. The medicinal plants listed in CITES. The farmers will project will ensure that while the European user indus- be organised into a growers’ association. try receives legally cultivated material, the farmers in • IHC/VanderStelt will purchase the production at a India receive fair prices for their product. pre-fixed price. The price will be considerably References higher than the prevailing price in India. The com- ALAM, G. (2003): IPRs, Access to Seed and Related Issues: A pany will also pay 20% of the purchase value into study of the Central and North-Eastern Himalayan Region. a social fund. The fund will be used to support Prepared for Consumer Unity Trust Society (CUTS). – pp. 6, socially beneficial projects in the community. Centre For Sustainable Development, Dehradun (Briefing paper No. 6). Also available at: www.cuts-international.org/Brf-frm-06- • KIT (Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen), The 2003.pdf (viewed 29.7.2005).

Netherlands, will support the project for the first ALAM, G. & J. BELT (eds.) (2004): Searching Synergy: stakehol- three years. It is hoped that the project will be- der views on developing a sustainable medicinal plant chain in come self-supporting after three years. Uttaranchal, India. – pp. 102, KIT Publishers, Amsterdam (KIT Bulletin 359). Also available at: www.kit.nl/net/KIT_Publicaties • The Centre for Sustainable Development and Hi- _output/publication_details.aspx?ItemID=1371 (viewed malayan Organics will facilitate technical and mar- 29.7.2005).

keting support to farmers. ANON. (1987): Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth. – In: NAYAR, Although the project is initially focused on the culti- M.P. & SASTRY, A.R.K. (ed.) (1987): Red data book of Indian plants 1-3. pp. 350-351, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. vation of Kutki, its scope will be expanded to include other species. The main objectives of the project will BELT, J., A. LENGKEEK & J. VAN DER ZANT (2003): Cultivating a Healthy Enterprise: developing a sustainable medicinal plant remain to promote the conservation of endangered chain in Uttaranchal, India. – pp. 56, KIT Publishers, Amsterdam medicinal plants and provide new income opportuni- (KIT Bulletin 350). ty to farmers in Uttaranchal. Furthermore, the lessons CITES (2005): www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html (vie- of the project will be used to initiate similar interven- wed 28.7.2005) tions in other parts of the Himalayas. GOU (2002): Marketing of Medicinal Plants. Status and Action Plan. – Government of Uttaranchal, Horticulture and Rural Summary Development Department, Dehradun.

Uttaranchal, a newly formed state in the Indian Hima- INDIA (2000): Report of the Task Force on Conservation and layas, is richly endowed with a number of valuable Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants. Planning Commission, New medicinal plant species. Although the collection of Delhi. these species is monitored and controlled by the VIRDI M. (2004): Wild plants as resource: New opportunities or Forest Department, many are being over-harvested. last resort? Some dimensions of the collection, cultivation and trade of medicinal plants in the Gori basin. – In: ALAM, G. & J. As a result, they face serious threat of extinction. BELT (eds.) (2004): Searching Synergy: stakeholder views on Concerned by the threat faced by these species, the developing a sustainable medicinal plant chain in Uttaranchal, state government has formulated a policy which is India. pp. 41-54, KIT Publishers, Amsterdam (KIT Bulletin 359). based on a) strict control of collection from the wild Ghayur Alam • Centre for Sustainable Development (CSD) • and b) promotion of cultivation. Unfortunately, these 186/4 Rajpur Road • Dehradun • Uttaranchal 248009 • policies have not been very effective and a number of India • Tel. ++91/135/3091968 • E-mail: [email protected]. valuable species continue to face serious threat. Petra van de Kop • KIT, Royal Tropical Institute • Research by the present authors and others suggest that Mauritskade 63 • P.O. Box 95001 • 1090 HA • Amsterdam lack of reliable and profitable markets, and technical • The Netherlands • Tel. ++31/20/5688711 • E-mail: p.v.d. difficulties are main reasons for farmers not cultivating [email protected].

18 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 Editor’s note: Kutki – a difficult case for CITES Picrorhiza kurrooa This Himalayan perennial shrub was included in CITES Appendix II in September 1997, annotated to include whole and sliced roots and parts of roots (annotation #3). It has been included by the Plants Committee in the Review of Significant Trade, having been considered at Plants Committee 10 (Shepherdstown, December 2000). At that time it was noted that the majority of international trade in Picrorhiza spp. involved exports of rhizomes from Nepal to India, and, to a lesser extent, from Nepal to China, for use in traditional medicine. Experts contend- ed that the species in trade from Nepal and also occurring in China was not Picrorhiza kurrooa (Royle), but rather Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennel) Hong (=Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennel), however some considered N. scrophulariiflora as a synonym of P. kurrooa. The CITES Nomenclature Committee supported the view that Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora was a separate species, and recommended that a notation to this effect be included in the CITES Appendices. They also recommended that the effectiveness of the listing of P. kurrooa be reviewed further given that the material in trade (rhizomes) of both species was referred to as ‘kutki’, with no diffe- rentiation as to the species involved (see document PC11 Doc. 14.2). A recent review of the taxonomy and distribution of Picrorhiza indicates that the range of Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora extends both westwards and eastwards into India, the two species having overlapping ranges in Uttaran- chal, and only N. scrophulariiflora being found in Sikkim (PC 15 Doc. 10.2.2). The range of Picrorhiza kurrooa appears to extend into China, which is similarly therefore a range state for both species. Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora appears to be the only species found in Nepal, however. References

ANON. (2001): Issues referred to the Nomenclature Committee. Plants Committee Document PC11 Doc. 14.2. – Available at www.cites. org/eng/com/PC/11/E-PC11-14-02.doc (viewed 15.8.2005).

ANON. (2005): Review of Significant Trade in specimens of Appendix-II species. Selection of species for trade reviews after CoP13. Seven Asian medicinal species. Plants Committee Document PC15 Doc. 10.2.2. – Available at www.cites.org/eng/com/PC/15/E-PC15-10-02- 02.pdf (viewed 11.8.2005).

MULLIKEN, T. A. (2000): Implementing CITES for Himalayan Medicinal Plants Nardostachys grandiflora and Picrorhiza kurrooa. – In: TRAFFIC Bulletin 18, 63-72.

SMIT, H.F. (2000): Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora, from traditional use to immunomodulatory activity. PhD Thesis. – 174 p., Utrecht. Available at: www.ub.rug.nl/indianmedicine/archives/pdf/0001smit.pdf (viewed 18.8.2005).

Concern about the potential impact of levels of trade Taxon File on wild populations of East African Aloe spp. led to a CITES Significant Trade Review study being carried out in 2003. This article is based on the results of the Trade in East African Aloes study. The study involved analysis of the CITES trade Sara Oldfield data and trade data from other sources, Internet and There are approximately 360 species and subspecies literature survey and correspondence with CITES in the succulent plant genus Aloe, distributed in Afri- Authorities in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mo- ca, the Arabian Peninsula and certain islands of the zambique, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda, to- Indian Ocean. In the nine countries of East Africa, as gether with other experts. Information was compiled covered by this article there are nearly 200 taxa on the conservation status, uses and trade in Aloe species within these countries as a basis for determining (EGGLI et al. 2001) many of which are naturally rare and confined to specific habitats. The sap of certain appropriate conservation action. Aloes has medicinal or cosmetic applications and has Conservation and utilisation been traded internationally for millennia. Aloe vera, In East Africa most species of Aloe are used informal- the wild origin of which is uncertain, is cultivated as ly and on a small scale for their medicinal properties a commercial crop in many countries for extensive (HAFASHIMANA, in litt. 2003). It does not appear from use in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. current information that such use poses a threat to Several South African species are also important in wild species but information on the status and trends international trade from cultivated and wild harvested of Aloe spp. is very limited. The global conservation sources. All species of Aloe, with the exception of A. status of 59 East African taxa is recorded in the 1997 vera, are included in the Appendices of CITES. IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (WALTER &

1 August 2005 19 GILLETT 1998) out of a total of 158 globally threate- to verify the extant populations of the selected species ned Aloe taxa. Few evaluations have been made using and their conservation status, to document threats, col- the “new” post 1994 IUCN Red List categories and lect stocks for ex-situ conservation purposes and col- criteria. Many additional species of East African Aloe lect herbarium specimens for further research. It was have limited distributions and are likely to qualify for also intended to inventory protected areas and support the IUCN Red List categories according to Criterion B enforcement of CITES. More recently research on which is based on geographic range. Such restricted Aloe resources in Kenya has been undertaken by the range species include, for example, Aloe amicorum, A. Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) with a spe- kulalensis and A. multicolor which are known only cific focus on utilization and the scope for commercia- from Mount Kulal Biosphere Reserve, in the Northern lization (MUKONYI et al. 2001). This research has noted Frontier Province, Kenya. that A. turkanensis and A. scabrifolia, both of which Kenya has the greatest Aloe diversity amongst East are cut for extracts, are threatened. A. scabrifolia African countries. As recorded by EGGLI et al. (2001) occurs in the (Samburu) Meru District of the Northern there are 57 species and subspecies within the coun- Frontier Province and A. turkanensis is found in try. Information on the distribution of Aloes, their sta- Baringo District of the Northern Frontier Province as tus and threats is relatively well-known for Kenya. well as in the Karamoja District of Uganda. The 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants In the Laikipia, Samburu, and Baringo districts, Ke- records 22 species of Aloe as being rare or threatened nya, it has been reported that Aloe harvesters will cut in the country. Additional threatened plant species any species that yield a decent amount of sap. For- were identified by the Plant Conservation Project of tunately certain uncommon species such as A. tuge- the East African Herbarium (see below). The 2004 nensis yield very little sap for their size, and so are IUCN Red List includes one species, Aloe ballyi, a not cut by the local harvesters on the north and east rare tree Aloe which, in Kenya, is confined to dense sides of Lake Baringo. There is concern that several bush near Mwatate in the Taita Hills. The other spe- narrow endemic Aloe species in northern Kenya and cies have not yet been evaluated using the post 1994 Ethiopia could be easily extirpated by Aloe cutters IUCN Red List categories and criteria. (KING, in litt. 2003).

Table 1. Indigenous, endemic and threatened Aloe taxa in East African countries. Ethiopia has twenty endemic Sources of information: ANON, 2003; EGGLI et al. 2001; WALTER & GILLETT species of Aloe. The 1997 IUCN 1998; DEMISSEW, in litt. 2003. Red List of Threatened Plants Number of records 11 species of Aloe as being rare or threatened in Country Aloe taxa endemic taxa recorded as species threatened by Aloe taxa threatended international trade Ethiopia. More recent assessments have been undertaken Djibouti 2 0 1 0 during the preparation of a Red Eritrea 8 2 2 0 List of vascular plants of Ethiopia 39 20 17 0 Ethiopia compiled by Sebsebe Kenya 57 23 26 2 Demissew, Ensermu Kelbessa and Jose Luis Vivero (DEMIS- Mozambique 29 5 2 0 SEW, in litt. 2003). There is ge- Somalia 32 25 13 0 nerally no specific threat from Sudan 12 4 0 0 harvesting for Aloe species in Tanzania 41 18 11 0 Ethiopia except for Aloe pul- Uganda 16 2 4 0 cherrima which is used medicinally by herbalists in central The Plant Conservation Project of the East African parts of the country (mainly Shewa and Gojam). Herbarium initiated a conservation project in 1996 to Habitat destruction is the main threat to Critically conserve a range of Kenyan succulent species inclu- Endangered species. Although Aloes can survive in ding Aloe archeri, A. ballyi, A. juvenna, A. massawa- inhospitable conditions, now even marginal lands are na, A. microdonta, A. parvidens, A. tugenensis and A. being cleared in some areas (DEMISSEW, in litt. 2003). wrefordii. These eight Aloe spp. are considered to be In Tanzania, Aloe spp. are widely used in rural areas succulents of highest conservation concern within the to treat a variety of ailments. Interviews with the country. Threats to them include habitat destruction, Association of Traditional Doctors in Moshi and the grazing and direct exploitation which may be for me- Lembeni Traditional Healers Association in Lembeni, dicinal use. The project aimed to carry out field studies indicated that traditional healers differentiate be-

20 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 tween various Aloe species. The urban traditional her- reported that in at least one area were the law was balists generally do not harvest their own medicinal observed this unfortunately led to more harm than if plants, but contract harvesters to collect the required the law was ignored. Rather than defoliating plants in species from the wild. Some traditional healers have natural populations and allowing recovery, plants of noted a decline in Aloe populations used medicinally A. secundiflora were dug up and unsuccessfully re- (SACHEDINA 1998). The 1997 IUCN Red List of planted in “plantations”. At present Kenya is amend- Threatened Plants records 13 species of Aloe as being ing the Wildlife Act and this will address the impacts rare or threatened in Tanzania. The 2002 IUCN Red of Aloe harvesting (KAHUMBU, in litt. 2003). List includes one species, Aloe ballyi, which occurs in The protection of wild plants and implementation of the South Pare Mts., Manyara escarpment, Ngubora CITES in Kenya are covered by the Wildlife Man- River and Lake Eyassi. agement and Coordination Act, 1989 with responsi- Regulation of wild harvesting and trade bility vested in the Kenya Wildlife Service. There are however no legal provisions relating to wild plants At present there appears to be little if any regulation and there is nor specific legislation relating to of harvesting of wild Aloe spp. in East Africa or con- harvesting or trade in Aloe products (NAREDA trols on trade. HAFASHIMANA (in litt. 2003), notes, for 2003). International trade in Aloe extracts takes place example, that in Uganda there has been increasing in an unregulated manner although the Kenya interest in Aloe products recently. “However, it seems Wildlife Service is working with the Plant Health most of it goes on in form of semi-processed products Inspectorate KEPHIS to control exports (KAHUMBU, which may be smuggled out of the country without in litt. 2003). MARSHALL (1998) reports that exporters being declared to the Law enforcement agents and of gums and resins illegally include Aloe extract in due to the small size of the semi-processed products, shipments leaving Kenya and that exports are some- they are easily concealable.” times labeled as “gum Aloes” to facilitate export ap- In Kenya, President Moi declared Aloes to be protect- proval. NAREDA (2003) also reports that Aloe pro- ed species in November 1986 and decreed that Aloes ducts are probably traded under disguised brands and could be harvested only from plantations. The presi- names such as vegetable products, natural gums and dential decree was not however translated into a legal essential oil extracts and concentrates. instrument and was largely ignored. NEWTON (1994)

Table 2. CITES recorded trade data for East African Aloe spp. Source: UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database. Species Product Quantity Year Country of export Country of import Aloe spp. leaves 30 g 1995 Kenya USA specimens 30 g 1998 Kenya USA live plant 1 1996 Mozambique Portugal live plant 4 1992 Tanzania USA Aloe confusa live plant 4 2000 Kenya Saudi Arabia Aloe dewetii live plant 4 2000 Kenya Saudi Arabia Aloe ellenbeckii derivatives 70,000 kg 1999 Kenya China extract 40,000 kg 2000 Kenya China extract 66,875 kg 2001 Kenya China live plant 4 2000 Kenya Saudi Arabia Aloe elgonica live plant 4 2000 Kenya Saudi Arabia Aloe kulalensis live plant 4 2000 Kenya Saudi Arabia Aloe labworana live plant 4 2000 Kenya Saudi Arabia Aloe lateritia seed 500 g 2000 Kenya Norway Aloe macrosiphon live plant 4 2000 Kenya Saudi Arabia Aloe penduliflora live plant 4 2000 Kenya Saudi Arabia Aloe schweinfurthii live plant 4 2000 Kenya Saudi Arabia Aloe secundiflora live plant 4 2000 Kenya Saudi Arabia

1 August 2005 21 International trade Four registered companies are known to be involved In comparison with overall international levels of in the Kenyan export trade and have close links with trade in Aloe extracts, the CITES reported informa- partners in the importing companies. The exporters tion on quantities exported by East African countries generally trade in a variety of goods including speci- is very small. It is, however, apparent that there is a alized wood products, gums, resins, essential oil significant trade both between countries within the extracts, and vegetable products (NAREDA 2003). region and for the wider market which is currently It is likely, but currently not possible to quantify, that unrecorded in CITES trade statistics. there is a significant unrecorded international trade in Table 2 shows the information on East African Aloe Aloe extracts both between other countries in East spp. in trade as recorded in CITES trade statistics. As Africa, with other neighbouring countries and to can be seen from this table only Aloe ellenbeckii is destinations in Europe and elsewhere. As an example recorded in trade in significant quantities in the trade of regional trade, although in Ethiopia commercial statistics. This information is recorded by China. exploitation of Aloe spp. is not currently thought to ARSHALL According to NEWTON (in litt. 2003) the information take place, according to M (1998) some Aloe on Aloe ellenbeckii being exported as extracts and species (known locally as Siber and Eret) are import- derivatives is surprising, since this species does not ed to Ethiopia from Eritrea, Somalia and various produce the coloured exudate containing medicinally Middle Eastern countries. Aloe products on sale in active ingredients. Also, it is quite a small plant Addis Ababa are sold in the form of hardened black which is hardly suitable for harvesting quantities of extract which apparently escape the attention of exudate. It is likely that this is a case of wrong iden- Customs officers because of the difficulty of identifi- tification. LUKE (in litt. 2003) points out that the num- cation. According to NAREDA (2003) the Aloe trade ber of plants needed to produce 1 kg of concentrated was established within Somalia before the enterprise extract should not be underestimated and given the spread to Kenya. possibility of misidentification represents a signifi- Table 3. Estimated volumes of Aloe products shipped by cant threat to narrowly endemic species. sea from Mombasa, Kenya 1995 - 1999. Source: NARE- Although not recorded in CITES trade statistics it is DA (2003). apparent that a significant export trade in Aloe Year Estimated Quantity (kg) Destination extracts does take place from Kenya. Estimated quan- 1995 4,950 Italy tities in trade have recently been compiled by NARE- 12,500 Singapore DA (2003) and are summarized in Table 3. 13,500 Thailand The main species that are wild-harvested for exu- 1996 28,110 Pakistan dates, in Kenya, are A. secundiflora, A. turkanensis and A. scabrifolia (NEWTON 1994; NEWTON, in litt. 18,420 Singapore 2003; KING, in litt. 2003). Phytochemical analyses 34,500 Thailand have shown that the first two of these species have 1997 4,230 France high concentrations of aloein and other compounds of 8,010 Italy interest to the buyers. A. ngongensis plants are also 1,620 Turkey harvested for the exudate. (NEWTON, in litt. 2003). 3,600 Pakistan The main source of commercial Aloe extracts in Kenya is the Baringo District, where A. secundiflora 1998 No records and A. turkanensis are harvested. Other areas of com- 1999 5,313 Pakistan mercial exploitation are Taita, Laikipia and Samburu. 9,240 UAE (Dubai) A. scabrifolia is harvested from the latter District along with A. secundiflora. The trade is mainly orga- Development of propagation nized by Somalis who have, in some areas, trained The largely unreported trade in extracts of wild Aloe local communities in Aloe processing techniques. plants from Kenya is a cause for conservation con- Liquid extracts are collected from communities, cern. Destructive harvesting is apparently occurring checked to determine the quality, heated to produce because sap buyers offer rural pastoralists cash for solidified resin and transported to Nairobi prior to sap (KING, in litt. 2003). There is, however, potential export (MUKONYI et al. 2001). The harvesting, pro- to develop a sustainable trade through better controls cessing and export chain for Aloe extracts is elabora- on wild plant harvesting or through propagation sche- ted in detail by NAREDA (2003). mes. As Aloes are easy to transplant, and can survive

22 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 without watering after transplanting in arid and semi- species of particular concern because of exploitation arid regions they have considerable potential as dry- for international trade are A. turkanensis and A. sca- land crop. They have the additional advantage of brifolia. Other species may be under threat in Kenya maintaining and enhancing the integrity of vegetation because of indiscriminate collection. in semi-arid rangelands (KING, in litt. 2003). Following discussion at the Fourteenth meeting of the Cultivation in East Africa is primarily on a small CITES Plants Committee in 2004, formal CITES scale for ornamental purposes. In Ethiopia, people in recommendations have been made that the CITES central areas have started cultivating the medicinal Management Authority of Kenya investigate the species Aloe pulcherrima in their gardens, due to the apparent high levels of illegal trade in Aloe extracts; scarcity of the species in its natural habitats establish a programme that allows the Scientific (DEMISSEW, in litt. 2003). Small scale propagation Authority to monitor harvesting and the effects on and cultivation schemes for medicinal Aloes have wild populations, determining non-detrimental export also recently been established in Kenya including A. levels; and develop new legislation to regulate the secundiflora, A. turkanensis and A. vera, recently exports of Aloe extracts. With regard to other coun- imported from Arabia and USA (MUKONYI et al. tries in the region, the CITES Secretariat will remind 2001). With regard to the currently exploited East range states of the potential risks to species, especial- African species with medicinal properties, the poten- ly narrow endemics, of the developing Aloe extract tial for propagating Aloe secundiflora (and A. turkan- industry, noting that if well regulated this could pro- ensis) for sap production is considered to be excel- vide benefits to rural communities in semi-arid areas. lent. Both species can be grown from seed and can be There is also an urgent need to update the conserva- propagated vegetatively as well. A. turkanensis is a tion assessments for East African Aloe spp. using the freely branching species, and small side rosettes can latest version of the IUCN Red List categories and be broken off and planted. A. secundiflora usually criteria. Assessing the status and collecting suppor- only has one rosette, but adults tend to start producing ting information, for example on the uses and nature suckers if they have been disturbed for example by of the threats would be very valuable in planning con- trampling (KING, in litt. 2003). servation action for the species. The Kenya Wildlife Service promotes the propaga- Acknowledgements tion and cultivation of Aloe spp., and is intending to develop guidelines for sustainable Aloe propagation The CITES Significant Trade Review of East African and processing. It is planned to introduce a certifica- Aloes was undertaken by FFI on behalf of the CITES tion scheme for trade in Aloe products that are Secretariat. The assistance of all the experts who con- sustainably produced (KAHUMBU, in litt. 2003). tributed to this Review is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are especially due to Mukonyi Kavaka Watai A project is currently planned by a consortium of who provided a copy of the KEFRI report; the Afri- NGOs and government agencies in Kenya to develop can Wildlife Foundation who provided a copy of the cultivation of endemic Kenyan Aloe spp. as a means MSc thesis of Hassan Sachedina, and the Laikipia to enhance conservation, provide primary medicinal Wildlife Forum who provided a copy of the NARE- plant products, alleviate poverty and contribute to DA report. John Caldwell, UNEP-WCMC is thanked land rehabilitation in arid zones of Kenya (SACHE- for the provision of CITES trade statistics. DINA, in litt. 2003). The potential for commercial cultivation of Aloe spp. has also been considered in References

Tanzania by Sachedina (1998), who recommends: the ANON. (2003): Progress with evaluation of species reviews. encouragement of village medicinal plant gardens; Review of Significant Trade East African Aloes. PC14 Doc 9.2.2. followed by the establishment of Aloe growing co- Annex 4. – Retrieved from www.cites.org/eng/com/PC/14/E- operatives supplying a central processing plant for PC14-09-02-02-A4.pdf, viewed 15.06.2005. local production; and eventually a plantation, nursery EGGLI, U., L.E. NEWTON & G.D. ROWLEY (2001): CITES Aloe and processing plant for export. and Pachypodium checklist. – Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. IZIDINE, S. & S.O. BANDEIRA (2002): Mozambique. In: GOLDING, Conclusions and recommendations J.S. (ed.) Southern African Plant Red Data Lists. – Southern At present Kenya appears to be the main source of African Botanical Diversity Network Report No. 14: 43-45. SABONET, Pretoria Aloe extracts traded internationally from East Africa. The impact of the trade on the conservation status of MARSHALL, N.T. (1998): Searching for a cure: conservation of medicinal wildlife resources in East and Southern Africa. – Aloe species is unclear. There is, however, concern TRAFFIC International. about the levels of exploitation of several species, MUKONYI, K.W., B. OWUOR, B.N. CHIKAMAI & E. WABUYELE particularly in view of the lack of regulation. The two (2001): A review and appraisal of the Aloe resources in Kenya;

1 August 2005 23 utilization and development status. – Unpublished KEFRI Towards a standardization of biological Report, July 2001. sustainability: Wildcrafting Rhatany NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (NAREDA) (2003): Local market survey for the Aloe trade in (Krameria lappacea) in Peru Kenya. – Unpublished study report for the Laikipia Wildlife Maximilian Weigend & Nicolas Dostert Forum.

NEWTON, L.E. (1998): Succulents of Kenya of highest conserva- Background tion concern. – In: OLDFIELD, S. (Comp.) (1997): Status survey 1 and conservation action plan. Cactus and succulent plants. IUCN Rhatany (Krameria lappacea) is a medicinal and dye Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. plant native to Ecuador, Peru, Argentina and Chile (SIMPSON 1989, 1991). The roots are traditionally NEWTON, L.E. (1994): Exploitation and conservation of aloes in Kenya. – Proc. XIIIth Plenary Meeting of AETFAT, Malawi 1: used against inflammations, minor injuries, and in 219-222. dental care. In Europe it was introduced about 200 SACHEDINA, H.A. (1998): An investigation of the bio-enterprise years ago by Hipólito Ruíz due to its adstringent pro- potential of endemic Tanzanian Aloe: conservation through culti- perties and found its way into many pharmacopoeias. vation of East African medicinal plants for integrated healthcare The red root extracts contain mainly tannins (cate- and sustainable development. – MSc Thesis, University of Oxford. chins and proanthocyanidins). Recently more atten- WALTER, K.S. & H.J. GILLETT (Eds.) (1998): 1997 IUCN Red List tion has been given to the occurrence of neolignans of Threatened Plants. Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. – IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, and to the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities UK. (CARINI et al. 2002, SCHOLZ et al. 1989).

THULIN, M. (Ed.) (1995): Flora of So- malia, Vol. 4. – Royal Botanic Gar- dens, Kew. Correspondence and personal communications cited

SEBSEBE DEMISSEW, The National Herbarium, University of Addis Aba- ba: email to S. Oldfield, May 2003.

DAVID HAFASHIMANA, Forest Depart- ment, Uganda: email to S. Oldfield, April 2003.

PAULA KAHUMBA, Kenya Wildlife Service: in litt. to the CITES Secre- tariat, February 2003.

ELIZABETH KING, University of Cali- fornia: email to S.Oldfield, March 2003.

QUENTIN LUKE: email to S. Oldfield, November, 2003.

LEN NEWTON: email to S. Oldfield, March 2003. Figure 1. Krameria lappacea roots from the market of Arequipa (Photo: M. WEIGEND 2005). HASSAN A. SACHEDINA: email to S. Oldfield, 2003. Despite its traditional use over the entire distributional range, commercial sourcing mainly takes place in Sara Oldfield • Secretary General • Botanic Gardens Con- Peru. According to figures facilitated by PROMPEX servation International • Descanso House • 199 Kew Road • Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BW • United Kingdom • Tel. (COMISIÓN PARA LE PROMOCIÓN DE EXPORTACIONES, ++44/208/332-5953 • Fax ++44/208/332-5956 • E-mail: April 2005) Peru exported an average of 33 tonnes of [email protected]. Rhatany per year between 2000 and 2004 (Table 1). The total export amounted to ca. 180 tonnes of dried Rhatany since 2000 (Table 1). Some 96% of this amount (ca. 170 tonnes) were exported to Germany, the remaining 4% largely went to France, Spain and the USA. Additionally, the plant is widely sold on local markets and no data are available on the total har-

1 Krameria lappacea (Dombey) Burdet & Simpson, Krameria- ceae, syn. Krameria triandra Ruíz & Pavon

24 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 vest of Rhatany in Peru. All Rhatany is collected from Rhatany in Peru in collaboration with GTZ (Deutsche natural populations and no cultivation of the species Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit). The has been attempted. primary aim is providing a harvest protocol with best collection practices and the definition Table 1. Annual export of Krameria lappacea roots from Peru. Volumes are of sustainable levels of extraction for given in tonnes. Source: PROMPEX Peru, March 2005. a designated collection area establis- Year Germany Other countries Total hed by WELEDA AG and INRENA (Instituto Nacional de Recursos 2000 36,000 299 36,299 Naturales, Ministry of Agriculture of Peru) near San Antonio (Peru, Depar- 2001 29,000 3,655 32,655 tamento Arequipa, Province Arequi- 2002 41,500 2,907 44,407 pa). WELEDAAG and INRENA pro- visionally agreed upon an annual har- 2003 24,000 1,292 25,292 vest of 1 tonne in the designated collection area of 2000 ha. 2004 24,000 3,020 27,020 A second aim is using the data ob- 2005 (March) 14,985 200 15,185 tained from this local project as a starting point for a national strategy Total 169,485 11,373 180,858 2000-2005 (March) for the sustainable wild harvest of Rhatany in Peru (i.e., a guideline Average annual 30,900 2,234.6 33,135 and/or protocol for other regions and export 2000-2004 collectors) to be implemented by INRENA. Some ecological and distributional data on the genus The company botconsult GmbH was commissioned Krameria in general are available (summarized in to undertake the biological investigations, since it SIMPSON 1989), but there is very little specific data on became clear that basic data on the biology, distribu- the South American taxa. Specifically, no data have tion and abundance of Krameria in Peru are required been published so far on the actual distribution and to formulate a utilisation strategy and to establish abundance, let alone rates of growth or regeneration, levels of sustainability for a given area. Several lines which would be required to estimate the possible of investigation were followed to explore possibilities impact of the extensive wild collections on the con- to render the production of Krameria sustainable. servation of this species. Investigations on the possibility to cultivate Rhatany For the wild harvest, the plants are removed with were carried out at the explicit request of INRENA. most of their roots and the individual plants are there- The research can be roughly subdivided into three by destroyed. The considerable amount harvested main headings: each year in combination with the destructive har- a) Biology: taxonomic identity, biology, ecology and vesting practices sheds serious doubt on the sustain- distribution of Krameria ability of the current level of utilisation. In the past, collecting activity was focussed on the area around b) Growth and regeneration rates in the field and ef- Lima and the central Peruvian departments (Junin, fect of commercial harvest Ayacucho, Apurímac), where Rhatany is already rare c) Experimental cultivation both in experimental and in some places nearly extinct. While exact data plots in Arequipa and in the greenhouse in Berlin are difficult to obtain, it seems that the taxon may Results have to be classified as “endangered”, since it is likely that there has been a decline in the populations of Biology. Most of the material extracted from the field Rhatany exceeding 50% in the last three generations can be attributed more or less unequivocally to (estimated at 70-100 a) while the causes for the de- Krameria lappacea (Dombey) Burdet & Simpson, a cline (i.e., wild harvest) have not ceased (Criterion species which is present in most Andean departments A.2., IUCN 2001). in Peru (and neighbouring countries), but comparatively rare (due to overcollection in the past) in all but The research project the SW departments of Peru (Arequipa, Moquegua, WELEDA AG as a longtime user of Rhatany in its Tacna). Also, some Krameria populations near dental care products has initiated a project to investi- Arequipa, which are also affected by commercial col- gate the possibilities of a sustainable utilisation of lection, belong to K. iluca R.Phil. This is a very rare

1 August 2005 25 and more narrowly distributed species previously the number of plants germinating each year and sur- only known from N Chile. There are large natural viving the first dry season is 70.000-200.000 indivi- populations of Krameria lappacea in northern Peru dual plants, which corresponds to a gross annual (e.g., the Marañon valley in the departments Caja- regeneration of 5-15 tonnes. Various conservative marca and Amazonas), which are now extensively estimates are included in this calculation: Both the exploited for the export, since the species has become year of the study (2004) and the previous year (2003) rare in some of the traditional collecting areas. were exceptionally dry and probably had germination However, some of these populations of K. lappacea and survival rates lower by an order of magnitude are morphology aberrant and may represent an undes- than average years. In summary, the annual harvest of cribed and narrowly endemic species. Material from 1 tonne/a/2,000 ha in the San Antonio region seems to these latter populations and of K. iluca should be be a sustainable level of harvest including a wide excluded from exploitation until their taxonomic and safety margin (7-20% of the annual regeneration). conservation status are clarified. Field research, sub- Experimental cultivation. The hemi-parasitic nature sequent experimental cultivation of Rhatany and ana- of Rhatany renders cultivation slightly more compli- tomical studies revealed that K. lappacea is a hemi- cated. Greenhouse experiments (at the Institut für parasitic shrub, like most its congeners (CANNON Biologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany) 1910, 1911, KUIJT 1969), and parasitizes a very wide showed that K. lappacea seedlings perish after 2-3 range of host plants. Hemi-parasitic plants may gene- month if grown without a host. They can, however, be rally be more sensitive to over-exploitation and habi- grown together with host plants without major pro- tat change than non-parasitic plants. blems. Rhatany was cultivated in the greenhouse with Growth, regeneration rates and sustainability of the different hosts for two years without showing signs of projected harvest. Field studies on sustainability were weakness. Therefore cultivation of K. lappacea is focussed on the collection area near Arequipa. Seed theoretically possible. On the other hand, the experi- set and fruit production are uniformly high in the ments carried out under field conditions revealed that field and after a first investigation we estimate that establishing actual fields of Krameria together with fruit set is approximately 90 % in K. lappacea, so that the host plants is very difficult and – more important- each adult plant produces several hundred seeds per ly – that growth of Krameria is extremely slow, with year. Germination experiments further indicated that plants reaching the minimum size for harvest after an directly sown seeds show a germination rate of ca. estimated 8-15 years. This means that cultivation is 35-45 %, i.e., fruit set and seed viability are probably technically feasible, but rather difficult and entirely no limiting factors for the population size and rege- uneconomical. neration of Krameria. In nature, Krameria lappacea Conclusions germinates after the short rainfalls in March and April and seedlings have to establish a connection to a sui- Researching the basic biology of Krameria lappacea table host plant before the onset of the dry season in and establishing growth and regeneration rates was the late April and May, otherwise they perish before the necessary first step for deciding upon a sustainability next rainy season. strategy. Levels of sustainability for the protected area were then established by relatively simple, fast and The overall abundance, the age structure and regene- straightforward botanical techniques in the field. ration rate of Krameria populations in the protected Population development and size should be monitored zone in Arequipa were investigated. In the course of in the future, to adjust harvest levels if necessary. The this investigation a total of 40 100 m2-plots were ex- current data indicate that the legitimate harvest of amined in April 2004. For this the protected area was Krameria of 1 tonne/a/2000 ha poses no threat to the separated into three different tracts – the northern wild populations in the protected area. plains and the southern hill tops and slopes, which again were subdivided into areas closer to the villages Management according to the sustainable levels as (with high collection pressure) and more remote (ba- suggested here will likely have a negligible effect on sically untouched) areas. The plants observed were the Krameria populations. Natural fluctuations in classified into 4 age classes (mature: > 5 a, immature: population size and structure due to climatic changes 3-5 a, young: 1-2 a, seedlings: 1-3 mo). and browsing by game (guanaco and wild donkey) will likely exceed the effect of the harvest. The only Calculating the presence of ca. 529,000-813,000 ma- probable consequence is a slight mid-term shift in age ture plants in the protected zone amounts to a stand- structure of the populations towards younger plants, ing crop of ca. 40-62 tonnes of Krameria roots (aver- since very old plants (> 10 a) are preferably harvested age harvest dry weight of individual mature plant ca. due to their larger size and root mass. This effect can 7,6 x 10-5 t). Moreover, the annual recruitment, i.e.

26 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 and should be tolerated, since the plants start reprodu- od corresponds to ca. 2.4 million (2.38 x 106) indivi- cing in their second year and since the synecological dual plants. Additionally, an unknown amount of role of the plants does not shift appreciably with age. Krameria has been harvested for local consumption. The basic science has now been carried out and an These numbers, given the slow growth of Krameria, area management plan, taking the plant’s biology in at the same time dramatically underscore the urgent consideration, has been provided for the protected necessity of a national action plan for the wild harvest area in San Antonio. On this basis quick assessments of Krameria. can now be carried out for any other area in Peru in Irrespective of the final wording of a “plan de mane- order to establish a sustainable harvest level on the jo nacional” we now have provided the basis for a basis of these investigations and to provide a sound national strategy for the sustainable wild harvest of area management plan adapted to the local condi- endangered Krameria lappacea which may help to tions. protect both the species in its natural habitat and the revenue it generates, both in Peru and abroad. Future National management plan investigations will show in how far the approach cho- The present research project resulted in a method for sen here for Krameria and the template “plan de a quick assessment of sustainable levels of Krameria manejo” can be used for other MAP resources in Peru harvest in a given area on a scientific basis and pro- and elsewhere – with minor or major modifications. viding the basis for long-term adaptive management. The requisite data for a “plan de manejo” (plan for References the management of Rhatany) for San Antonio were CANNON, W. A. (1910): The root habits and parasitism of elaborated in a close collaboration between botcon- Krameria canescens Gray. – In: D.T. MACDOUGAL & W. A. CAN- NON. The conditions of parasitism in plants. Publ. Carnegie Inst. sult GmbH, WELEDA AG, the Institut für Biologie – Wash. 129: 1-60. Freie Universität Berlin, Germany and the Univer- CANNON, W. A. (1911): The root habits of desert plants. – Publ. sidad Nacional San Augustín de Arequipa, Peru. This Carnegie Inst. Wash. 131: 67-69. “plan de manejo” will be the basis for a national CARINI, M., G. ALDINI, M. ORIOLI, R.M. FACINO (2002): “plan de manejo” to be implemented by INRENA in Antioxidant and photoprotective activity of a lipophlic extract all areas of Peru, where Krameria is commercially containing neolignans from Krameria triandra roots. – Planta harvested. A proposal for this “plan de manejo nacio- Medica 68(3): 193-197. nal de la Rhatania” will be elaborated after the con- IUCN (Ed.) (2001): IUCN red list categories and criteria. Version clusion of some additional experimental work in 3.1. – 30 pp. IUCN Species Survival Commission, Gland & Cam- April 2006: INRENA has requested that the feasibili- bridge. ty and effectivity of enrichment planting be investi- KUIJT, J. (1969): The biology of parasitic flowering plants. – 239 gated and corresponding experiments were initiated pp. University of California Press, Berkely, California. in January 2005. SCHOLZ, E. & H. RIMPLER (1989): Proanthocyanidins from Kra- meria triandra roots. Planta Medica 55(4): 379-384. There are some additional aspects which we would SIMPSON, B. B. (1989): Kramericeae. – In: Flora Neotropica. The like to see considered in this “plan de manejo nacio- New York Botanical Garden. Monograph 49: 1-108. nal”, such as the exclusion of both rare Krameria SIMPSON, B. B. (1991): The Past and Present Uses of Rhatany iluca and the possibly endemic form in N Peru from (Krameria, Krameriaceae). – Economic Botany 45(3): 397-409. the commercial harvest until their biology and distribution have been clarified, a restriction of the com- Maximilian Weigend • Institut für Biologie – Systematische Botanik und Pflanzengeographie • Freie Universität Berlin mercial harvest for export purposes to those areas of • Altensteinstr. 6 • 14195 Berlin • Germany. Peru where Krameria is naturally abundant (the departments Tacna, Moquegua and Arequipa), a pro- Nicolas Dostert • botconsult GmbH • Bergmannstr. 19 • 10961 Berlin • Germany. tection of the over-exploited populations in other departments (until recovery), and a provision for the continued access of the local population to small Sustainable sourcing of Arnica montana amounts of Krameria for local consumption. in the Apuseni Mountains (Romania): The data presented here can be used to calculate the A field project total number of plants harvested for export in Peru under the current export regime: A total of ca. 181 Wolfgang Kathe tons of Rhatany were exported from Peru between Background January 2000 and March 2005 (Table 1). Individual In less than two years, Bulgaria and Romania will plants have an average harvest dry weight of 0.076 kg join the European Union. This will not only have (7,6 x 10-5 t) so that the amount exported in this peri-

1 August 2005 27 political and economic consequences for both the EU Programme (WWF DCP) and the University of Agri- and the population of the two new member countries culture and Veterinary Medicine (USAMV) have ini- but also affect the medicinal plants sector in Europe tiated the project ‘Conservation of Eastern European to an extent which cannot easily be predicted. Bulga- Medicinal Plants: Arnica montana in Romania’ to ria figures among the world’s top 10 exporting coun- make this problem more widely known and develop a tries of medicinal plant raw material (about 10,000 model for the sustainable use of medicinal plants tonnes per year; for further details see LANGE 2003). from the wild. The project is scheduled for a three Romania’s export figures, with only about 1,000 years’ period (April 2004 - March 2007) and funded tonnes per year, are considerably lower. The domestic by the Darwin Initiative, UK. It is being carried out at market for medicinal plants in Romania, however, field level with the community of Gârda-de-Sus in plays an increasingly important role, although it is the Apuseni Mountains (Transylvania). impossible to estimate its annual volume or turnover. Aims of the project Surprisingly, Romania has a lower percentage of for- The project aims at developing a model for the sustain- est cover (26 % of the land surface) than almost all able wild collection of and trade in Arnica montana in other countries in the region (KATHE et al. 2003). Gârda-de-Sus resulting in benefits to both biodiversity Large areas in Romania have traditionally been used and livelihoods. The project team works together with for agriculture (Wallachia, but also parts of Transyl- the community of Gârda-de-Sus in developing and vania and Moldavia) or are wetland areas (Danube establishing a community-based Arnica management Delta). Forests cover a substantial part of the coun- including all local stakeholders. Such a management try’s two mountain ranges: the Carpathians and the system can only be developed step by step. Based on Apuseni Mountains. With few exceptions, the densi- experiences from Proiect Apuseni (www.proiect-apu ty of the human population in these mountain ranges seni.org/index.html, in German language only [viewed is extremely low. Small, scattered villages are found 24.06.05, RUSDEA et al. 2004) and preliminary scienti- in most valleys, but there are hardly any settlements fic data on Arnica distribution, growth and reproduc- above 1,500 metres a.s.l. Low population density and tion in the area (MICHLER & REIF 2003), key compo- restricted transport infrastructure (such as passable nents for successful project implementation have been roads) have – so far – protected many Romanian identified: forests from being overexploited although, in recent years, the timber industry has cut its way deeper and 1. Confidence building between all partners within deeper into the forests. Still, wildlife thrives in re- and outside of the community. mote parts of Romania and despite the country’s low 2. Research into Arnica: resource survey and map- percentage of forest cover it has, e.g., by far the larg- ping of Arnica meadows, land-ownership, and est brown bear population in Europe (outside Russia). supply chain. The relatively unspoilt natural or semi-natural eco- 3. Training of local collectors in sustainable sourc- systems and traditionally managed cultural land- ing of Arnica flower-heads and in raw material scapes contribute to a remarkable level of biodiversi- quality and capacity building (training of trai- ty, both in terms of fauna, flora and habitats. Follow- ners). ing a long tradition, the local rural population in most 4. Development of local drying facilities for Arnica of Bulgaria and Romania has collected and used a flower-heads to increase the value of the product variety of wild plant and mushroom species for medi- on the market and the returns to the collectors cinal, cosmetic and nutritional purposes, be it on sub- and/or land-owners. sistence level or for trade. Currently, more than 300 medicinal plant species are collected from the wild in 5. Developing a local Arnica management and tra- Romania (KATHE et al. 2003), about 50 species are ding system. commercially cultivated. The development of a fair and considerate ecological As elsewhere in Europe, the increasing demand for and social, local Arnica management system is chal- medicinal plant raw material and the destruction or lenging but essential for the success of the project, conversion of natural and semi-natural habitats into because it will be the only way to guarantee the pro- intensively managed agricultural land has increased ject’s sustainability. the pressure on medicinal plant resources in Project Components Romania. This development is likely to be further ag- Confidence building gravated during preparation for accession to the Eu- ropean Union and has caused serious concern in re- During the first year, a prime task of the project team cent years. WWF-UK, the WWF Danube Carpathian was to develop a level of mutual confidence with the

28 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 people living in those hamlets of Gârda-de-Sus, the southern parts will be completed in 2005. As there which are within the project area and have Arnica was no detailed map or satellite image available for meadows. These are mainly the hamlets of Ocoale, this part of the project area, the project team had to Ghetar (north of the Aries Valley) and Biharia (south develop a map from rather sketchy drafts available in of River Aries). Like in most remote rural areas, the the community. The distribution of potential Arnica local population has the tendency to be reticent at habitats was calculated using statistical methods and first contact and it usually takes fairly long before relevant parameters such as land use, exposition and strangers are accepted as partners in community de- type of soil. As a result, actual Arnica habitats are pre- velopment. It is a big advantage that most project sently confined to only parts of the potential habitat, team members have already been working with the most likely due to overgrazing and fertilization in community in Ghetar and Ocoale for the past 5 years some areas (B. MICHLER, pers. comm.). Masters thesis and are therefore well known. In the hamlet of Biha- research will be carried out by a member of the project ria, however, the project team is ‘new’ and confiden- team in co-operation with Babes-Bolyai University, ce building is still a major part of the team’s work in Cluj, examining the influence of potential pests (main- this part of the community. The project team actively ly insects of the orders Diptera and Lepidoptera) on sought for individual persons from the hamlet, whose Arnica flowering (R. POPA, pers. comm.). interest in co-operation with the project team is above 2. Socio-economic analysis of the part of the com- average (F. PACURAR and H. POPA, pers. comm.). A munity where Arnica meadows exist co-operation with them improved the acceptance of the project team in the whole hamlet. People with key A clear picture of the socio-economic situation in functions in the community are the mayor, the head those parts of the community of Gârda-de-Sus which of school, the local priest and doctor. These and seve- are relevant for the project is an essential prerequisite ral other key people have been involved in project if sustainable, community-based Arnica management development from the beginning; they are supportive is to be achieved on the long term. Studies on the of the project concept and actively contribute to its history of the mountain settlements at the Plateau of development and implementation. Ghetar were carried out by GOIA (2003) and a general survey of the household structure and the role of Research agriculture in the economic development process was Research is, together with traditional knowledge, an given by HEIDELBACH (2002) during Proiect Apuseni. important cornerstone in the development of a re- Individual interviews with collectors and land- source sustainability concept. Traditional knowledge owners aim to determine the specific conditions un- of medicinal plant collection and use, however, plays der which Arnica sourcing and meadow management no prominent role in the project area. The local popu- is carried out and to analyse the attitudes of the local lation, the Motilor, have traditionally been used to population towards the establishment of a communi- earn cash income primarily from woodcutting ty-based institution to sustainably manage and trade (HEIDELBACH 2002) rather than from agriculture and Arnica. Specifically, the interviews aim to clarify ten- trade in Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP). ure rights, finding out which farmers and farmer fa- The research can be grouped into four distinct topics: milies collect Arnica on their land, which families 1) Arnica monitoring, mapping and ecology; 2) So- (both land-owners and landless) collect Arnica on cio-economic analysis of the part of the community somebody else’s properties, analyse family income where Arnica meadows exist; 3) Arnica supply chain and give an idea who (individuals and/or families) are studies; 4) local value adding. or could tentatively be interested in actively participating in the development of an Arnica management 1. Arnica monitoring, mapping and ecology: and trading system. Effective and long-term Arnica monitoring depends on 3. Arnica supply chain (or trade chain) good baseline inventories. The project could start research on Arnica distribution in the project area at high From the economic point of view, the long-term vi- level, as first data were already available from Proiect ability of the project depends on successfully achiev- Apuseni (RUSDEA et al. 2004), during which a satellite ing a simple goal: increased income for the Arnica image of the northern parts community of Gârda-de- collectors and land-owners of Arnica meadows. Sus (north of Aries Valley) had been produced. Based Economic mechanisms to achieve this goal are to on this satellite image and previous inventories, all develop a distinct product, support local value-adding, gaps in Arnica distribution in the northern parts of the reduce the number of intermediate traders and work project region could be closed during the first field on building long-term company partnerships. As in season (summer 2004). Mapping and inventorying of most medicinal plants, Arnica trade lacks transparen-

1 August 2005 29 cy. Thus, building effective trade relationships re- nity to test the drying methods under the in-situ con- quires prior thorough analysis of the existing trade ditions of the project area. chain. At present, the fresh Arnica flower heads are Training and capacity building taken to a local collection point by the collectors. Several intermediate trading steps are required to get Training is a process of mutual learning and teaching. the material to a company which has a licence to ex- The members of the project team are working close- port the material. Besides the export market, however, ly with land-owners and collectors and train them in the domestic Arnica market in Romania is gradually basic scientific and technical knowledge of Arnica becoming more important. More than 20 Arnica pro- ecology, collection and post-harvest treatment of ducts can already be found on the Romanian pharma- Arnica flowers; the local farmers and collectors teach ceutical market and in green shops, today (M. the project team their knowledge of Arnica growth, KLEMENS, pers. comm.). In co-operation with Babes- flowering patterns and meadow management. In a Bolyai University, Cluj, a diploma and a master thesis second step, project team and land-owners/collectors are carried out by members of the project team. Arnica will work out appropriate, practical Arnica monito- market and trade chain analyses comprise trade of Ar- ring methods and a local management plan for the nica flower heads from Gârda-de-Sus to the trading sustainable use of Arnica meadows. companies, relevant traders and trading companies in The sustainability of the resource management de- Transylvania, consumer behaviour in Romania, the pends on effective capacity building. The project team Romanian Arnica market (trade and production), the actively promotes a ‘train the trainers’ approach. export market and export licensing requirements. In Women collectors, who have already been co-opera- addition, it is planned to have the European Arnica ting with the project team, are trained in collection and market, especially imports from Romania, analysed post-harvest treatment techniques and encouraged to by an expert in Germany or the UK. pass on their knowledge to other collectors. The pro- 4. Local value adding ject team organises special events for children (mostly at gatherings on local or national holidays or celebra- Traditionally, local Arnica collectors sell the fresh tions); at these events, children playfully learn about Arnica flowers directly to a local trader who channels Arnica monitoring and sustainable collection techni- the material into the trade chain. Although Arnica is ques, a knowledge they again pass on to their friends. a relatively high price drug, the revenues for local collectors are very low (about 0.3-0.75 USD/kilo- Besides building local capacity, young scientists from gramme). Considerably higher income can be gene- USAMV and UBB universities in Cluj are part of the rated, if semi-processed products such as dried flower project team and are trained in community-based and heads and Arnica tincture or oil are produced locally. interdisciplinary approaches to conservation and in Whereas the production of marketable oil and tinc- technical and scientific skills. ture requires some in-depth quality analysis and phar- Development of a local Arnica management system maceutical skills, local drying is a relatively easy The project team, together with the community of method of value adding. Appropriate drying methods Gârda-de-Sus and external experts, currently eva- depend on the drying devices available and on humi- luates the options for institutionalising local Arnica dity, temperature and the climatic conditions at the resource management. First plans consider the esta- location of drying (MICHLER 2004). For this reason, blishment of a Resource Management and Trade As- drying tests have been carried out to determine the sociation (RMTA) for Arnica at Gârda-de-Sus as a most effective and locally applicable method. Con- promising way forward. It has to be considered, how- trolled, appropriate drying and storage are essential in ever, that many small farmers not favourably inclined order to develop a value-added product of high quali- towards ‘associations’, as they both remind them of ty which can be marketed at higher prices and meets confiscation of private land during the communist era the quality requirements of companies and of the (MURARESCU & AVRAM 2003) and of the current ten- European Union. dency in Romania to form large farms out of small During the first year of the project (summer 2004) a family units in order to increase profitability and demonstration drying house was built close to the brush up Romania’s ‘old-fashioned’ agricultural sys- project centre in Ghetar. This facility allowed to show tem for EU accession. If an Arnica management and the local population how drying of Arnica flower trade association is set up, the mechanisms and pro- heads (and potentially also other products collected in cedures will have to be developed by all local stake- the area) works and demonstrate that it is feasible. holders, in particular farmers, collectors and people The drying house also provided an excellent opportu- with key functions in the village, in co-operation with

30 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 the project team from Cluj and WWF-DCP, Romania HEIDELBACH, O. (2002): Agriculture in a transition economy. A Office. Ultimately, the project aims at developing an regional analysis of the mountainous region of County Alba, Romania. University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural effective management system for Arnica, that pro- Economics and Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics. – motes sustainable sourcing and trade and results in 74 pp., Stuttgart. higher revenues for both farmers and collectors and at KATHE, W., HONNEF, S., & HEYM, A. (2003): Medicinal and establishing a profitable community-based resource Aromatic Plants in Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, management, which continues working effectively Croatia and Romania. – 200 pp., Bundesamt für Naturschutz, after the end of the project. The Arnica management Bonn (BfN-Skripten 91). will have to be included in the management system of LANGE, D. (2003): The Role of East and Southeast Europe in the the Apuseni Mountains Nature Park administration Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Trade. – In: KATHE, W., S. HONNEF & A. HEYM: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Albania, Bosnia- (for further information in Romanian language: Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania. pp. 64-77, Bun- www.parcapuseni.ro, viewed 24.6.05). Evaluation of desamt für Naturschutz, Bonn (BfN-Skripten 91). successes, threats, challenges and lessons learnt MICHLER, B. (2004): Arznei- und Gewürzpflanzen. – In: RUSDEA, during the project will contribute to continuously E., A. REIF, I. POVARA & W. KONOLD (Ed.): Perspektiven für eine enhance project development and implementation. traditionelle Kulturlandschaft in Osteuropa. Ergebnisse eines inter- und transdisziplinären, partizipativen Forschungsprojektes Vision in Osteuropa., Culterra 34: 172-181. Sustainable sourcing, trade and use of NTFPs have MICHLER B. & A. REIF (2003) Arnica montana in the Apuseni mountains, Romania endangered or protected by utilization? In- become increasingly important challenges. Conser- ternational Symposium on Sustainable Development of Rural vation of natural medicinal plant resources and their Regions in Eastern Europe, Bucharest, 2003. Available at www. habitats is inextricably linked to local livelihoods and proiect-apuseni.org/dokumente/poster/arnica_montana.pdf (view- to economic viability. The project ‘Conservation of ed 1.7.2005). Southeast European Medicinal Plants: Arnica monta- MURARESCU, I. & AVRAM, L. (2003): Romania and its agricultu- na in Romania’ hopes to become a model project that re: asleep on a gold mine. – Milieukontakt Oosteuropa. Available at www.milieukontakt.nl/file.php?table_name=activity&id=147 can be applied to the conservation of Arnica throug- &field_name=documentation_1_file (viewed 24.6.2005). hout the region and beyond and be transferred to RUSDEA, E., A. REIF, I. POVARA & W. KONOLD (Ed.) (2004): other medicinal plant species and their habitats. Perspektiven für eine traditionelle Kulturlandschaft in Osteuropa. Acknowledgements Ergebnisse eines inter- und transdisziplinären, partizipativen Forschungsprojektes in Osteuropa. Culterra 34. – 401 pp, Univer- I would like to thank all involved in the development sität Freiburg/Institut für Landespflege, Freiburg/Breisgau. and implementation of this project, namely (in alpha- Wolfgang Kathe • Buntentorsteinweg 226 • 28201 Bremen betic order and without academic titles): Valentin • Germany • Tel. ++49/421/3466227 • E-mail: giraglia@t- Dumitrescu (USAMV), Sylvia Goessl (WWF-DCP, online.de. Vienna), Augustin Goia (Museul Etnografic, Cluj- Napoca), Alan Hamilton (formerly WWF-UK), Mi- Rhodiola rosea L., chael Klemens (UBB-Cluj), Barbara Michler (IFA- NOS; consultant to WWF-UK), Maria Mihul (WWF- from wild collection to field production DCP), Florin Pacurar (USAMV), Horatiu Popa (con- Bertalan Galambosi sultant), Razvan Popa (UBB-Cluj), Ioan Rotar (USAMV), Susanne Schmitt (WWF-UK), Erika Introduction Stanciu (WWF-DCP), Luminita Tanasie (WWF-DCP) Rhodiola rosea L., Roseroot (Golden root or Arctic and Sibylle Vogel (WWF-DCP, Vienna) and: the com- root), is a herbaceous perennial plant of the family munity of Gârda de Sus, Babes-Bolyai University Crassulaceae. Rhodiola as a genus may have originat- (Cluj), the University of Medicine and Pharmacy ed in the mountainous regions of Southwest China (Cluj), the Institute of Biological Research – ICB and the Himalayas. The botanists have established (Cluj), the German Organization for Technical Co- that various species of the genus Rhodiola naturally operation (GTZ), the University of Freiburg, Germany show a circumpolar distribution in mountainous re- and the Apuseni Natural Park. gions in the higher latitudes and elevations of the Northern hemisphere (BROWN et al. 2002). References In Central and northern Asia, the genus Rhodiola ran- GOIA, I. A. (2003): Ethnographische Studien zur traditionellen Lebensweise des Gebietes Gârda de Sus – Ghetari – Poiana ges from the Altai Mountains across Mongolia to many Calineasa und Identifizierung der Elemente für Szenarien einer parts of Siberia (KOMAROV 1939). According to HEGI nachhaltige Entwicklung des Gebietes. Teilbericht, Proiect (1963), its distribution in Europe extends from Iceland Apuseni. – 47 pp., Freiburg. and the British Isles across Scandinavia as far south as

1 August 2005 31 the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathian Mountains and As well externally (especially against wounds from other mountainous Balkan regions. Several taxa of fire) as internally (against lung inflammation and as a Rhodiola rosea complex have been identified across remedy for urinating) the plant has been much used Alaska, Canada, and the northern mountains of the medicinally. The rhizome contains elements which continental United States (SMALL & CATLING 1999). help against pains (RYVARDEN 1993). Additionally, The species R. rosea L. can be divided into two sub Roseroot has been used in folk medicine for washing species: Common Roseroot R. rosea ssp. rosea (L.) the hair since it gave a good smell and was supposed and Arctic Roseroot R. rosea ssp. arctica (Boriss.) A. to be good for the hair (ALM 1998). & D. Löve. The subspecies rosea is the most common According to a present overview (BROWN et al. 2002), form, while ssp. arctica is present on the Norwegian which is an English summary of the tremendous arctic islands (ANDERBERG & ANDERBERG). In the Nor- scientific and clinical studies published in Russian, dic or Baltic region Roseroot is present in the indige- Roseroot has traditionally been used widely in Russia nous flora of Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Finland. In and Asia. Traditional folk medicine used Rhodiola Norway and Iceland Roseroot is widely distributed rosea to increase physical endurance, work producti- from mountain areas to the western coastline (HJAL- vity, longevity, resistance to high altitude sickness, TALIN 1830). Despite fleshy rootstock and leaves Rose- and to treat fatigue, depression, anemia, impotence, root is dependent on relatively stable water supplies. gastrointestinal ailments, infections, and nervous sys- Roseroot is found at a maximum altitude of 2280 m tem disorders. In mountain villages of Siberia, a bou- above sea level in Jotunheimen in Norway. The spe- quet of roots is still given to couples prior to marriage cies is quite common also in mountain areas in to enhance fertility and assure the birth of healthy Sweden and Finland, and can be found at some coast- children. In Central Asia, R. rosea tea was the most al habitats in Sweden, whereas it is not present in effective treatment for cold and flu during severe Denmark and the Baltic countries. Asian winters. Mongolian doctors prescribed it for tuberculosis and cancer. For centuries, only family Use and effects members knew where to harvest the wild “golden Roseroot has been traditionally used in its indegenous roots” and the methods of extraction. Siberians se- distribution areas for different purposes. There are a cretly transported the herb down ancient trails to the lot of references in the Scandinavian literature regar- Caucasian Mountains, where it was traded for Georg- ding its use. ian wines, fruits, garlic, and honey. Chinese emperors sent expeditions to Siberia to bring back the “golden According to several Norvegian reports, during the root” for medicinal preparations. eighteenth century, the plant was known as an effective remedy for scurvy (ALM 1996). The oldest report A special emphasis in pharmacological research has is from a journey made by King Christian IV., who been put on Roseroot in the former Soviet Union. travelled to Finnmark and Kola in 1599. The plant Several clinical studies have documented Roseroot’s was used both by the Sami people and the Russians beneficial effects on memory and learning, immune (HANSEN & SCHMIDT 1985). response stress and cancer therapy. Rhodiolae radix and rhizome is a multipurpose medicinal herb with Roseroot is not the best among the plants rich in vita- adaptogenic properties: it increases the body’s non- min C, but it is found in extreme nordic growing con- specific resistance and normalizes body functions. ditions during very early spring, after the long winter Rhodiola preparations have widely been used to in- periods. The leaves contain 33 mg vitamin C per crease the stress tolerance of astronauts. Salidroside gram, while the rhizomes only contain 12 mg per and its precursor tyrosol, and cinnamic glycosides gram (NORDAL 1939). Already the Inuit in Greenland (rosin, rosavin, and rosarin) have been identified have eaten Roseroot and the priest Herman Ruge from the roots and rhizome. Other important consti- from Valdres in Norway wrote in 1762: “I have my- tuents are flavonoids, tannins and gallic acid and its self eaten it, both fried and roasted as well as cooked. esters (BROWN et al. 2002). And I have either in taste or in effect found it dis- agreeable” (LAGERBERG et al. 1955). Market potential and threat status In Alaska, the indegenous peoples have used Roseroot Based on the documented pharmacological effects and as a vegetable and it may still be used in that way. It is on it’s safe use, the commercial interest for Roseroot- cooked or mixed in different meals and the leaves are based products has quickly increased worldwide. eaten as a salad (HEDMAN 2000). The leaves are also According to the latest overwiew, currently there are grounded and mixed with other ingredients to make over 46 companies worldwide using Rhodiola rosea bread. in their products and there are also 30 companies

32 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 listed as ingredient suppliers for Rhodiola rosea Rhodiola rosea strains have been established in (AMPONG-NYARKO 2005). Preparations are marketed Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. The collec- in different forms, like clean alcoholic extracts or tions are the basis for studies on the diversity of tablets or combinations with other medicinal plants. Roseroot and for developing the descriptors for gene Presently, one of the biggest problems is to meet the bank evaluation (ÅSDAL 2004). raw material requirement for the increasing industri- Cultivation of Rhodiola rosea al demand. Nearly all raw materials for industrial pro- Roseroot cultivation can be one solution to produce cessing are originated from collections of the natural raw material in sufficient quantities for industrial pur- populations. The largest populations are situated in poses. Cultivation experiments have been carried out the Altai area of South Siberia. However, there are in several parts of the former Soviet Union, in Russia great difficulties obtaining exact data of the collected (ELSAKOV & GORELOVA 1999), in Sweden, in Poland or cultivated raw material. The estimated quantity of (FURMANOVA et al.1999), and in Germany (SCHITTKO, dry Rhodiola roots exported from Russia is ca. 20-30 pers. comm.). tonnes/year (RAMAZANOV, pers. comm.). Due to the intensive collection, natural populations are highly Due to national industrial interest, domestication threatened. In the Republic of Karelia and the experiments were carried out also in Finland from Murmansk region Roseroot is listed in the Vulnerable 1994-2002. Initially, cultivation technology for threat category (KOTIRANTA et al. 1999). It’s collec- Roseroot has been implemented (DRAGLAND & tion in Russia is nowadays strongly regulated. GALAMBOSI 1996, GALAMBOSI et al. 2003, GALAMBO- SI 2004). On the base of these experiments the present Natural populations of Rhodiola exist in the countries technology used includes the following elements: of Alps and Carpatians, in the Scandinavian countries, but the collection in these European countries Life Cycle: Due to the very slow growth rate of has less economic importance, because of the high young seedlings, cultivation requires four to five collection labour costs and the difficult transport pos- years. The seedlings should be kept in pots for one or sibilities in the high mountain areas. two seasons, the following field growing period is three or four years. Although the collection in the European countries is not as intense as in the Altai area in Russia, the species Field Choice: The soil needs to be weed-free and has been reported as a threatened medicinal plant in deep, with no stones or standing water. Before trans- several countries. Roseroot is not Red Listed in any of planting 20-25 t/ha compost should be incorporated the Scandinavian countries, but according to LANGE into the soil. (1998) it is registered as an endangered plant in the Variety: Presently no preferred commercial variety Czech Republic and Bosnia-Hercegovina and Vul- exists. In Finland the seed of an accession is used that nerable in Slovakia. originated from northern Norway. The rapidly growing demand and also the high prices Propagation: The seed needs natural winter stratifica- paid for raw material by the industry can cause increas- tion under the snow or two months of stratification in ed pressure on natural habitats. Commercial quantities a cold room at 2-4 °C mixed with moist sand. The are collected in Norway as raw material of the new seed should be sown in early spring by hand, follow- commercial products, and Norwegian scientists wor- ed by the pricking of small seedlings into pots. For king with Rhodiola have received inquiries to deliver mechanical sowing a mixture of sand and stratified several tonnes of Rhodiola root harvested from natural seed in a 20:1 ratio is recommended. The young seed- populations. lings should be kept in pots indoors and later out- Although there is little concern for the present popu- doors, depending on their growth rate. lations of Rhodiola rosea in Scandinavia, Rhodiola Transplantation: One- or two-year-old seedlings are was chosen as one of the model plants in a project transplanted into the field in September or in spring. organized and financed by the Nordic Gene Bank, The plant density is six to eight plants/m², while the due to the possible negative effects of the industrial row distance depends on the mechanical weed control interest. The project “Spice and medicinal plants in system. Presently, in Finland black plastic mulch of the Nordic and Baltic countries. Strategies for con- 0.9 m width is used (Figure 1). servation of genetic resources” started in 2001 and Weed Control: During the first two years hand wee- lasts during 2005. In this project the Nordic and the ding around the young seedlings is important. Be- Baltic countries cooperate on studying several threa- tween the rows a lawn mower is used to cut weeds. tened medicinal plants like Arnica montana or Acorus calamus. Four ex-situ collections of local

1 August 2005 33 that stable financial background could be found for long-term agronomical research and introduction of Roseroot there, creating market possibilities for growers involved in large-scale raw material Roseroot production. Since Roseroot is kept as a cold tolerant, promising new alternative crop with stable market potential, this five-year project has been initiated in the province Alberta. The main goal of the project is to set up several hundred acres of commercial Roseroot fields. Such large quantities of raw material will decrease the negative impacts on the natural populations of Rhodiola rosea. Acknowledgements The author would like to express his gratitude to Dr. Steinar Dragland for the translation of the Figure 1. Rhodiola rosea cultivation in Mikkeli, Finland (Photo: B. Norvegian literature. Galambosi, 26.6.2003). Personal communications Plant Protection: No serious diseases or insect problems have yet been observed. RAMAZANOV, Z., National Bioscience Corp. Chester, NY USA, pers. comm. 2005.

Seed Harvest: The plants are dioecious and flower in SCHITTKO, U., Pharmaplant GmbH, Germany, pers. comm. 2005. June. The ripe seed should be collected after the second year, when the flowers turn brown in July/August. References Root Harvest: The roots can be harvested in their ALM, T. (1996): Bruk av rosenrot (Rhodiola rosea) mot skjørbuk. – Polarflokken 20(1): 29-32. fourth or fifth year in autumn or early spring. For ALM, T. (1998): Skjørbuksplanter - eller jakten på C-vitamin. – mechanical harvest vibrating shakers or diggers Ottar 220: 17-22. should be used. After digging the vegetative shoots AMPONG-NYARKO, K. (2004): New Rhodiola Commercialization need to be removed and the roots should be cut and Project for Alberta. – ANHAN Grass Roots Gateway 1(1): 1 and washed. 5. Also available at www.anhan.org/documents/newsletter/GRG_ Drying: For quicker drying the larger roots should be Fall_2004_e-News.pdf (viewed 10.8.2005). sliced. Sliced roots dry in two to three days. AMPONG-NYARKO, K. (2005): Rhodiola rosea Potential Commer- cialization in Alberta. New Initiatives Found - 2004/2005. Project Yields: The root yield strongly depends on the plant 2004-038. Final Report. – 56 pp., Alberta Agriculture, Food and age. The contents of active metabolites are higher in Rural development, Industry Development Sector. older roots. In experimental cultivation the fresh and ANDERBERG, A. & ANDERBERG, A.-L.: Den Virtuella Floran. – dry root yields of the four-year-old plants ranged Web publication of the Naturhistoriska riksmuseet, Stockholm: from 1.8-2.8 kg/m² and 0.4-0.6 kg/m², respectively. http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora/ (viewed 4.8.2005). The dry root yield of the five-year-old plants was 1.2- BROWN, R.P., P.L. GERBARG & Z. RAMAZANOV (2002): Rhodiola 1.4 kg/m². rosea. A Phytomedicinal Overview. – HerbalGram 56: 40-52. DRAGLAND, S. & B. GALAMBOSI (1996): Roseroot (Rhodiola ro- The future of Rhodiola rosea sea L.). – In: Produksjon og forste-foredling av medisinplanter. However, cultivation of Roseroot is not unproblema- Forskningsparken i Ås. pp. 143-145. tic. The cultivation costs are high, because the fields ELSAKOV G.V. & A.P. GORELOVA (1999): Fertilizer effects on the yield and biochemical composition of rose-root stonecrop in have to be established by transplantation of seedlings, North Kola region. – Agrochimiya 10: 58-61. the cultivation period from planting to harvesting FURMANOWA, M., B. KEDZIA, M. HARTWICH, J. KOZLOWSKI, A. takes five years, and the harvest and post-harvest pro- KRAJEWSKA-PATAN, A. MSCISZ & J. JANKOWIAK (1999): Phyto- cessing of the root yield are labour intensive. For the chemical and pharmacological properties of Rhodiola rosea L. – continuous industrial raw material supply, new plan- Herba Polonica. Vol. XLV (2): 108-113. tations have to be established every year. Therefore, GALAMBOSI, B. (2004): Coltivazione della pianta. – In: RAMAZA- the acreage of the present cultivations is small and the NOV, Z. & A. RAMAZANOV: Rhodiola rosea. Le origini e la storia. production costs are high. Fitochimica e farmacologia. pp. 94-100, Aboca S.p.A., Sanse- polcro Italy. The latest efforts have been reported from Canada GALAMBOSI, B., ZS. GALAMBOSI, R. VALO, S. KANTANEN & H. KIR- during 2004 (AMPONG-NYARKO 2004, 2005). It seems JONEN (2003): Elaboration of cultivation methods for Roseroot

34 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 (Rhodiola rosea L.) in Mikkeli, 1994-2002. – In: GALAMBOSI, B. Selected trade names: Ginseng radix; Radix Gin- (ed.): Use and introduction of medicinal plants with adaptogen seng; Chinese (Korean) Ginseng root; (Chinesische) effects in Finland. Maa- ja elintarviketalous 37. pp. 47-62. Also available at www.mtt.fi/met/pdf/met37.pdf (viewed 25.7.2005) Ginsengwurzel; Racine de Ginseng (chinois); Gin- seng; Renshen; Jensam; Ninsin; Insam; Sansam; Zen- HANSEN L.I. & T. SCHMIDT (1985): "Major Peter Schnitlers gren- seeksaminasjonsprotokoller 1742-1745. Bind 3. – xliv+272 pp., shen; Zen-Szen. Norsk historisk kjeldeskriftinstitutt, Oslo. Bioprofile: Life form and cycle: Perennial herb, be- HEDMAN, S. (2000): Rosenrot: nordens mirakelört. – 80 pp., Mi- coming more than 100 years old; except dormancy pe- kas Förlag, Ôlandstryckarna, Borgholm. riods, the rhizome produces annually one shoot, dying HEGI, G. (ed.) (1963): Rhodiola, Rosenwurz. – In: Illustrierte Flo- off at the end of the vegetation period leaving behind a ra von Mitteleuropa. Zweite völlig neubearbeitete Auflage. Band IV/2, Lieferung 2-3, Teilband A. pp. 99-102, Hanser, München. stem scar at its top (circa determination of age!). Mor- phology: Tap root fleshy, cylindrical or spindle-shaped; HJALTALIN, O.J. (1830): Islandsk botanik. – Hins islenzka bokmenn- tafelags, Köpenhamn. stems erect, mainly one, sometimes several shoots, 30- 80cm high; cauline leaves 5 (2-6), whorled, up to 10cm KOMAROV V.L. (ed.) (1939): Genus 698: Rhodiola L. – In: Flora of the USSR. Volume IX, Rosales and Sarraceniales. pp. 20-36, long-petioled, palmatisect, with 3-5 ovate to elliptical The USSR Academy of Sciences, Leningrad. Translation: Israel leaflets with serrate margins; inflorescence a terminal Program for Scientific Translation, Jerusalem (1971). flower-umbel with peduncle up to 30cm long, compo- KOTIRANTA, H., P. UOTILA, S. SULKAVA & S.-L. PELTONEN (eds.) sed of 15-20(-30) small bisexual flowers; calyx campa- (1998): Red data Book of East Fennoscandia. – 351 pp., Ministry nulate, 5toothed; petals 5, yellowish-green; stamens 5; of the Environment, Finnish Environment Institute & Botanical ovary inferior, 2locular; style single and stigma 2fid; Museum, Finnish Museum of Natural History. Helsinki. fruit a pea-sized and shaped baccate drupe, bright-red in LAGERBERG, T., J. HOLMBOE & R. NORDHAGEN (1955): Rosenrot. mature. Flowering period: (May) June to July; – In: Våre ville planter. Bind 3. pp. 231-237. Tanum, Oslo. Reproduction: mainly by seeds. LANGE, D. (1998): Europe’s medicinal and aromatic plants. Their use, trade and conservation. – 77 pp., TRAFFIC International, Distribution: Manchurian floral element; originally Cambridge. widely distributed in north-eastern China, Korea, and NORDAL, A. (1939): Über einige norwegische volksmedizinische in parts of the Russian Far East (RFE); the current Skorbut-Pflanzen, und ihren Vitamin-C-Gehalt. – Nytt magasin natural range is fragmented, with the main range in for naturvidenskapene 79: 193-231. the Primorye region in Russia and only few localities RYVARDEN, L. (1993): Bergknappfamilien. – In: Norges planter. in northeast China (Jilin, Liaoning, Heilongjiang) and Bind 1, pp. 175-182, J.W. Cappelens Forlag a.s., Oslo. the northern part of the Korean peninsula. SMALL, E., & P.M. CATLING (1999): Canadian Medicinal Crops. – 240 pp., NRC Research Press, Ottawa. Habitat: Typically in shady places with moist and ÅSDAL, A. (2004): Conserving the Genetic Resources of Spice cool climate; in montane mixed forests of conifers and Medicinal Plants. – Nordic GENEresources. pp. 14-15. (e.g. mixed Korean Pine forests) and deciduous broad- Bertalan Galambosi • Agrifood Research Finland, Ecologi- leaved trees with a dense underlayer of shrubs and cal Production • Karilantie 2 A. • 50600 Mikkeli • Finland herbaceous perennials, up to 1,000 m altitude. • E-mail: [email protected]. Uses: Asian Ginseng roots have been used for over 4,000 years, valued to improve general physical con- Conservation data sheet 3: ditions, prolonging man's life, and presumably also as Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer an aphrodisiac. Ginseng is an adaptogen, regarded as a tonic with antistress, antifague and antiaging pro- Dagmar Lange perties. It is offered on the market in lots of varieties: Familiy: Araliaceae (Apiacae-Araliodeae) the roots itself (fresh, dried, sliced, cut, powdered), as tea (instant tea, tea bags), and in finished medicinal Synonyms: Panax schinseng Nees preparations (tablets, film-coated tablets, capsules, Aralia ginseng (C.A. Meyer) Baill. tonics, fluid extracts, ointments). Further, the roots Panax quinquefolius L. var. ginseng are eaten fresh as vegetables, and are processed into Reg. & Maack cosmetic products, sweets, chocolates, and liquors. Panax quinquefolius L. var. coreensis Plant part used: Every plant part, leaves, flowers Lieb. and fruits, but above all the (dried) roots. Vernacular names: Chinese Ginseng; Korean Gin- Commodity: Ginseng roots in trade are classified seng; Oriental Ginseng; Red Berry; Ginseng; Allheil- according to (1) their sources (wild, wild simulated, kraut; Chinesischer Ginseng; Koreanischer Ginseng; woodsgrown, and cultivated), (2) their way of pro- Kraftwurz; Renshen; Ninsin; Sam; Zen-Szen;

1 June 2005 35 cessing after harvest (e.g. fresh, conserved in alcohol, Wild roots: mainly long and slender, of (dark) grey- dried, steamed, peeled, freeze-dried; e.g. sun-dried yellow colour; in particular at top very densely trans- = White Ginseng, hot-steamed before drying = Red verse ringed; rootstock clearly separated from the Ginseng), (3) their quality (Wild Ginseng, Heaven root, small, elongated, often bent or tortoise, with nu- grade, Straight Roots, Curved Roots, Slender Tails merous to many small, ovate to almost circular, re- resp. Fibres), and (4) the state of diminution (crude mote stem scars (the value of the wild-collected roots drug, cut into slices or pieces, powder). The bulk in increases with their age, i.e. with number of stem international ginseng trade is dried, whole roots scars); wild Chinese and North Korean roots are dried obtained from cultivation. by spreading roots and rootlets very carefully and arranging them in a nice manner; wild Russian roots Crude drug are wrapped with a thin piece of thread to fix the tiny General: roots spindle-shaped, 3.5-20 cm long, at top rootlets to the main root; 0.5-3 cm thick, tapering towards the bottom, often “Woodsgrown” and “wild simulated” roots: show cha- bent, from the middle sometimes repeatedly divided racters of wild and of cultivated roots; woodsgrown (forked) into root branches, very hard, brittle and not roots resemble more the cultivated roots being stronger easily broken (but easily absorbing water and softe- than wild roots, the transverse ringing being partly dis- ning after swelling); small rootlets often removed; tinctly remote, and the rootstock being strong with big fracture not fibrous; external surface longitudinally stem scars, but compared to the cultivated roots of dark wrinkled and with distinct transverse ringing; at the grey yellow colour; wild simulated roots resemble the top, the remains of the rootstock (rhizome) with ellip- wild roots, often very difficult to distinguish them from tical to circular, somewhat impressed stem scars; genuine wild roots. White Ginseng: roots straight, half-curved or curved, unpeeled, surface (dark-)grey-yellow, light-brown to Cut drug yellowish-white with scattered small orange dots (re- Root slices, thin, 1-3mm thick, circular to ovoid, sin glands); transverse section pale yellow to whitish oblique; margin irregularly slightly lobed and bent with distinct brownish yellow ring and yellowish to upwards; White Ginseng: transverse section white to brown dots (resin ducts) in the outer part; partly or yellowish, cartilaginous, brittle; in the outer third completely peeled roots show a white surface; with distinctly visible dark ring and with yellowish to Red Ginseng: external surface (dark) reddish brown brown dots (resin ducts); Red Ginseng: transverse with light to dark brown spots, horny, tough, partly section smooth, translucent, reddish brown; in the glassy translucent; longitudinal and transverse ring- outer third with clearly visible lighter ring; centre ing less visible as in White Ginseng; branches often darker coloured than the margin; torsive or crossed over; Root pieces, irregular, about 10mm long and wide. Cultivated roots: mainly thick, strong; transverse ringing Cultivation/wild-collection: P. ginseng is widely distinctly remote; rootstock head-shaped, short, thick, cultivated on a large scale, appearing initially in Ko- with 3-5 big, circular to elliptical (stem)scars; colour of rea, probably dating back to 100 B.C., but commer- White Ginseng light brown to yellowish white; cially known only since the 16th century. Today, the main producing country is the Republic of Korea, but to a lesser extent the species is also cultivated in Chi- na, Japan, Russia, the US, and in Europe (Germany, Netherlands). Cultivation is difficult and costly, due to expensive seeds, the artificial shadow construction and the 4-6-year cultivation time. Wild-collection has never stopped, but plays a minor role in (international) trade nowadays as most of the commodities in trade is sourced from cultivation. In former days, Ginseng had been collected all over its natural range, but during the last decades wild-collection has concentrated to the Russian Far East where Figure 1. Commodity of wild Ginseng roots in Russia- the major populations have remained until today. In RFE. The roots are traditionally wrapped with a thin piece these areas, during time of communism, collection of of thread, fixing the tiny and fragile rootlets to the main wild roots was regulated and controlled according to roots. The legal Russian export price is approx. USD 900,- well-established traditions, including specialised col- per root. – Photo: D. LANGE (Vladivostok, 22.9.1998).

36 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 lectors operating only in well-defined collecting areas, seng have declined rapidly during the 1990s due to the harvesting only mature roots in allowed quantities at dramatical changes from traditional and controlled fruiting time (late summer to early autumn), disper- collection to excessive, uncontrolled and illegal har- sing ripe fruits. Until 1991, up to 200 kg of fresh roots vest of wild Ginseng roots, carried out by many have been legally collected per year in Russia, drop- unskilled people operating in the same area. The har- ping to 50 kg in 1997 and at least to zero in 1998. vesting techniques have changed from collecting only During the 1990s, the annual illegal collection is esti- mature roots to collecting any size of roots, and ex- mated at 200-300(-600) kg of fresh roots. In China, tending collection time to the beginning of June until the biomass resources of wild roots are very small; the end of October. Loss, destruction or alteration of collection takes place above all in the Changbai the species’ habitat, for example logging of Korean Mountains in Jilin province. Pine forests, aggravate the decline. The rapidly decreasing population sizes have lead to loss of genetic Trade: International trade in ginseng roots (American diversity. Ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and Asian Ginseng, P. ginseng; commodity group HS 1211.20 resp. SITC.3 Red list assessment: Ex: KR; E: CN (Jilin, Liaoning, 292.42) based on UNCTAD COMTRADE database Hebei, Heilongjilang) (H. GILLETT, in litt.), RU (average trade figures for the 1990s): general: (RFE) (GOLOVANOV 1988). dominated by temperate Asian countries; world trade: Legislation: International level: In 2000, at the 11th 7,000-8,000 t, USD 230-280 mio (export: 45% tempe- Conference of the Parties to CITES (CoP 11), the rate Asian countries, 23% North America; import: 78% wild Russian populations of P. ginseng were included temperate Asian countries); countries of export: Hong in CITES Appendix II; only the whole or sliced roots, Kong (3,760 t, USD 81.4 mio), China (2,660 t, USD but not manufactured parts are subject to the provi- 43.4 mio), USA (870 t, USD 70.5 mio), Canada (840t, sions of CITES. National level: In Russia, collection, USD 36.5 mio), Republic of Korea (334 t, USD 63.3 trade and export of wild Ginseng roots are subject to mio); countries of import: Hong Kong (4,270 t, USD a licensing system based on annual collecting quota 198 mio), China (1,630 t, USD 36.7 mio), Japan (<1990: 200 kg, 1991-1997: 100 kg decreasing to (930 t, USD 29 mio), USA (628 t, USD 10.8 mio), 50 kg; >1998: 0 kg). In China domestic trade in and Malaysia (308 t, USD 7.7 mio), and Singapore (193 t, export of wild Ginseng roots are prohibited. USD 14.5 mio). Trade in wild Asian Ginseng roots: difficult to assess, Recommendations: To ensure the survival of P. gin- mainly illegal, only few estimates available; main seng populations, to increase population sizes and to actors are Russia, Hong Kong, China, Democratic ensure the sustainable use of wild plants, it is recom- People's Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, and mended (1) to improve its protection status by increas- Singapore; prior to 1917, legal export from Russia ing the number of protected areas with natural stands amounted annually to 380 kg dried roots, from 1917- of the species and to monitor the protected areas, (2) 1987 it declined to c. 100 kg, and further to 20 kg in to investigate and evaluate the genetic diversity of the 1998 destined to Hong Kong, Singapore, Republic of remaining populations aiming at its protection and Korea, and China; illegal? export of c. 500 kg (c. improving population sizes, (3) to monitor the imple- 300 kg of Russian origin) in the late 1990s from mentation of the provisions of CITES, (4) to stop ille- China to Hong Kong. Legal Russian export price c. gal harvest and export, (5) to extend the CITES listing USD 90,000/kg equal to c. USD 900 per root; in to all remaining wild populations. Hong Kong wild roots offered up to USD 20,000 for Acknowledgements an old and precious root. The author wishes to thank R. Melisch, A. Vaisman, Threats: Owing to the long period of use and wild- P. Fomenko, S. Lee, M. Song, A. Ishihara, S. Kang, collection of Asian Ginseng, the species’ range and Y.N. Zhuravlev, W.G. Bailey for providing their assi- population sizes have decreased steadily, and became stance. locally extinct leading to a fragmented distribution area with its exact former range being hardly possible Personal communications to assess. For example, China faced a great shortage in GILLET, H. (in litt. 17.2.2004). Ginseng roots already in the 19th century leading to References the necessity of imports from Korea, Japan, the US GOLOVANOV, V.D. (1988): Encyclopedia. Krasnaja Kniga RSFSR and Canada. In the Republic of Korea, the last popu- (rastenija) [Red list of Russian Federation (plants)]. – 590 pp.; lations of P. ginseng became extinct in the 1930s. In Akademia Nauka SSSR, Moskwa. the Russian Far East, the population sizes of P. gin-

1 August 2005 37 LANGE, D. (in prep.): Trade survey and threat assessment of ª Eleventh meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Panax ginseng, a medicinal plant in international trade. Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice ZHURAVLEV, Y.N. & KOLYADA, A.S. (1996): Araliaceae - Ginseng (SBSTTA 11). 8-15 December 2005, Montreal, and others. – 280 pp. + 8 colour tables, Dalnauka, Vladivostok (in Canada. Russian). English summary available at http://artedi.fish.wash ington.edu/okhotskia/ikip/Results/publications/aralia/title.htm Contact: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological (viewed 23.8.2005). Diversity • 413 St. Jacques St, Suite 800 • Montreal, For author's address see list of members. QC • Canada, H2Y 1N9 • Tel.: +1/514/288-2220 • Fax: +1/514/288-6588 • E-mail: secretariat@biodiv. org • Website: www.biodiv.org/doc/meeting.aspx?mtg Conferences and Meetings =SBSTTA-11. ª 1st IFOAM Conference on Organic Wild Coming up Production. 2-5 May 2006, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Natalie Hofbauer Contact: Agriculture Institute Banja Luka, E-mail: All websites viewed 24.8.2005. [email protected] • Gunnar Rundgren, E-mail: [email protected] • website: www.ifoam.org/events/ ª II Congreso de Biología de la Conservación de ifoam_conferences/IFOAM_Wild_Conference.html. Plantas. 21-23 September 2005, Gijon, Asturias, Spain. ª IX Congress of the Latin American Botanical Contact: Jardín Botánico Atlántico, Gijón • Avda. del Society (IX Congreso Latinoamericano de Botáni- Jardín Botánico • 33394 Gijón • Spain • E-mail: Di- ca). 19-25 June 2006, Santo Domingo, Dominican rección del congreso: [email protected] Republic. • Dirección Secretario: [email protected] • Website: Contact: Sonia Lagos-Witte • Jardín Botánico Nacio- www.botanicoatlantico.com (in Spanish). nal • Apartado Postal 21-9 • Santo Domingo • Domi- nican Republic • Tel.: 001809/3852611 • Fax: 001809/ ª Plants 2010 Conference: A global partnership 3850446 • E-mail: [email protected] • Website: for plant conservation – Supporting national im- www.botanica-alb.org/index2.html (in Spanish). plementation of the Global Strategy for Plant Con- servation. 22-25 October 2005, Glasnevin, Ireland Contact: Stella W. Simiyu • SCBD/BGCI Program CITES News Officer • Global Strategy for Plant Conservation • c/o Uwe Schippmann IUCN Eastern Africa Regional Office • Wasaa Centre, Off Mukoma Road, Langata • P.O. Box 68200 • 1. Conference of the Parties Nairobi 00200 • Tel.: +254/20/890605-12 • Fax: +254/ The 13th Conference of the Parties to CITES (CoP13) 20/890615/407 • E-mail: [email protected], stel- was held in Bangkok (Thailand) from 2-14 October [email protected], [email protected] • Web- 2004. Like in earlier occasions, a number of propo- site: www.plants2010.org. sals were discussed which dealt with medicinal plant species. The background of these proposals has been ª 1st DIVERSITAS International Conference on outlined already in MPC 9/10: 50-51; a summary of Biodiversity. 9-12 November 2005, Oaxaca, Mexico. the decisions is presented in Table 1 and under Contact: DIVERSITAS • 51, bd Montmorency • 75016 www.cites.org/eng/cop/13/cop13checklist.pdf. Paris • France • Tel.: + 33/1/45259525 • Fax: +33/1/428 Both Cistanche deserticola and Taxus wallichiana 89431 • E-mail: [email protected] • Website: were already included in Appendix II and the decisions www.diversitas-osc1.org.

Table 1. Medicinal plant decisions at CITES CoP 13. Taxon Proponent Proposal Decision Hoodia spp. BW, NA, ZA Inclusion in App II adopted by vote Cistanche deserticola CN Addition of Annotation #1 adopted by consensus Taxus wallichiana CN, US Amendment of Annotation #2 adopted by consensus Taxus chinensis, T. cuspidata, CN, US Inclusion in App II adopted by consensus T. fuana, T. sumatrana Aquilaria spp., Gyrinops spp. ID Inclusion in App II adopted by vote

38 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 refer only to a change of the annotation specifying the PC15 also discussed a number of new candidate spe- trade commodities which have to be controlled. cies for Significant Trade review. The decisions taken It is remarkable that three taxa have been listed on a at Geneva can be found at www.cites.org/eng/com/ generic level, thereby including all species in Appendix PC/15/E-PC15-WG2.pdf. Selected medicinal plants II (Hoodia: 14, Aquilaria c. 24, Gyrinops: 7 species). include Cibotium barometz in Viet Nam, Dendrobium The number of species on the CITES Appendices nobile in Viet Nam and Laos, Aloe ferox and four spe- which are threatened by the medicinal trade has risen cies proposed by the German delegation (see 2.2). from about 20 species to now more than 60 species. 2.2 Trade review of seven Asian CITES medicinal After inclusion, the challenge is now the implementa- species tion of these decisions in the range states and the impor- In 2004, the German Federal Agency for Nature Con- ting countries. This may now become easier in the case servation – Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN) – con- of agarwood trade. Prior to CoP13, only one species tracted TRAFFIC to undertake a review of the status, was included, Aquilaria malaccensis. The trade in agar- use, trade, and trade controls for seven of these spe- wood, however includes a number of other species in cies – Cistanche deserticola, Dioscorea deltoidea, the genus Aquilaria and the closely related Gyrinops. Nardostachys grandiflora, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Pte- Only now, after the CoP 13 decision to include all of rocarpus santalinus, Rauvolfia serpentina, and Taxus them in CITES, the border controls can be made more wallichiana. These were selected based on indications effective. that implementation of CITES trade controls remains In the case of Hoodia, an unprecedented annotation was problematic, and that international trade continues to adopted upon request of the range states which exclud- contribute to their decline despite CITES listings and es all material from CITES control coming from enter- earlier reviews. prises approved by the government as working sustain- A summary of the findings of this study were present- ably. Some participants saw this as a detrimental step ed at the PC (www.cites.org/eng/com/PC/15/E-PC15- for CITES and its Appendix II in general: It is the 10-02-02.pdf). They indicated that gaps in effective CITES export permit which genuinely approves the CITES implementation still exist and that there was sustainability of an export and this major component of merit in including several of these species within the the trade should not be going on outside of CITES mo- next phase of the CITES Review of Significant Trade. nitoring. A revision of the Hoodia annotation was an- In addition, the review also recommended greater nounced by the three range states during PC15. regional cooperation between the countries involved to 2. Plants Committee strengthen CITES implementation and enforcement for these species. For example, the trade treaty between The 15th meeting of the CITES Plants Committee Nepal and India should be modified in order to reflect (PC15) was held 17-21 May 2005 in Geneva (Switzer- CITES requirements. and attention be given by CITES land). It discussed a number of issues related to medi- Authorities of both countries to the lack of CITES cinal plants. implementation for Nardostachys grandiflora and other 2.1 Significant Trade Reviews CITES-listed species when traded from Nepal to India. An important initiative is the so called review of The Plants Committee subsequently selected Nardo- Significant Trade, in which the trade status and the stachys grandiflora, Taxus wallichiana, Pterocarpus effectiveness of implementation, particularly of santalinus and Rauvolfia serpentina for inclusion in the CITES Article IV (ensuring that exports are maintain- Significant Trade Review. The detailed assessments ed within sustainable levels), is reviewed for selected and recommendations of the review will be published taxa, resulting in country-directed recommendations. later this year and it was agreed that these would be Non-compliance by any state with the recommenda- further discussed at the 16th Meeting of the Plants tions resulting from this review may ultimately lead Committee in 2006. to a recommendation by the CITES Standing Com- 2.3 Annotations of medicinal plants in Appendix II mittee to suspend trade with that State in specimens of the species concerned. More than 60 internationally traded medicinal plant species are on the CITES Appendices, mainly on Ap- As for medicinal plants, currently under review are pendix II. Specific decisions have been made over time the Aloe species from East Africa used as extracts, which commodities are included under the CITES pro- Aquilaria malaccensis, and Prunus africana. Recom- visions. The Plants Committee has long noticed that mendations adopted by PC15 can be found at many of the annotations coined for this purpose do not www.cites.org/eng/com/PC/15/E-PC15-10-01-01.pdf. necessarily include the commodities relevant in trade.

1 August 2005 39 Under a MoU with the CITES Secretariat, the MPSG is supporting in a process to amend the annotations for CAMP Workshops some CITES medicinal species and to include the major commodities in the CITES listing. This will lead Conservation Assessment and to a meaningful trade monitoring and will enable the Management Prioritisation (CAMP) for CITES parties to take adequate conservation decisions. wild medicinal plants of North-East India At PC 15, a document was presented by the MPSG D.K. Ved, G.A. Kinhal, K. Ravikumar, R. Vijaya with recommendations for modified annotations Sankar & K. Haridasan (www.cites.org/common/com/PC/15/X-PC15-08-Inf. pdf). Uwe Schippmann chaired a working group in Introduction Geneva which reviewed these proposals and installed The north-eastern region of India is known for its rich an intersessional working group (www.cites.org/com floristic diversity. It has been estimated that this re- mon/com/PC/15/X-PC15-WG5.pdf). gion harbours around 7,500 taxa of flowering plants which constitutes nearly 40 % of the floristic diversi- Information request to MPC readers ty of India currently reported to be 19,400 taxa (KAR- With this request we ask our readers for their help THIKEYAN 2000). This region is also known for its uni- improving information about the trade in Podophyl- que medicinal plant wealth which is now perceived to lum hexandrum. be dwindling and threatened with rapid decline due to several factors which include habitat loss and degra- Podophyllum hexandrum is one of the species in the dation as well as unsustainable exploitation of the review with very limited information on trade. If wild resources. readers have information as to which commodities (plant part, processing stage, volumes) of this spe- The CAMP (Conservation Assessment and Manage- cies enter international trade we would highly ment Prioritisation) process has been effectively uti- appreciate if they let us know. Please get in contact lized by FRLHT (Foundation for Revitalisation of with the author ([email protected]). Your Local Health Traditions) over the past 10 years to data will be introduced in the process and your undertake rapid assessment of prioritised medicinal authorship acknowledged. plant species of conservation concern in different states/regions of India. For the medicinal plants of India, this methodology has been pioneered by the CBSG 2.4 Harpagophytum (Conservation Breeding Specialist Group) – India, in Although never listed on one of the CITES Appen- collaboration with FRLHT, since 1995. dices, Devil’s Claw has kept the PC busy for some FRLHT has so far facilitated 10 such workshops for years. Several tasks of the CoP had to be carried out, different states of India. These exercises have resulted mainly requesting range and importing states to report in assessment of a total of 304 medicinal plant taxa on their activities towards sustainable utilisation, nota- including 100 endemic and/or near endemic ones. Of bly through government-industry interaction. Ger- the 304 taxa assessed, 265 taxa have been assigned many as the major importer of Devil’s Claw submitted Red List status of “threatened” category i.e. Critically a report in this respect: www.cites.org/common/com/ Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable. PC/15/X-PC15-11-Inf.pdf. A CAMP workshop for medicinal plants of North- 2.5 Guaiacum sanctum East Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, The Mexican delegation reported on the progress of a Meghalaya and Sikkim was held at Guwahati (As- study on abundance, distribution and conservation sta- sam) during 27th February to 1st March 2003 (VED et tus of this Mexican species which is in trade for timber al. 2003). A total of 34 Indian participants belonging and medicinal uses. The project is co-funded by Mexi- to several well known institutions like Botanical Sur- co and the two importing countries USA and Germany. vey of India, State Forest Research Institute of Aru- The outcomes of this study will have an impact on the nachal Pradesh, University, other Research Institu- import policy of the European Union which has cur- tions and Colleges of north-eastern region actively rently restricted imports of G. sanctum from Mexico participated in the workshop. Most of the participants (www.cites.org/eng/com/PC/15/E-PC15-23.pdf). were experienced field botanists and foresters and All internet resources mentioned in this paper have their active participation made the successful conduct been viewed on 17.8.2005. of this rigorous assessment workshop possible.

40 Medicinal Plant Conservation 11 Preparatory Workshop cluded making addition on bibliographic records and As is the practice for such workshops, preparatory recent field studies, besides perceptions of population exercise was held a day ahead of the main workshop reduction, distribution etc. as well as the Red List sta- involving such participants who were to take up the tus. The final plenary session involving all the partici- responsibilities of Facilitators and Recorders in the pants reviewed the contents of each TDS, one by one, working groups of the workshop. The IUCN Red List and finalised it with appropriate corrections with con- criteria and categories (ANONYMOUS 2001) were sensus. Summary of results, relating to RL status assig- explained and ned to each taxon, are presented state wise in Table 2. discussed with these partici- Table 2. State wise number of taxa evaluated. pants in suffi- Assigned Red List Category Arunachal Pradesh Assam Meghalaya Sikkim Total taxa cient detail to Critically Endangered 6 (G: 2) 1 4 (G: 1) 1 9 (G: 2) facilitate smooth conduct of the Endangered 12 (G: 1) 8 (G: 1) 7 (G: 2) 8 22 (G: 3) main workshop Vulnerable 17 (G: 2) 7 (G: 1) 13 (G: 1) 12 (G: 1) 26 (G: 2) and proper re- cording of the Threatened taxa 35 (G: 5) 16 (G: 2) 24 (G: 4) 21 (G: 1) 46 (G: 7) data in the Taxon Near Threatened 8 1 2 2 10 Data Sheets Least Concern 3 2 1 2 6 (TDS). Data Deficient 1 3 5 9 11 Short-listing of species for as- Total taxa assessed 47 22 32 34 50 sessment Note: "G" refers to the number of taxa assigned Global RL status. At the start of the main workshop, the participants deliberated upon and The 50 assessed taxa belong to 45 genera from 33 discussed each of the 74 taxa short-listed during the flowering plant families, while 1 taxon is a non flower- preparatory process based on inputs relating to their ing plant (a tree fern). Orchidaceae is the most repre- conservation concern. This initial list of 74 taxa was sented family (6 species), followed by Piperaceae (4 generated based on inputs from two sources. Firstly, species), Valerianaceae and Ranunculaceae (3 species the FRLHT team listed 60 taxa of the region using each). Among the assessed taxa the highest number is several criteria like high volume trade, endemic status, of herbs (25 species) followed by trees (15 species), phylogenetic distinctness, reported rarity and/or rapid climbers (6 species) and shrubs (4 species). Of the 50 decline in availability, by referring to the databases on taxa assessed, 46 have been assigned threat categories trade, distribution and traditional systems of medicine for one or more states and 7 of these are threatened glo- being maintained at FRLHT. The scientists of the State bally being endemic or nearly so. These are Amento- Forest Research Institute (SFRI) of Arunachal Pradesh taxus assamica, Citrus macroptera var. annamensis, at Itanagar, and other potential participants of the Coptis teeta, Gymnocladus assamicus, Nepenthes kha- workshop proposed selection of 14 more taxa based on siana, Piper pedicellatum and P. peepuloides. Of these, their experiences and observations. The status of in- Arunachal Pradesh hosts 5 taxa, Assam 2, Meghalaya formation/data available with the participants, on each 4 and Sikkim 1. One of these 7 taxa, Piper peepuloides, of the taxa, was quickly reviewed and this resulted in occurs in all four states. arriving at the final list of 50 taxa (Table 1), to be taken Trade is a potential cause of threat for 43 taxa. Habi- up for assessment, which could be covered in a 3-day tat loss is a common threat to all the taxa, while a few workshop. These 50 taxa were divided into 4 sub-lists taxa are reportedly also threatened by other causes and each such sub-list consisting of 12-13 taxa was such as fire. Nepenthes khasiana is facing high threat assigned to one of the four working groups for detai- due to over collection as a botanical curiosity. Den- led deliberations and assessment (VED et al. 2003). drobium nobile is reportedly threatened on account of Threat Assessment Process over collection for hybridisation with domesticated In the CAMP workshop process, the recorders of each population. group recorded the details relating to the distribution Conservation action: status and prospects range, the population decline, trade etc. for each taxon Taxon specific conservation measures have been re- being assessed, in the TDS. Each such compilation was ported for Nepenthes khasiana (Meghalaya) and or- reviewed by another group. Such review process in-

1 August 2005 41

continued...

presence

% of global of global % ≈ 60 ≈ 30 5−10 ≈ 100 ≈ 40 ≈ 10 5−10 ≈ 50 50−60 10−20 ≈ 100 ≈ 100 10−15 < 5 < 1 ≈ 5 30−40 10−15 50−60 5−10

Status Global Global

CR (G) EN (G) EN (G)

)

Red List criteria applied criteria Red List A2c A2cd A2cd B1ab(i,ii,v) C2a(ii+2ab(i,ii,v); A2cd A2cd A2cd A2cd A2cd A2cd B2ab(iii) A2cd A2cd; A3cd A2cd A2cd - A2cd A2cd A2cd A2cd

AS,