THE SINIXT: ALIVE NOT 'EXTINCT' by LOUISE ALIDA POITRAS

Home , Galena Bay, Kettle Falls, Kootenay River, Sinixt

THE SINIXT: ALIVE NOT ‘EXTINCT’

LOUISE ALIDA POITRAS

Integrated Studies Project

submitted to Dr. Ken Banks in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts – Integrated Studies

Athabasca, Alberta

MAY 2007

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments 3

Dedication 4

Prologue 5

Introduction 6

The Organization of the Paper 9

Important Materials 11

Section Ia) Archaeological Records 15

Ib) Historical Context 17

Section II) Documentary reality for the Sinixt 21

Section III) Collective support for the Sinixt 25

Section IV) Legal Position 29

Conclusion 30

End Notes 33

2 Acknowledgments

My greatest appreciation and deepest respect for the following since without them this research paper would not have been possible.

Thank you Sinixt Marilyn James for your acceptance and belief in the truth.

My gratitude goes to my Algonquin blood, specifically the Kitigan Zibi Anishinabeg Band in Maniwaki Quebec for their continued support.

Thanks to Athabasca University and Dr. Ken Banks for your guidance and willingness to assist.

Thank you to Dr. Brian Moulson for your clarity and compassion.

Very special thanks to Dr. Arthur Bartsch for your irreplaceable knowledge and wisdom.

Finally and most importantly Thanks to my Mom for everything.

3 Dedication

‘Cause grandmother’s blood is Algonquin, Mother’s blood is Algonquin. Half of her and half of her Half of me, I am Algonquin.

The Sinixt are my relations, They are my sisters and my brothers. They are my Elders and my teachers. I acknowledge them and appreciate them. Thank you Sinixt for allowing me, Into your life and Onto your paradise land.

All First Nations are my relations, I respect, speak and write, For all of my relations. For those who’s blood was before, For those who’s blood is now, But most importantly, For those who’s blood is tomorrow.

I look forward…

Louise Buckshot Poitras

4 Prologue

We as a people have the ability to do great things on earth and it begins by doing little things with great love and patience, we need to acknowledge this nation’s First People,

the Sinixt. “While contemporary ways of being have their basis in the ways of persons

past, these things alone cannot make us who we are. True, concepts and practices can be

tenacious, but above all else, it is the feeling of connectedness, the idea of a shared

identity between past and present that is kept by living peoples who remember and

commemorate their history”1. Ultimately, the present is already gone and the future is

already here, certainly it is for the living, much like the Sinixt in the photograph below.

Top left is Sinixt members Bob Campbell, daughter Lola and the latest addition

granddaughter Agnice. Also appearing in the right corner is Robert Watt, who is the

appointed caretaker of the burial grounds at the Vallican site.

Agnice Sophia Campbell, born 9 October 2005. Photo: Nelson Express

1 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press, p. 147.

5 Introduction

This paper examines a diversity of perspectives and scholarly resources to gain a greater understanding of the past and present injustices bestowed upon a West

Kootenay’s First Peoples, the Sinixt (pronounced sin-eye-skt)1. The author will draw on

sources that make the argument that the Sinixt are a live people with a thriving

community but according to the Canadian government and many others these people are

‘extinct’. Anthropologists Paula Pryce says, “Virtually unknown of First Nations in

Canada, the Arrow Lakes or Sinixt Interior Salish of the North American Columbia

Plateau have been declared officially extinct”2. This inaccuracy in status lies at the heart of the matter for the Sinixt since it is the main barrier for recognition as the West

Kootenay's First People.

It is important to point out that there is a long list of significant other errors that

help to create and perpetuate the Sinixt uniqueness. Pryce points out that “in the very

first written records, an inconsistency of terminology causes disarray not only for

anthropologists and historians but also for governments and public”3. Accordingly,

attempting to achieve a cohesive and comprehensive understanding of the Sinixt is a

complex and demanding task.

Herein, the author will argue that in the field of archaeology, the Sinixt ancestral

remains provide empirical and indisputable evidence of a past life. Historical documents, oral and written are traceable and suggest the Sinixt presence in the West Kootenay region. Collectively the disciplines of archaeology and history positively assist in bridging some of the gaps to the Sinixt past, but not consistently. To gain a deeper knowledge of the Sinixt, First Nations studies, environmental economics, political

6 science, and sociology are also studied. Certainly in studying the Sinixt, the research and

development requires an integrated approach.

Throughout the analysis of the resources, it is important to be apprehensive and critical of all the documentations. Though equally significant for the author is to remain vigilant of the limited resources available. In the Sinixt case, any information, inaccurate or not is clearly better than no information, but the author will endeavor to keep the reader informed if the sources are questionable.

Aware of the Sinixt past and present challenges, this paper’s goal is to add to the

Sinixt voice and struggle for survival, long enough to see future generations. This section

emphasizes the greater collective voices of the people and communities that acknowledge

and support the Sinixt. Here it is important to point out the uplifting spirit and increased

support for the Sinixt arising from the Vallican confrontation.

The conflict arose when “in 1987 the Ministry of Highways began construction of

a new road at Vallican in the Slocan Valley. Construction was halted when many

artifacts, skeletal remains and pit-house depressions were uncovered”4. Not surprisingly

“the ancient village and burial grounds were studied, but no attempt was made to contact

any Sinixt descendants. The remains were sent to museums and the government

proposed establishing an information and picnic area at the site. When Sinixt elder Eva

Orr learned of these events, she sent some of her people to investigate”5. Since 1989 the

Sinixt continue to occupy and remain committed at the Vallican site, there will be more

on that in section III. For now, it will suffice to say that few are capable of imagining the depth of emotion that accompanies these old and unhappy souls of the departed.

7 Surely it is possible to find a balance between traditional and modern ways of life

and respect the West Kootenay Sinixt. It begins when “British Columbia entered the

Confederation of Canada in 1871, but was the only province that was ever allowed to do

so without any formal treaties. The Indian Act was established at this time, and it forced

many undesirable laws and conditions upon native groups across Canada”6. At that time,

a native was to register with the Department of Indian Affairs and they “recognized only a handful of Sinixt descendants”7. Thus in 1956 with the last ‘registered’ Sinixt member

passing on, it formally and legally entitled the Canadian government to deem the Sinixt

‘extinct’.

This, along with other oversights and errors in writings all add to the confusion

combining to create the delusion that the Sinixt are no more. For example,

“anthropologists have made a greater contribution to the obscurity than to the knowledge

of the Sinixt. Indeed, although they are recognized, the Sinixt are usually discussed only

briefly or as an aside to their cultural neighbours”8. In addition, “most historians,

museums and archives focus research and displays on the heady days of mining and city

construction”9. But more importantly and “the most frustrating reference of all ignores

any specification of ethnicity: generic terms like ‘Indian’ and ‘native’ are used liberally

in the”10 greater part of most writings. It is these views of inconsequentiality toward the

Sinixt that has them continually burdened with little to no documented evidence on its

People. Certainly this lack of literature does not bode well for the Sinixt, though as one

can imagine, it does for a large percentage of people living on the Sinixt traditional lands.

The West Kootenay land with its majestic mountains has the power to speak volumes therefore the First People’s research begins by listening to and searching the earth. The

8 mystery to hearing these particular sounds is simply to appreciate the guidance and

welcome the voice of a land committed to memory. Though it is important to point out,

whether it was for past generations or now, it takes a different and patient character to live and understand the West Kootenay region.

One such person is historian Eileen Delehanty Pearkes and her book The Geography

of Memory: Recovering stories of a Landscape’s First People. She brings awareness to

the area and the Sinixt by revealing the memory imbedded deep within the land of the

West Kootenay. Clearly, “even before European culture entered the area, stories of a pre-

historical aboriginal culture inform the landscape. The memory of the region’s First

People contributes to the landscape’s haunting but uplifting energy. In the long narrative which defines this place, a pre-contact culture lived here with dignity, determination and perseverance. As Pearkes says, this is nearly a forgotten story, but surely the mountains remember”11. More importantly this author will do her best to carefully listen to the land

and remember the Sinixt with words of honour and respect.

The organization of the paper

For the next few pages the author will describe how she has organized the material of the study.

Introduction

As mentioned above, resources from several disciplines have been drawn upon for this study. The archaeological records will clearly make a strong argument that the Sinixt are the West Kootenay’s First People. The historical data and information contribute and provide further support to the Sinixt’s claim. Paula Pryce’s book is the main resource referenced throughout the entire paper, although each of the four sections does include other important resources.

9 Section Ia) Archaeological Records

This first section will use the archaeological resources to establish the foundation for the Sinixt. Anthropology allows for that leap back to a time so that today’s anthropologists view the carbon-dated evidence as necessary. Sociology has a standpoint from an understanding of all sociological affects and effects on the Sinixt.

Ib) Historical Context

The historical documentation observes and views the oral and written contexts. The Sinixt, like most First Nation are of an oral tradition therefore it requires this clarification and perspective. Further the written history most definitely assists to solidify and trace the Sinixt past to present.

Section II) Documentary reality for the Sinixt

This is an important section since it analyzes the available resources to gain a greater awareness of the Sinixt documentary reality. The colonialists, miners, and settlers with the economic greed and pompous political ‘right’ are responsible for the Sinixt past and present challenges. As the western thought arrogantly and unforgivably tears away at the land, it is unwittingly destroying the Sinixt spiritualism and connection to its culture and People.

Section III) Collective support for the Sinixt

Here it is critical to emphasize the greater collective voices that acknowledge and support the Sinixt. This section makes clear to the accepting, the spirit of the Sinixt by revealing their traditional language, still used in the modern economy. The Sinixt integrated web site is the place to achieve a comprehensive and in depth understanding of the past, present, and future of this Community.

Section IV) Legal Position

Section IV begins with Canadian law and further examines the ‘extinct’ status of the Sinixt. Clarifying the lack of political ‘right’ for the Sinixt since 1956 when the Department of Indian Affairs’ attempts to close the dissemination of reality on these People.

Conclusion

The conclusion will provide compelling evidence supporting the Sinixt’s present and future challenges. Clearly identifying that the most important of these challenges rests in the recognition of the Sinixt as a People and a Community.

10 The materials are so important to this study that I have placed this annotated bibliography here to guide the reader as to the relevance of frequently utilized resources.

Introduction

Pryce, Paula. (1999). Keeping the Lakes' Way: Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press.

Paula Pryce’s central concept is to acknowledge the Sinixt as First Nation and to examine the officially declared ‘extinct’ status. She clearly emphasizes the deeply embedded challenges found in the history of the Sinixt. Further, the author addresses those confrontations that remain for today’s Sinixt. Pryce’s methodology has several primary sources such as articles, books and government documents. Certainly her concepts are comprehensive and rational. She writes from an academic and anthropological perspective.

“Keeping the Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples.” Text excerpts from Freya Zaltz, Stevland Ambrose, Shannon Hammond and Aaron Desilets. Keeping the Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples. One-hour audio documentary. Kootenay Co-Op Radio. Nelson, British Columbia. Retrieved from http://sinixt.kics.bc.ca/history.html.

The one-hour audio and the excerpts in the text’s main concentration are entirely on the history of the Sinixt. Alone or together both are an important source of Sinixt easily accessible historical information. The authors of this page are writing from a historical, contemporary and postmodern perspective.

Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press.

Pearkes’ main focus is to understand the West Kootenay territory and the region’s first inhabitants, the Sinixt. Throughout the research of her book, the writer learnt that the region’s cultures are different, even so there is always hope for a resolution in the future. The book’s methodology includes primary sources such as archival material, assessment reports and pictographs. Undeniably, her ideas are direct and expressed in a logical approach. She is writing from a historical and ethnographic perspective.

Section Ia) Archaeological Records

Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press. (Annotated in Introduction)

11 Section Ib) Historical Context

Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press. (Annotated in Introduction)

Kinney, Duncan. (2006, August 4). “The Sinixt nation: A history of racism.” Kootenay Western Star, 1(8), 12-14.

In this free weekly paper, Kinney’s reporting is important for its historical references. Most interestingly is that he clearly explains the differences between the Sinixt, the settlers and the federal government. Duncan Kinney is accurate in this informative article and he writes from a reporter’s position.

Section II) Documentary reality for the Sinixt

Pryce, Paula. (1999). Keeping the Lakes' Way: Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press. (Annotated in the Introduction)

Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press. (Annotated in Introduction)

Fisher, Catherine. (2004, June 15). “‘It isn’t easy being extinct’.” Nelson Daily News, 2.

Fisher’s article is significant because she begins by acknowledging Marilyn James. Further, she immediately addresses and links the Sinixt with National Aboriginal Day. Catherine Fisher’s words are concise in this local newspaper article and she is writing from a reporter’s perspective.

Johnson, Lisa. (2005, Apr. 27). “‘Extinct’ First Nation gets ancestral bones back.” Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2005/04/27/bones-sinixt050427.html.

Johnson, Lisa. (2005, Apr. 27). “Keep out of BC unless asked.” Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Broadcast twelve minutes and thirty seconds. Program City: Toronto. Retrieved www.cbc.ca/insite/WORLD_TORONTO/2005/4/27.html.

Lisa Johnson’s national news reports concentrates on the Sinixt ancestral bones that recently washed up in the Nelson area. With Johnson’s reports, it is imperative to understand the progression of a greater awareness for the Sinixt current challenges and the wider audience appeal with the CBC. She writes clearly as her statements are succinct, moreover she is writing from a national and reporter’s perspective.

12 Wonders, Karen Dr. (2007, Mar. 15). “First Nations Land Rights and Environmentalism in British Columbia”. Karlsruhe, Germany. Retrieved from http://www.firstnations.de/invasion.htm?02-4-sinixt-1.htm.

Dr. Karen Wonders’ web page concentrates on British Columbia First Nation land rights and environmental issues. She is the writer and producer and the site offers very educational and current information. The web page methodology consists of primary sources such as articles, and books in addition to many links including the Sinixt home page. Noticeably Dr. Wonders web site is contemporary and extensive. She writes from an academic and historical perspective.

Hollis, Susan. (2006, Sep.6). “Sinixt artifacts on loan to museum.” Express, 18(42), 7.

Hollis’ focal point in her article is the Sinixt artifacts that are currently on loan to the Nelson museum. It is important to point out that the story is set up beside a photo of three people including Sinixt headman Bob Campbell. Certainly Hollis is writing from a local resident and reporter’s perspective.

Robbins, Elliot. (2006, Oct. 20). “Nelson unveils cultural landmark.” Kootenay Western Star, 1(19), 1.

Elliot Robbins’ news article focuses on the grand opening of Nelson’s museum in its new location. In this brief commentary, it is significant to examine the picture and its caption that draws attention to a Sinixt girl. Evidently he writes from a resident reporter’s perspective.

Bouchard, Randy and Dorothy Kennedy. (2004). First Nations’ Aboriginal Interests and Traditional Use in the Waneta Hydroelectric Expansion Project Area: A Summary and Analysis of Known And Available Background Information. Waneta Expansion Power Corporation. Victoria, British Columbia.

Bouchard and Kennedy’s primary concern is to analyze and collect information for an expansion project in the Waneta area. The authors’ extended report funded and prepared for the Waneta Expansion Power Corporation. The methodology includes a long list of references including articles, assessments, and each author’s own pieces of writing. They are writing with an understanding of ethnography and ethnohistory.

Section III) Collective support for the Sinixt

Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press. (Annotated in the Introduction)

“Sinixt Nation The People of the Arrow Lakes.” Home page. Sinixt Nation web site. Retrieved from http://www.sinixt.kics.bc.ca.

13 The opening page to this integrated web site explains that its purpose is to bring a greater knowledge and understanding of the West Kootenay’s Sinixt. Clearly this is an essential and vital resource emphasizing the Sinixt past, present and future traditions. At the bottom of this home page, there are other significant links including history, resources, contact, guest book and Sinixt Radio. This web site’s methodology consists of several primary sources such as archive records, books and audio.

The one-hour audio and the excepted text’s main concentration are entirely on the history of the Sinixt. Alone or together both are an important source of Sinixt easily accessible historical information. The authors of this page are writing from a historical, contemporary and postmodern perspective.

“Sinixt Nation Radio.” Kootenay Co-Op Radio. Nelson, British Columbia.

The Sinixt Nation radiobroadcasts at 7pm Pacific Standard Time every 2nd Monday. People in the Nelson area of British Columbia can listen at 93.5 FM and if you live outside of the area, you can listen to Kootenay Co-op Radio's live internet broadcast. Certainly these monthly-aired programs are mostly from the greater collection of voices that support the Sinixt perspective.

Wilkinson, Myler. (2006, Autumn). “Mir Centre for Peace: A Brief Narrative History.” Mir Press Selkirk College, Castlegar, British Columbia. Retrieved from http://selkirk.ca/documents/SK88564_MIRHIS_2.pdf.

Dr. Wilkinson’s article focuses on the inspiration for, and the further development of the Mir Centre for Peace at Selkirk College. He begins by explaining the cultural and historical importance of the lands first peoples, the Sinixt. Next, Wilkinson emphasizes the influences of the area’s infamous Doukhobors. The methodology is chronological and cultural, he is concise and is writing from an academic perspective.

Section IV) Legal Position

Hollis, Susan. (2005, Nov. 9). “Sinixt push for legal identity.” Express, 18(1).

Kinney, Duncan. (2006, July 28). “Sinixt: Living with extinction.” Kootenay Western Star, 1(7), 12-14.

These newspaper reports are an accurate and brief description of the Sinixt legal challenges and the federal government’s role. Both pieces are significant for

14 understanding the Sinixt’s current legal predicaments. Certainly Hollis and Kinney are writing from a local reporter’s perspective.

Pearkes, Eileen. (2001). “Extinction of History? The Sinixt People, the West Kootenay Region and Post-Colonial Search for Landscape Truth.” Retrieved from www.cariboo.bc.ca/ae/beyond_hope/abstracts/extinctionoftruth.

This short article is important for setting up the documentary reality and others realities for the Treaty process. Pearkes clearly indicates the political reluctance to acknowledge and identify with the Sinixt. The author writes from an academic and postcolonial perspective.

Joyce, Art. (2007, February 28). “Sinixt Nation holds public information meeting in New Denver.” The Valley Voice, 16(4), 8.

Joyce’s newspaper article is the most current piece of information making reference to the Sinixt. This short article is essential for seeing and understanding the Sinixt current contributions. In this brief and encouraging editorial, he is writing from a regional perspective.

Archaeological Records

The greater part of the Sinixt territory is a land that remembers, it is a valley that lies

between the Monashee and Selkirk mountain ranges. “From the headwaters of the

Columbia River north of Nakusp, to Kaslo in the West, Revelstoke in the East, and down

into what is now known as Washington State, the Sinixt people lived in harmony with

this land. They had extensive trade routes known as grease trails, traveled by foot and

with sturgeon-nosed canoes, lived in pit houses, hunted caribou, fished and gathered wild

plants and medicines”12. (See Sinixt web site)

15 The Sinixt traditional lands

Sinixt Traditional Territory. Source: Paula Pryce, Keeping the Lakes' Way.

Archaeologists excavate beneath the surface as they search to find the answers in artifacts frozen in a specific space and time. Pearkes points out that the “evidence gathered by a limited number of archaeological investigations in West Kootenay valleys points to those using the West Kootenay several thousand years ago being the distant ancestors of”13 the Sinixt. What’s more is the “archaeological evidence of permanent village sites dating from 6000 b.p. to the time of European contact exist all over the West

Kootenay”14. Historian Karen Wonders describes the process, “the European invasion of the West Kootenay caused a Sinixt diaspora: whole valleys were depopulated by disease and epidemics and the survivors were dispossessed by settlers, miners and governments.

Vast fortunes were made while mining degraded the earth and poisoned the lakes, logging destroyed the ancient forests, dams killed off the salmon and caused Sinixt

16 villages and burial sites to be flooded”15. Despite this great-collaborated effort to divide the Sinixt from the land and extinguish them forever, the author’s sources document that these West Kootenay’s First People survive.

Documented sources like this commemorative plaque. “In 1954 the BC government marked the anniversary of the International Boundary in Sinixt Territory. The Indian Legend Plaque (left) commemorates the event that led to the annihilation of the Sinixt: “When the International Boundary line was being surveyed in 1857-1861, the major portion of the large Indian band then living in this area moved to the reservation at Colville, Washington. One of the Indians entwined two sapling pines, saying ‘Though Divided We Are United Still - We Are One.’ This tree symbolizes the spirit of friendship existing between Canada and the United States.”16

Historical Context

In order to understand the present day Sinixt, it is imperative to research history given that everyone is a direct reflection of the past. Immediately it is critical to emphasize that the Sinixt are an oral culture and history. Marilyn James explains, “in storytelling not only does each teller relate the story in his or her own unique way, but also each listener hears and imagines the story in his or her own way. That is the beauty of the oral tradition”17.

Before moving on a significant person to the Sinixt tradition needs mentioning,

Elder Eva Orr. Contemporary Sinixt show of force arrived in 1989 when their ancestral remains began to reappear. When Elder Eva Orr heard the devastating news that people

17 in the area uncovered Sinixt ancestral remains, she immediately sent strength and support

to the Vallican area. Two such significant Sinixt members are the current official

spokesperson Marilyn James and caretaker at the Vallican site Robert Watt. The Sinixt

continue to occupy and “have occupied the Vallican site in the Slocan Valley of

southeastern British Columbia since 1989”18. Robert Watt resides on and takes care of

Vallican (nkweio'xten). Robert Watt and Marilyn James Map: Bouchard and Kennedy Photo: Jackie Haywood

the land, and Marilyn James works locally for Selkirk College as Aboriginal Advisor.

Elder Eva Orr shared a significant story in the Sinixt oral culture and history, that

of Frog Mountain. “It was during a reburial in Vallican in the early 1990’s that Sinixt

Eva Orr (right), 1991. Frog Mountain, from Vallican, Sinixt Territory. Photo: J. Addington Photo: Dick Tilton

18 Elder Eva Orr gave the first “telling” of the Frog Mountain Story to all who attended and thus publicly demonstrated that this story was now to be shared”19. Today, Sinixt

Marilyn James tells this remarkable story in a one-hour audio entitled “Keeping the

Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples”20.

It is important to understand that “the social organization of the Sinixt has been classified by one anthropologists as matrilocal, with the next generations choosing to reside with the wife’s family rather than the husband’s”21. Ultimately with the passing of

Elders Eva Orr and Nancy Wynecoop, a significant part of the Sinixt culture and history is lost. Fortunately Elder Eva Orr told the story of Frog Mountain and Elder Nancy

Wynecoop told the story Mountain Goat and the Origin of Huckleberry to anthropologist

William Elmendorf. Here is this culturally and historically informative story in its entirety…

Mountain Goat and the Origin of Huckleberry Eagle, person who lived at Kettle Falls---she was a very beautiful creature--- in a myth times---her teachers decided to give her to the best runner---report was sent all over and competitors come to Kettle Falls ---course lead over rough ground and precipice---one precipice hung directly over the Columbia--- Mountain Goat lived far up north in the mountains---he sent his sons---the eldest has already come to Kettle Falls to court the Eagle---she despised him and so did all the people---their legs, big horns, thick body---Old Goat decides to send rest of his sons and restore his honour---they brought huckleberries as their contribution to the doings --- When they got to Kettle Falls the people all said: “here are some of those ugly creatures coming---how can they ever run a race with their thick bodies” ---all the racers were out there with their contributions---the goats were so unpopular that their contribution was set aside and grouped with the others---the other brother goat was sitting by himself despondently---the brothers planted a huckleberry bush they had brought from home in front of this brother---he ate all the berries off it and felt all spruced up and recovered his self- respect after this act of kindness --- The people finally decided to let the goats run although nobody thought they could win---at the beginning of the race the goats all grouped together while running and everybody laughed to see them do this---after running they came to the cliff and raced right across the face of the rock---none of the other animals could do that, so they won the race by a long way --- At the beginning the old grandmothers went over and were going to throw the huckleberries in the river---when they saw them go across the face of the cliff, they won the people’s esteem---the grandmothers then brought the choice basket of berries over to the girl for her to taste and name---she named it the “sweet

19 berry”---from the bush the goats had planted come all the huckleberries now in this part of the country --- The goats after the race did not force themselves on the people or Eagle--- they just set out for home---Eagle followed after them: Eagle said that when she saw the goats in her home at Kettle Falls she thought them very shabby---but as they travelled toward home their coats became white as snow and she saw how they nibbled only the dewy tips of fresh grass---she tended carefully Old Goat and was able to accompany the goats about the mountains. So Old Goat adopted her and she married the eldest son and stayed in the mountains---she builds her nest there still. Fish Hawk [osprey], Buzzard, Water Snake, Mountain Magpie---all natives of the place all followed after the goats to marry them Watersnake never got as far as the mountains where the sna’itskstx [Sinixt] live, just to where the Kootenay hits the Columbia Eagle married the oldest goat Some of the girls followed the goats when they got up to where the old man lived. The Fish Hawk saw Jack Rabbit (“Long Ears”)---Rabbit was sitting in the corner and every time he moved his head his ears flopped and mad her giggle--- she also laughed at the old chief goat because of his appearance---instead of atti- tude of reverence---the boys didn’t like this at all so they sent her away---she came down out of the mountains into the Columbia River Valley---can be heard screaming as she fishes there yet. 22

At best inconsistent and limited, thankfully there are some documents written about the Sinixt culture and history. Regrettably much like every First Nation, the Sinixt historical texts plague with the horrific account of genocide. Definitely not a consecutive or inclusive record but it begins with diseases like measles and smallpox. “The presence of Europeans had been felt earlier in the 1770s and 1780s as a smallpox epidemic, likely spread through inter-tribal trade. This epidemic was the first of many to affect the Sinixt over the next several decades. Measles and influenza followed in succession, then possibly smallpox again, to reduce the population even more”23. But no matter how great the effort to eliminate the Sinixt, some managed to survive these diseases if only to face further challenges.

With few surviving Sinixt, the strategy of disillusionment and dispossession of their sacred land and territory was in place. Next, “the arrival of miners and settlers in the late 1880s and early 1890s made traditional seasonal rounds an uncertain and sometimes dangerous experience for the Sinixt”24. Not only dangerous but also deadly

20 and murderess as Sinixt Cultus Jim unfortunately found out. “Cultus Jim was shot twice,

once through the heart May 11, 1894, at Galena Bay near Revelstoke after a dispute with

settler and miner Samuel Hill. Cultus Jim’s death was emblematic of the early relations

between two clashing cultures; the Sinixt and the early settlers of the Kootenays, mostly

miners”25.

What’s important to emphasize in the murder of Sinixt member Cultus Jim is that

“Hill pleaded guilty but it was quickly pointed out that he didn’t have to”. Subsequently

“Hill was later found not guilty by a jury in a matter of minutes. This rare documented

case of a dispute between the settlers and the Sinixt is sadly illustrative of the early

relationship between these two competing groups”26. With the rush for precious

minerals and the area’s unspoiled lands, the miners and settlers came to stake their claims

as the Sinixt continued to fight for their land and life.

Documentary reality for the Sinixt

Throughout the 1900s the Sinixt relationships in the West Kootenay region

improved to some degree. Incredibly the Sinixt survived another century and as a result there is an increase in the amount of available resources acknowledging the Sinixt past

and present life. As Pearkes points out “by the time anthropologists entered the more

remote corner of the West Kootenay just after the turn of the century to gather cultural and historical information about the region’s First Peoples, the presence of the Sinixt was

already faint and growing fainter, making an accurate depiction of even the recent past

very challenging for those early scholars”27. Pryce concurs, “many gaps exist in the

ethnographic record, yet that record in conjunction with historic sources offers enough

data to round out a partial picture of Sinixt lifeways from the early nineteenth century to

21 the present”28. She continues, “even though they have been lumped into generalized regional categories, the Sinixt were nevertheless recognized for their cultural distinctiveness”29. As such, there is no question that it is difficult to retract the

recognized Sinixt cultural distinctiveness once it is in clear text.

Unfortunately it is here that the documentary reality begins to take on an entirely difficult and apparently devious perspective, that of the academics and government.

“Scholars have pushed theoretical tools to an erroneous extreme, believing that an absence of documentary evidence indicates an absence of history”30. In doing so the

academics not only complicated but further confused issues concerning the Sinixt.

Evidently “there is no simple answer to understanding a people through time. Our aids are ethnography, oral and documentary history, and archaeology. With such confusion in

the literature, the task of defining the Sinixt identity and history is not easy”31.

On the other hand, not impossible to define because of the documented reality of important Sinixt people like the registered members of the Christian family. Clearly this family embodied the cultural distinctiveness of the Sinixt as they attempted to pass these on in the area now known as Castlegar. “Though the Castlegar valley had every historical and pre-historical reason to be considered significant and central to the Sinixt

still remaining in the West Kootenay at the turn of the 20th century, in 1902 a reserve was

instead set up at Oatscott”32. Regrettably the government’s “decision was made despite

detailed correspondence received from a man named Baptiste Christian, head of a large

Sinixt family living”33 near Castlegar.

The Christian family refused to move from the area and attempted to further plead

their case when “in 1909, they enlisted the support of noted anthropologist James Teit”34.

22 Pessimistically, the Christian family’s requests to remain in the area and continue to live on their land would fall on deaf and ignorant ears. In the photo below is “Alex Christian, the last member of a Sinixt family before the government-declared extinction to live on traditional lands beside the mouth of the Kootenay River at present-day Brilliant”35.

---Canadian Museum of Civilization “I want to stay in the home where I have always been and want that I have a piece of land made secure for me…I also ask that the graveyards of my people be fenced and preserved from desecration. ---Alex Christian, 1914”36. Miserably, registered Sinixt member Alex

Christian’s pleas made no difference to the Canadian government, as a result “ancestral land can be partitioned, entitled, sold, built upon. Gravesites can be plowed, pithouse depressions filled in, villages buried. But something remains, stuck like a rock in the current, noticeable even beneath all the smoothings of time and memory”37.

Eventually these Sinixt ancestral remains will and have made it to surface once again to remind everyone of their past and current ties to the land. Beginning in 1989 and continuing into 2005, when the local RCMP “returned some human remains that washed up on the shores of Arrow Lakes to a First Nation that’s supposedly extinct”38, to Sinixt member Marilyn James. Unfortunately, these two skeletal remains discovered in 2005 are not the first for the Sinixt. Actually, “as of 2006, the Sinixt have repatriated and reburied a total of 61 skeletal remains”39. Even more distressing as Marilyn James goes

23 on to explains in her CBC commentary “because of our distinction of extinction, it’s very

hard for people to officially make contact with us”40. Consequently there is always a possibility and the painful feeling that some Sinixt ancestral remains have yet to find their way home to their proper resting place.

One would think that the Sinixt quickly gained support with locals, government, and scholars with this astonishing figure of ancestral remains found in the area. Indeed there is no question that the references to the Sinixt are more abundant now than ever before, more importantly is that they continue to accumulate over the years. Even if the references do not always portrait a positive picture of the Sinixt, they are nonetheless a reference.

For example, the current and local article entitled “Sinixt artifacts on loan to museum”41 sets this photo beside the story. Regrettable and strange that the writer would

use this particular image since she fails to acknowledge and mention Sinixt headman Bob

Campbell located on the far right.

Additionally, in October of 2006, a local news writer focused on the grand

opening of Nelson’s museum in its new location. Under the photo the caption read “THE

GRAND OPENING --- Nelson Mayor John Dooley helps a Sinixt girl cut the ribbon to

officially open Touchstones Nelson”42. Yes it is excellent that a local writer recognizes

24 and makes reference to the Sinixt, unfortunately the young girl is not Sinixt. The argument being that for some, when it is convenient to include the Sinixt, they cannot even do that appropriately or successfully.

Lastly on this subject, there is little mention of the Sinixt in an extended report entitled First Nations’ Aboriginal Interests and Traditional Use in the Waneta

Hydroelectric Expansion Project Area: A Summary and Analysis of Known And

Available Background Information. Bouchard and Kennedy prepared this for the Waneta

Expansion Project and interestingly enough neither interviews or makes reference to interviews with any current Sinixt members.

Collective support for the Sinixt

The collective voices that acknowledge and support the Sinixt are not many but they most definitely are greater than the previous century. Paula Pryce and her book

‘Keeping the Lakes’Way’ Reburial and the Re-creation of a Moral World among an

Invisible People is clearly supportive of the Sinixt. In her opening page she expresses that “while telling a troubling story of dispossession and diaspora, grave sites and reburials, this powerful narrative also looks at the complex process of the construction and reconstruction of identity in a world of constantly shifting boundaries. It is the first book devoted to the story of the Sinixt”43.

Certainly the Sinixt have and will always view themselves as the West

Kootenay’s First Peoples regardless of the way people may view them. Unfortunately for the Sinixt and “for archaeologist identity is tricky. So is political territoriality. Physical objects are limited in what they say about ethnic identity, something as contemporary and ever-changing as the way people view themselves”44. Pryce says, “identity comes from

25 the way individuals currently define their group through time, not from fixed cultural lifeways”45. A people are not static, they adapt over generation accordingly and this is transparent and visible in their being. After all “the race-tribe exists only at the level of an oppressed race, and in the name of the oppression it suffers: there is no race but inferior, minoritarian; there is no dominant race; a race is defined not by its purity but rather by its impurity conferred upon it by a system of domination”46.

Presently the Sinixt are a live people and they most certainly chose to define themselves as such, therefore it seems impossible that they are ‘extinct’. However, the first part of the challenge for the Sinixt is that the Canadian government has never recognized them “to be distinct Interior Salish people whose ancestral territory spanned the international boundary”47. And when the last registered Sinixt member Annie Joseph died “in 1953, the Oatscott Reserve lands were transferred to the control of the province and the Department of Indian Affairs”48 declared the Sinixt officially ‘extinct’ in 1956.

The Sinixt key challenge and disagreement begins and ends with this documentary reality. The reality that no Sinixt member can register in Canada because the government does not recognize these West Kooenay’s First People and it continues to say that they do not exist.

Equally challenging and vital for the Sinixt is the repatriation and reburial of their ancestral remains that continue to surface and wash up in and around the Vallican site.

Marilyn James says, “we have a cultural law that says you must, when you are done with this body, go back to the earth. When people go and dig up our ancestors and put them on shelves, in boxes, in macramé wall-hangings, or use them for other types of decoration, it makes my ancestors break their cultural law. They can't go back. And it is our

26 responsibility, because we are the descendants of those people. They are our ancestors. It is our responsibility to bring our ancestors home and rebury them and protect their resting

places”49. Obviously this is a necessary place for the Sinixt because it identifies and

attaches the past to the present. In the photos below, the “Sinixt teepee encampment

protesting road building and excavation at Vallican, the site of an ancient village and

burial ground in the Slocan Valley of the West Kootenay. The Sinixt camp was set up in

1989 and is the longest on going aboriginal occupation of Crown land in Canada”50.

Photo: Cliff Woffenden Photo: Peacemaker

A major resource for delivering the Sinixt voice is its web site, more importantly the

Sinixt can gain support from the collective voices of the world. This integrated web

site’s purpose is to bring a greater knowledge and understanding to the Sinixt past,

present, and future traditions. “Little is known locally about those who came before us, and although many myths and misconceptions about the Sinixt abound, their culture is still alive, still connected with this land, and still determined to leave a legacy to the next

generation”51. Since the web pages and site updates are regularly performed by the host

Kootenay Internet Communications Society (KICS), it offers accurate and the most

current information with respect to the Sinixt.

From the Sinixt home page, there is a link to an informative one-hour audio entitled

“Keeping the Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples”52. As

27 mentioned earlier, in this productive and supportive audio, Marilyn James reveals

valuable aspects of the Sinixt culture, history, and spirituality. These latter subject matters observed in the context, as the title suggests, of the past, present, and future for the Sinixt. A historical and interesting point that the exurbs in text explains, “a visitor to the Columbia Basin will be unlikely to see any indication that there was ever a native culture that thrived for so long in this region. Most of the Sinixt traditional villages and burial grounds were flooded with the damming of the Arrow Lakes. We know of only one monument to the Sinixt. In the town of Edgewood, there is a totem pole that was erected in the late 1960's. It was commissioned by B.C. Hydro as a commemorative to an extinct race. Totem poles were made by Haida natives and never the Sinixt. But beyond this fact is the reality that the Sinixt are not extinct”53.

An alternative and imperative resource since it is continual, is the Sinixt Nation

Radio, again linked from its web site. The Sinixt Nation radiobroadcasts every 2nd

Monday at 7pm Pacific Standard Time. For all of those people living in the Nelson area

of British Columbia, they can listen at 93.5 FM and if they live outside of the area, they

can listen to Kootenay Co-op radio's live internet broadcast. Certainly these monthly- aired programs are mostly from the greater voices that support the Sinixt perspective.

Other shows of support like The Nelson Brewing Company have a section entitled

“Essential Links” and they provide a direct link to the Sinixt web page.54

For many years now, the Sinixt “and neighboring residents, including local Quakers

and Doukhobors, have observed Thanksgiving together”55. In a recent newspaper article,

Sinixt headman Bob Campbell explains, “we’ve been feeding people around here for 19 years, so we figured why not invite everybody. So many people come together we turned

28 into a festival”56. This festival is crucial for seeing and understanding past and present

Sinixt and their spiritual celebrations. “Each year, the Sinixt give gifts away to

individuals who have helped them; they also raffle items to help raise funds for legal costs and camp expenses”57.

Before moving on to the final section, it would be imprudent and unwise not to mention the Mir Centre for Peace at Selkirk College in Castelgar, BC. Dr. Wilkinson’s article focuses on the inspiration for, and the further development of the Mir Centre for

Peace and he explains the cultural and historical importance of the lands first peoples, the

Sinixt. Here it is important to point out that “from its inception the Mir Centre for Peace has held a space open for First Nations peoples-the earliest human inhabitants of this land. Although historically a source of life for many Aboriginal groups, the Mir lands are generally acknowledged as part of the Sinixt people”58.

Legal Position

Then and now, if anything is in danger of extinction, there is usually a rally from all

levels of government to protect and save it from vanishing. But unfortunately for the

Sinixt this rally did not happen, consequently they “lost their status and were declared

officially extinct by way of the Indian Act in 1956”59. With the Sinixt unique ‘extinct’

status, it is all too easy for many people to assume that there are no Aboriginal peoples

left in this area. Nevertheless, “despite being declared extinct by the federal government,

the Sinixt are not extinct and never have been”60.

To make matters worse for the Sinixt, “even though local and provincial governments

have received and had on file many archaeological and ethnographic reports which

confirm the Sinixt pre-historical and historical presence here, government officials have

29 not widely or publicly acknowledged this fact, referred to the reports, or facilitated the

telling of the landscape’s true story to the general public”61. Certainly, there is a clear indication of the political reluctance to acknowledge and identify with the Sinixt.

A final word on law, specifically those dealing with the land “if what you’re doing

isn’t sustainable to the seventh generation, then it shouldn’t be done. That’s the natural

‘law of the land,’ according to Sinixt spokesperson Marilyn James, that protects the land,

air and water (LAW)”62. “The Sinixt were invited to sit on a roundtable discussion hosted by SARCO (Species at Risk Coordination Office) regarding the endangered mountain caribou. James said SARCO is “managing for extinction,” and is prepared to sacrifice some of the caribou herds. The Sinixt are therefore seeking legal counsel for a blanket injunction over the entire mountain caribou habitat area, by asserting aboriginal rights. The problem with this solution is that the Sinixt’s ‘extinct’ status has yet to be legally revoked. Such an injunction would bring serious liability issues with it”63.

Wretchedly, “within the treaty process, the Sinixt are silenced by their lack of official

legal status in Canada. But perhaps more significantly, accurate pre-history of this

landscape is silenced by present-day politics”64. Sinixt lawyer David Aaron explains,

“there are a lot of issues on various scales. There are environmental issues and rights of individuals. On the broad scale, we are in the process of seeking recognition under

Section 35 of the Canadian Charter of Rights”65. “Knowing the Sinixt story is essential to formulating a post-colonial, place-based identity, one with integrity and respect for the past, regardless of the political pressures of the present”66.

30 Conclusion

Canada’s First Nations have made major strides towards representation and self- government but there are still serious challenges. Certainly the Sinixt have made some

progress over the years, nonetheless there remains a great deal more to accomplish if they

are ever to be recognized. Accordingly, the Sinixt survival remains in a constant struggle

for identity and status as the West Kootenay’s First People. Chief Dan George said it

best on Canada Day in 1967 “I shall see our young braves and our chiefs sitting in the

houses of law and government, ruling and being ruled by the knowledge and freedoms of

our great land. So shall we shatter the barriers of our isolation. So shall the next hundred

years be the greatest in the proud history of our tribes and nations”67.

Non First Nation and “non-Sinixt in Canada seem to have mistaken latency of a territory for the disappearance of a people. Such a perspective on the history of the

Arrow Lakes people fits very much into the nineteenth-century paradigm with which our society, both academic and popular, continues to struggle”68. For sure, “we have

relegated the Sinixt to the past, to extinction, only to be startled when they rise from the

dead to reclaim their own. Ironic, yes, that the living only appear so that they can take

from us bones of their ancestors, all that have been previously visible to us”69. It is

important to remember as Robert Watt explains, “take care of your ancestors, and your

ancestors will take care of you”70. Further Bob Campbell is dedicated and unwavering

with these following words, “we are still invisible, still extinct to them. Well, now we’re

back, looking for a place to come and die”71. Because much like the animal and plants once gave meaning to this land “so, too, can the meaning of a place and its First People enrich the present and inform the future. The stories of the Sinixt are like eggs released

31 into the gravel for rebirth. They have been long embedded. I hope they will like the fish

themselves, spring to life and enter the wild streams of time, becoming part of a renewing

cycle of wisdom and respect for the landscape”72.

We as a people have the ability to do great things on earth and it begins by doing little things with great love and patience, we need to acknowledge this nation’s First People,

the Sinixt. “While contemporary ways of being have their basis in the ways of persons

past, these things alone cannot make us who we are. True, concepts and practices can be

tenacious, but above all else, it is the feeling of connectedness, the idea of a shared

identity between past and present that is kept by living peoples who remember and

commemorate their history”73. Ultimately, the present is already gone and the future is already here, certainly it is for the living, much like the Sinixt in the photograph below.

Top left is Sinixt members Bob Campbell, daughter Lola and the latest addition granddaughter Agnice. Also appearing in the right corner is Robert Watt, who is the appointed caretaker of the burial grounds at the Vallican site.

Agnice Sophia Campbell, born 9 October 2005. Photo: Nelson Express

32 End Notes

1 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press, p. 147.

1 http://encycl.opentopia.com/term/Sinixt 2 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press, opening page. 3 Ibid, p. 15.

4 “Keeping the Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples.” Text excerpts from Freya Zaltz, Stevland Ambrose, Shannon Hammond and Aaron Desilets. Keeping the Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples. One-hour audio documentary. Kootenay Co-Op Radio. Nelson, British Columbia. Retrieved from http://sinixt.kics.bc.ca/history.html. 5 Ibid.

6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. 8 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press, p. 7. 9 Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press, p. 9. 10 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press, p. 15.

11 Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press, p. 8.

12 “Sinixt Nation The People of the Arrow Lakes.” History page. Sinixt Nation web site. Retrieve from http://www.sinixt.kics.bc.ca.

13 Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press, p. 10. 14 Ibid, p.11.

15 Wonders, Karen Dr. (2007, Mar. 15). “First Nations Land Rights and Environmentalism in British Columbia”. Karlsruhe, Germany. Retrieved http://www.firstnations.de/invasion.htm?02-4-sinixt-1.htm. 16 Ibid. 17 James, Marilyn and Jacqueline Heywood. (2000, Jun. 28). “Frog Mountain Curriculum Project.” Dedication, p.2. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:k2Wl- AWcyt0J:www.ckfrp.com/downloads/CKFRP%2520Final%2520reports%2520in%2520PDF%2520for mat/Frog%2520Mountain%2520final%2520report%25201999- 2000.pdf/Frog%2520Mtn%2520Curriculum%2520final%2520report%25201999.pdf+Sinixt+Thanksgi ving&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=6&gl=ca.

18 Ibid, p.6.

19 James, Marilyn and Jacqueline Heywood. (2000, Jun. 28). “Frog Mountain Curriculum Project.” Dedication, p.4. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:k2Wl- AWcyt0J:www.ckfrp.com/downloads/CKFRP%2520Final%2520reports%2520in%2520PDF%2520for mat/Frog%2520Mountain%2520final%2520report%25201999- 2000.pdf/Frog%2520Mtn%2520Curriculum%2520final%2520report%25201999.pdf+Sinixt+Thanksgi ving&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=6&gl=ca.

20 James, Marilyn. Keeping the Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples. One-hour audio documentary. Kootenay Co-Op Radio. Nelson, British Columbia. Retrieved from http://sinixt.kics.bc.ca/history.html. 21 Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press, p. 11.

22 Ibid, p. 22-23. 23 Ibid, p.13. 24 Ibid. p. 28.

25 Kinney, Duncan. (2006, August 4). “The Sinixt nation: A history of racism.” Kootenay Western Star, 1(8), 12. 26 Ibid, 13. 27 Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press, p.20. 28 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press, p.14.

29 Ibid, p. 17. 30 Ibid, p. 20. 31 Ibid, p. 21. 32 Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press, p. 39. 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid, p.40-41.

35 Fisher, Catherine. (2004, June 15). “‘It isn’t easy being extinct’.” Nelson Daily News, 2. 36 Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press, p. 41. 37 Ibid, p. 43. 38 Johnson, Lisa. (2005, Apr. 27). “‘Extinct’ First Nation gets ancestral bones back.” Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved from www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2005/04/27/bones- sinixt050427.html. 39 Wonders, Karen Dr. (2007, Mar. 15). “First Nations Land Rights and Environmentalism in British Columbia”. Karlsruhe, Germany. Retrieved http://www.firstnations.de/invasion.htm?02-4-sinixt-1.htm.

40 Johnson, Lisa. (2005, Apr. 27). “‘Extinct’ First Nation gets ancestral bones back.” Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2005/04/27/bones- sinixt050427.html. 41 Hollis, Susan. (2006, Sep.6). “Sinixt artifacts on loan to museum.” Express, 18(42), 7. 42 Robbins, Elliot. (2006, Oct. 20). “Nelson unveils cultural landmark.” Kootenay Western Star, 1(19), 1.

43 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press. 44 Ibid, p. 13.

45 Ibid, p. 14. 46 Deleuze, Gilles and Felix Guattari. (1987). A Thousand Plateaus Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, p. 379. 47 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press, p. 60. 48 Ibid, p. 68.

49 Ibid.

50 Wonders, Karen Dr. (2007, Mar. 15). “First Nations Land Rights and Environmentalism in British Columbia”. Karlsruhe, Germany. Retrieved http://www.firstnations.de/invasion.htm?02-4-sinixt-1.htm. 51 “Sinixt Nation The People of the Arrow Lakes.” Home page. Sinixt Nation web site. Retrieved from http://www.sinixt.kics.bc.ca. 52 Freya Zaltz, Stevland Ambrose, Shannon Hammond and Aaron Desilets. Keeping the Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples. One-hour audio documentary. Kootenay Co-Op Radio. Nelson, British Columbia. Retrieved from http://sinixt.kics.bc.ca/history.html.

53 “Keeping the Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples.” Text excerpts from Freya Zaltz, Stevland Ambrose, Shannon Hammond and Aaron Desilets. Keeping the Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples. One-hour audio documentary. Kootenay Co-Op Radio. Nelson, British Columbia. Retrieved from http://sinixt.kics.bc.ca/history.html. 54 The Nelson Brewing Company. Essential Nelson Links. History, Sinixt Nation. http://www.nelsonbrewing.com. 55 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press, 135. 56 “Sinixt host Barter Fair.” (2006, Oct. 6). Kootenay Western Star, 1(17), 8.

57 Ibid. 58 Wilkinson, Myler. (2006, Autumn). “Mir Centre for Peace: A Brief Narrative History.” Mir Press Selkirk College, Castlegar, British Columbia. Retrieved from http://selkirk.ca/documents/SK88564_MIRHIS_2.pdf, footnote 1. 59 Hollis, Susan. (2005, Nov. 9). “Sinixt push for legal identity.” Express, 18(1). 60 Kinney, Duncan. (2006, July 28). “Sinixt: Living with extinction.” Kootenay Western Star, 1(7), 12.

61 Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press, p.24. 62 Joyce, Art. (2007, February 28). “Sinixt Nation holds public information meeting in New Denver.” The Valley Voice, 16(4), 8. 63 Ibid. 64 Pearkes, Eileen. (2001). “Extinction of History? The Sinixt People, the West Kootenay Region and Post- Colonial Search for Landscape Truth.” Retrieved from www.cariboo.bc.ca/ae/beyond_hope/abstracts/extinctionoftruth. 65 Lavinnder, John. (2006, Oct. 13). “Goats bartered at Sinixt Nation Thanksgiving fair.” Kootenay Western Star, 1(18), 3. 66 Pearkes, Eileen. (2001). “Extinction of History? The Sinixt People, the West Kootenay Region and Post- Colonial Search for Landscape Truth.” Retrieved from www.cariboo.bc.ca/ae/beyond_hope/abstracts/extinctionoftruth.

67 Petten, Cheryl. (2003). “Footprints: Chief Dan George Acclaimed actor, gentle soul.” Buffalo Spirit Retrieved from http://www.ammsa.com/buffalospirit/2003/footprints-DanGeorge.html. 68 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press, p.70. 69 Ibid, p. 84. 70 “Keeping the Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples.” Text excerpts from Freya Zaltz, Stevland Ambrose, Shannon Hammond and Aaron Desilets. Keeping the Lakes’ Way: the past, present, and future of the Sinixt peoples. One-hour audio documentary. Kootenay Co-Op Radio. Nelson, British Columbia. Retrieved from http://sinixt.kics.bc.ca/history.html. 71 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press, p.70. 72 Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. (2002). The Geography of Memory: Recovering Stories of a Landscape’s First People. Nelson, British Columbia: Kutenai House Press, p. 84.

73 Pryce, Paula. (1999). ‘Keeping the Lakes' Way’ Reburial and Re-Creation of a Moral World Among an Invisible People. Toronto, Ontario: U of Toronto Press, p. 147.