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Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Jean-Jacques Rousseau Was a French Philoso- “A Discourse Upon the Origin and the Pher, Novelist, Autobiographer, and Composer

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Jean-Jacques Rousseau Was a French Philoso- “A Discourse Upon the Origin and the Pher, Novelist, Autobiographer, and Composer Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philoso- “A Discourse Upon the Origin and the pher, novelist, autobiographer, and composer. Foundation of the Inequality Among His two most important works of political Mankind” (1755) theory are the “Discourse on the Origin of I conceive two species of inequality among Inequality” (1755)—often called the “Second men; one which I call natural, or physical Discourse”—and The Social Contract (1762). inequality, because it is established by nature, The former was written as an entry to an essay and consists in the difference of age, health, competition at the Academy of Dijon. The bodily strength, and the qualities of the mind, question posed by the Academy was “What is or of the soul; the other which may be termed the Origin of the Inequality among Mankind; moral, or political inequality, because it and whether such Inequality is authorized by depends on a kind of convention, and is esta- the Law of Nature?” Rousseau did not win the blished, or at least authorized, by the common competition and instead published the dis- consent of mankind. This species of inequality course as a stand-alone piece. In it Rousseau consists in the different privileges, which some offers a conjectural history of the development men enjoy, to the prejudice of others, such as of mankind. His social philosophy centers that of being richer, more honored, more around notions of natural human goodness and powerful, and even that of exacting obedience the corrupting influence of society. The Second from them. Discourse is highly critical of previous social contract theorists, specifically Hobbes and It would be absurd to ask, what is the cause Locke. In The Social Contract, Rousseau of natural inequality, seeing the bare definition presents his positive view of political authority; of natural inequality answers the question: it that is, his picture of legitimate and just would be more absurd still to enquire, if there government. Rousseau takes up the challenge might not be some essential connection of reconciling individual freedom with political between the two species of inequality, as it rule. This reconciliation is achieved when would be asking, in other words, if those who government acts according to what Rousseau command are necessarily better men than those calls “the general will.” who obey; and if strength of body or of mind, wisdom or virtue are always to be found in individuals, in the same proportion with power, or riches: a question, fit perhaps to be discussed by slaves in the hearing of their masters, but 119 unbecoming free and reasonable beings in Let us begin therefore, by laying aside facts, quest of truth. for they do not affect the question. The resear- ches, in which we may engage on this occasion, What therefore is precisely the subject of are not to be taken for historical truths, but this discourse? It is to point out, in the progress merely as hypothetical and conditional reason- of things, that moment, when, right taking place ings, fitter to illustrate the nature of things, than of violence, nature became subject to law; to to show their true origin, like those systems, display that chain of surprising events, in which our naturalists daily make of the forma- consequence of which the strong submitted to tion of the world. Religion commands us to serve the weak, and the people to purchase believe, that men, having been drawn by God imaginary ease, at the expense of real happi- himself out of a state of nature, are unequal, ness. because it is his pleasure they should be so; but The philosophers, who have examined the religion does not forbid us to draw conjectures foundations of society, have, every one of them, solely from the nature of man, considered in perceived the necessity of tracing it back to a itself, and from that of the beings which sur- state of nature, but not one of them has ever round him, concerning the fate of mankind, had arrived there. Some of them have not scrupled they been left to themselves. This is then the to attribute to man in that state the ideas of question I am to answer, the question I propose justice and injustice, without troubling their to examine in the present discourse. As man- heads to prove, that he really must have had kind in general have an interest in my subject, I such ideas, or even that such ideas were useful shall endeavor to use a language suitable to all to him: others have spoken of the natural right nations; or rather, forgetting the circumstances of every man to keep what belongs to him, of time and place in order to think of nothing without letting us know what they meant by the but the men I speak to, I shall suppose myself word belong; others, without further ceremony in the Lyceum of Athens, repeating the lessons ascribing to the strongest an authority over the of my masters before the Platos and the Xeno- weakest, have immediately struck out govern- crates of that famous seat of philosophy as my ment, without thinking of the time requisite for judges, and in presence of the whole human men to form any notion of the things signified species as my audience. by the words authority and government. All of O man, whatever country you may belong them, in fine, constantly harping on wants, to, whatever your opinions may be, attend to avidity, oppression, desires and pride, have my words; you shall hear your history such as I transferred to the state of nature ideas picked up think I have read it, not in books composed by in the bosom of society. In speaking of savages those like you, for they are liars, but in the book they described citizens.… 120 of nature which never lies. All that I shall repeat always been, what we now behold it; that he after here, must be true, without any inter- always walked on two feet, made the same use mixture of falsehood, but where I may happen, of his hands that we do of ours, extended his without intending it, to introduce my own looks over the whole face of nature, and conceits. The times I am going to speak of are measured with his eyes the vast extent of the very remote. How much you are changed from heavens. what you once were! ’Tis in a manner the life If I strip this being, thus constituted, of all of your species that I am going to write, from the supernatural gifts which he may have the qualities which you have received, and received, and of all the artificial faculties, which your education and your habits could which we could not have acquired but by slow deprave, but could not destroy. There is, I am degrees; if I consider him, in a word, such as he sensible, an age at which every individual of must have issued from the hands of nature; I see you would choose to stop; and you will look out an animal less strong than some, and less active for the age at which, had you your wish, your than others, but, upon the whole, the most ad- species had stopped. Uneasy at your present vantageously organized of any; I see him condition for reasons which threaten your satisfying the calls of hunger under the first unhappy posterity with still greater uneasiness, oak, and those of thirst at the first rivulet; I see you will perhaps wish it were in your power to him laying himself down to sleep at the foot of go back; and this sentiment ought to be con- the same tree that afforded him his meal; and sidered, as the panegyric of your first parents, behold, this done, all his wants are completely the condemnation of your contemporaries, and supplied. a source of terror to all those who may have the misfortune of succeeding you. The earth left to its own natural fertility and covered with immense woods, that no hatchet Part One ever disfigured, offers at every step food and However important it may be, in order to shelter to every species of animals. Men, form a proper judgment of the natural state of dispersed among them, observe and imitate man, to consider him from his origin, and to their industry, and thus rise to the instinct of examine him, as it were, in the first embryo of beasts; with this advantage, that, whereas every the species; I shall not attempt to trace his species of beasts is confined to one peculiar organization through its successive approaches instinct, man, who perhaps has not any that to perfection: I shall not stop to examine in the particularly belongs to him, appropriates to animal system what he might have been in the himself those of all other animals, and lives beginning, to become at last what he actually is equally upon most of the different aliments, … I shall suppose his conformation to have which they only divide among themselves; a 121 circumstance which qualifies him to find his disposal, in being constantly prepared against subsistence, with more ease than any of them. all events, and in always carrying ourselves, as it were, whole and entire about us.… Men, accustomed from their infancy to the inclemency of the weather, and to the rigor of As yet I have considered man merely in his the different seasons; inured to fatigue, and physical capacity; let us now endeavor to obliged to defend, naked and without arms, examine him in a metaphysical and moral light.
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