many ofhisfollowersembracedthemessage. ney RigdonandmembersofRigdon’scongregations; they sharedthegospelmessagewithParley’sBaptistfriendSid ary companionspassedthroughtheKirtlandareaofOhio,where 1830. EnroutetoteachtheLamanites,heandhisthreemission convinced thatitwastrue,andbaptizedinSeptemberof received acopyoftheBookMormon,readitovernight,became serving amissioninwesternNewYorkfortheBaptistChurch.He ern UnitedStates.Parleyhadrecentlyembracedthegospelwhile the ChurchtoLamanitesinawildernessareaofmidwest (though theBaptistaccount doesnotmentionthis).Rigdonspoke excommunicated him,and mostofhiscongregationleftwithhim remission of sins) put him at odds with the Campbellites. They doctrines. Hisbeliefinbaptismalregeneration(baptism forthe Christ. By1824,Rigdoncouldnolongeragreewith Campbellite ism—what theyperceivedastheoriginalgospelfrom thetimeof der Campbell), which focused on a return to Christian Primitiv founders of the Campbellite movement (named after Alexan- ney wasaformerBaptistpreacherwhohadbecome oneofthe The peopleofKirtlandwerepreparedtoreceivethe gospel.Sid A KirtlandComparison IN 1830, PARLEY P. PRATT, OLIVER COWDERY and PeterWhitmeracceptedacalltoservemissionfor A PeoplePrepared , ZibaPeterson, - - - - -

23 Chapter 2

24 The Field Is White colleagues. the nineteenth,priortoarrivalofWilfordWoodruffandhis in thelatterpartof the eighteenthcenturyandearlydecadesof This chapterconsiderstheconditionsthatprevailedinEngland the 1830s,butinThreeCountiesareaofEngland1840. sage oftherestoredgospel.HissuccesswasnotinKirtland ing missionarysuccessamongapeoplepreparedforthemes- expanding population.During theMiddleAges,cultivationhad farming methodstomeet theincreaseddemandforfood 1750, tonearly9millionin1801. and Wales increased substantially from6.5millionin arrival oftheLatter-daySaintmissionaries.The population in , ,andWorcestershire priortothe conditions culminatedinafertilegroundforripening cropin During thisperiod,thechangingsocial,political, and economic Social, Political,andEconomicConditionsinBritain Library.) Sidney Rigdon.(ChurchHistory Like ParleyP.Pratt,WilfordWoodruffexperiencedamaz 2 (D&C 35:3–4). come, and thou knewest it not” and beforeElijahwhichshould to preparethewaybeforeme, wast sentforth,evenasJohn, do greatthings.Beholdthou Thou artblessed,forthoushalt pared theeforagreaterwork. heard thyprayers,andpre Sidney: “I have instructed Saints, apersonalrevelation he hadjoinedtheLatter-day “common stocksystem.” bers, whichhereferredtoashis down fortheuseofmem ing allofone’spossessions of things,”whichincludedlay of restoringthe“ancientorder Landlordswantedtotrynew 1 After - - - - of theinhabitants. ing practicesproducedsocialdisplacementanddistressformany nineteenth centuries.Withinthevillages,thesechangesinfarm from theenclosuresthatexistedduringeighteenthandearly The modernEnglishlandscapeofsmallhedge-linedfieldsdates large-scale farming by which estates absorbed small holdings. ing methods to meetthe increased demand for food,focusingon erated newpractices.Thelandlordsintroducedupdatedfarm- centuries, but after 1760, the practice of enclosure greatly accel- with a common area. Gradual changes had occurred over the been inanopenfieldsystem,withlandpartitionedintostrips were commonplace. days andoccasionallynineteen-hourdays.Childbeatingsatwork households solvent.Somechildrenhadtoworkfourteen-hour for manyfamilies,womenandchildrenhadtoworkhelpkeep ing long hours and dealing with the high expense of urban living; areas to work in city factories. The conditions often meant work- 1700s continuingintothe1800s,manyworkersmovedfromrural ple needing help rapidly increased. in foodpricesduringtheFrenchwars,number ofpoorpeo had previouslyreceivedgovernment orparishaidhadtolaborin felt wasencouragingindolence. Underthenewlaw,workerswho sought todoawaywiththe oldsystemofpoorrelief,whichmany in the1837election. still restricted to one man in five. This legislation first took effect total electoratebyaboutahalf,althoughthevotein Englandwas was extendedtoinclude£50tenants.Theresult increased the vote wasgivento£10householders,andinthecounties, thevote a largerportionofthemalepopulation.Intowns, privilegeto in 1832theReformBillwasenactedbyparliamenttoenfranchise 1815), andpressuresforpoliticalreforminEngland.Asaresult, England’s warswithFranceduringtheNapoleonicperiod(until associated with industrialization, the French Revolution in 1789, to severalconditionsandevents:socialeconomicpressures sought tolimitchildlabor,butharshconditionsremained. With theonsetofindustrializationinlatterhalf With thespreadofenclosuresafter1760,and increase A stateofunrestprevailedinEnglandduringthisperioddue 3

5 4

Throughthe1833FactoryAct,parliament 6 The NewPoorLawof 1834 - -

25 A People Prepared

26 The Field Is White the gospelmessage,itinerant preaching,and“religioussocieties,” reform withintheChurch ofEnglandbyfocusingonareturnto exacerbated financialdespair. rather thanthepoorestpeople. The largestoccupationalgroupofNonconformists wasartisans the countryduringtheseyearsofsocialandpolitical upheaval. strates theburgeoninggrowthofdissentingreligions throughout ing job. workhouses, whereconditionswereworsethanthelowestpay ety. of Englandasawaytopreservepaternalistic,hierarchicalsoci interest. ConservativessawtheparishorganizationofChurch upper-middle classesviewedestablishedreligionwithrenewed the monarchyandcondemneddemocracy,upper lishment topreserveorderandcontrol.Sermonscondoned Britain. TheChurchofEnglandralliedinsupporttheestab brought a politicalcomponentto the religiousenvironmentin The yearsimmediately following the FrenchRevolutionof 1789 Religious ConditionsinBritain religions, whichcontinuedforseveraldecades. 1790s sawagreataccelerationinthegrowthofNoncomformist political reformandfurtheralienatedtheworkingclasses.The country discreditedtheChurchofEnglandforthosewhowanted alists, Baptists, Presbyterians, and Quakers. These groupsincludedtheProtestantdissenters,Congregation the numberofDissenters’placesworshipforthis timeperiod. the workers. they hadcurtainserectedtohidethemfromthevulgargazeof they wishthelaborerstogazeatthemwhileworshipped;so wish tolookatagriculturallaborersinthecongregation,nordid assigned seats.Thesquireandotherindividualsofstatusdidnot to walkupthechurchaisleandcurtseyherbeforetakingtheir wickshire would sit in state in her pew, and the poor women had betters” onthesocialscale.ThewifeofalocalparsoninWar 8 Methodism beganwith John Wesley’sattemptstoseek This conservativeapproachtomaintainingorderinthe

People oflowersocialstatuswerenottominglewith“their 7 Economicdepressionduringthe1830sand1840sfurther 9

12 11 Table 2.1 demon- 10

Table 2.1shows - - - - - shortly expelledHughBourne andWilliamClowes, by JohnWesleyhimself. The MethodistChurchdisagreedand recognized thatlaypreachingintheopenairhadbeen espoused because they liked the down-to-earth manner ofpreaching and Bourne andWilliamClowescontinuedtoholdcamp meetings ings condonedimproperbehavior. condemned bytheEnglishMethodistChurchbecause suchmeet that focusedonlaypreachingandpraying.Campmeetings were erings referredtoascampmeetings,whichwerelarge gatherings and 1807,displayedhisflamboyantpreachingin open-air gath Dow, anAmericanMethodistwhovisitedEngland between 1804 been repressedbytheMethodistChurch.Forexample,Lorenzo teenth century,somefeltthattheoriginalmissionofWesleyhad formed thePrimitiveMethodist Church.Thesameyear,theNew ideas. leave theChurchofEngland,butwouldnotaccepthis nary servicesoftheChurchEngland.Wesleydidnotwishto regularly insearchofspiritualfellowshipunavailabletheordi which were voluntaryassociationsof clerics and laymen meeting of worshipas“Dissenters.” probably becausemanyMethodistsdidnotregistertheirplaces ley’s deathin1791.Methodistsarenotrepresentedtable2.1, growth slowedfromthistime. ond groupofLatter-daySaintmissionariesarrivedinEngland; idly fromthebirthofmovementuntil1840,whensec Primitive MethodistChurch. Table 2.1Dissenters’PlacesofWorship 13 Decennial periods MethodismbecameaseparatedenominationafterWes- 1811–1820 1801–1810 1791–1800 1781–1790 1771–1780 1821–1830

14 TheMethodistChurchgrewrap 15 By theearlyyearsofnine 16 EnglishMethodistsHugh Places ofworship 2,880 2,645 1,470 832 251 158 17 whoin1812 ------

27 A People Prepared

28 The Field Is White the PrimitiveMethodist founders andleaders. important, hisoriginalevangelical aims,weretheinspirationof congregations bytheTolerationActof1689. Toleration ActextendedthefreedomaccordedtoNonconformist John Wesley’schapel,London,England.(PhotobyCarolWilkinson.) Wesley’s methodsandorganization, histeachings,andmost 18 Theybelieved devil fought for thesouls of men and women. this time.Tothem,theworldwasabattlefieldwhere Godandthe ings andspecialprovidences,”thatwerecommon in Englandat witches, “physicalmanifestationsoftheDevil,miraculousheal gion’s interestingbehaviors.ThePrimitiveMethodistsbelievedin in life. considered theBibletobewordofGod,aninfallibleguide their sins. Preaching was of supreme importance to them. They that everyonesinned,butallcouldbesavediftheyrepentedof they wereroughanduncultured. ings built their self-esteem in a society that constantly told them ration. Bothmaleandfemalepreacherswereinvolved. offered nodirectanswertoquestions,theyturnedinspi directly tomenthroughdreamsandvisions,sowhentheBible Methodist Church: following describestheprocessofinvolvementin thePrimitive felt withcontemporaryWesleyanismintopositive action. itive Methodismtransformedthefrustrationsmany Methodists ber hadresponsibilitiesandchancestoserve. people were linked together in a community in which each mem eternal sensebuttootherPrimitiveMethodists.Working-class ist meantaffirmingthatone’ssoulwasimportant,notonlyinan they furtheredthe‘convertingwork.’” pointed missionarieswereallwelcometoparticipatesolongas number ofsoulswon.Women,localpreachers,andself-ap- The Rantersmeasuredtheworthofapreacheraccordingto of communicatingrevivalexperiencesfromoneplacetoanother. willingness toletdecorumfallbythewayside,andsomemeans tive revivalpreachers,adesireforanout-pouringofthespirit, four prerequisiteshadtobemet:thereacorpsofeffec- Werner, “Fortheinnerdynamicofrevivalismtofunctionwell, substituted forbloodties.To joinwastobeadoptedintothat nization thananextendedfamily inwhichsharedvalueswere his nametoamembership roll. Thesocietywaslessanorga A convertwhobecameaPrimitiveMethodistdidmorethan add Letting decorumfallbythewaysidewasjustoneofreli This newreligionappealedtotheworkingclasses.Itsteach 19 The“Ranters,”astheywerecalled,believedGodspeaks 20 BecomingaPrimitiveMethod 22 23 However, Prim- 21 Accordingto 24 The ------

29 A People Prepared

30 The Field Is White May of1832. Primitive Methodists who had labored in Herefordshire until freedom, andajoytowhichtheyhadbeenstrangers.” the variousaspectsofPrimitiveMethodistmeetings,“alife,a and salt.Manywhoselivesweredullmonotonousfound,in the YorkshireWoldsasafocusonthree lay preachingmethodsofPrimitiveMethodisminthe1840son likewise perish.” had dealingswithandwasinfluencedbytheMoravians, the UnitedBrethren.JohnWesley,founderofMethodism, ton leftthePrimitiveMethodistsandfoundedagroupknownas group. Adescriptionfrom 1833to1840oftheCwmCircuit he decidedtousethename UnitedBrethrenforhisownoffshoot that theMoraviansinEnglandareoftheseUnited Brethren.” in Austria,butitdidnottakeeffect.Itmaybeproper toobserve, the Waldenses,desiredacloserconnexionwith Waldenses year 1467,theUnitedBrethren,havingreceivedassistance from church, underthetitleof“THEUNITEDBRETHREN.” .Inthe borders ofMoraviaandSilesia,formedthemselves intoa in asufferingstate,numberofthemrepairedto Lititz,onthe tion: “Intheyear1453,Hussiteshavingdonewith wars,being Primitive MethodistMagazineincludedthefollowingexplana - Catholic ChurchtothepurerpracticesofChristianity.The1835 a ProtestantgroupwishingtoreturnthepracticesofRoman ticket andtookhisfullplaceinsociety. precepts, theprobationarymemberwasgivena“complete” ings andendeavoringtoliveaccordingPrimitiveMethodist the regulationstohim.Afteraquarterspentinattendingmeet he wasilliterate,thepreachersupposedtoreadandexplain copy oftherules.Ifhecouldread,wastostudyrules;if if “accountedeligible,”wasgivenaprobationaryticketand and was expected to reciprocate. A newcomer who asked to join, tual pilgrim gained the support and counsel of fellow members family. Insteadoftravelingthewayholinessalone,spiri- The United Brethren. A PrimitiveMethodistministerdescribedthedown-to-earth Thomas Kingtonmayhave beenawareofthishistorywhen 27 Hisfavoritetextwas,“Exceptyerepent,shallall 28 SometimeafterleavingHerefordshire,King Thomas Kington was a preacher forthe 25 Ss—shortness, sense, 26 - 30

29 -

in forty-twoplacesofworship. (with eightontrial)whoattendedtothespiritualneeds ofpeople tee. By1840,therewereforty-sevenmaleandfemale preachers of theUnitedBrethren,whichalsoincludedastanding commit United Brethren: Kington andotherstoformthe referring tothedepartureof bership, whichmayhavebeen turbances amongthemem- indicated somepossibledis where Kington had labored, Primitive MethodistChurch, Brethren. Somepreached severaltimesonSundayandmost Methodists, laypreaching wasthemainpracticeofUnited on apreachers’planforthe nextquarter.AswiththePrimitive every threemonthstoarrangethedatesandplaces forpreaching Thomas Kingtonbecamethesuperintendentofthis group occurred whichretardedtheirprogress. those intheupperpart,severaluntowardcircumstances having But thesocietiesinthispartofcountrydidnotflourishlike and anewchapelwasopenedthereabouttwoyearsafterwards. rent inBromyardandopenedforworshipon4August1833, however, metwithameasureofsuccess.Aroomwastakenon opposition anddespitemanyhardshipsprivations.They, circuit laboredwithzealanddiligence,inthemidstofmuch missionaries belongingtothis lages andhamletsaround,the fordshire, andatmanyvil myard, intheeastofHere counties. InthetownofBro sionary effortsinthesame laudably employed in mis- shire, CwmCircuitwasalso efordshire andMonmouth- extending itsbordersinHer- While PilawellCircuitwas - - - - 32 Thechiefpreachersmetonce History Library.) of theUnitedBrethren.(Church Thomas Kington,superintendent 31 -

31 A People Prepared The Field Is White History Library.) “United BrethrenPreachers’PlanoftheFroomsHillCircuit,1840.”(Church barns andtookphotographs. Moredetailsofthisprocessare 1-mile scaleOrdnanceSurvey maps,wedrovetothehomesand record office.Oncewehad foundtheplaceson1¼-inchto properties onthetithesurveymapsinappropriate county licenses for preaching. We then located these names and their homes bylookingforthenamesofUnitedBrethren onthe ments preachedonlyonSunday. evenings oftheweek,whereasotherswithmorelaborcommit called Froom’sHillandGatfieldElm. Counties. many housesandbarnslicensedforpreaching in theThree hundred people;theyhadachapelatGadfieldElm, alongwith that wasalmostidentical. nization ofthePrimitiveMethodists,includingapreachers’plan By 1840, the United Brethren group numbered around six 34 Theyhadformedintotwocircuits(orconferences), 33 Theyusedmuchoftheorga 35 Wefoundseveraloftheir - - Joseph TrehernofWhiteleavedOak.(PhotobyCynthiaDoxey Green.) and individualstoprayvocally.Sometimes,aspeoplelistened heard prayingsimultaneously.Thegroupencouragedfamilies ing, whichsoaffectedthecongregationthatseveralmightbe Brethren, butpreachingwasinterspersedwithindividualpray Other photographsappeartoillustratestoriesinlaterchapters. the United Brethren. A sample of some of those homes follows. and someofthedwellingsareoriginalhomesmembers noted intheappendix.Thelocationsofhomesareaccurate Gadfield Elmchapelruin.(PhotobyAlecMitchell.) Little isknownofthedoctrineandpracticesUnited -

33 A People Prepared The Field Is White 1 2 3 4 6 7 5 A People Prepared

1. James Shin of Whiteleaved Oak, 35 Herefordshire. (Photo by Cynthia Doxey Green.) 2. James Hadley of Ridgeway Cross, Herefordshire. (Photo by Cynthia Doxey Green.) 3. Benjamin Warr of Ryton, Gloucestershire. (Photo by Cynthia Doxey Green.) 4. Joseph Simmonds of Wynds Point, Herefordshire. (Photo by Cynthia Doxey Green.) 5. James Holden of Brooms Green, 6 Gloucestershire. (Photo by Cynthia Doxey Green.) 6. William Rowley of Suckley, 7 . (Photo by Cynthia Doxey Green.) 7. Sarah Davis of Bosbury, Here­ fordshire. (Photo by Cynthia Doxey Green.)

36 The Field Is White Green.) Joseph SheenofWhiteleavedOak,Herefordshire.(PhotobyCynthiaDoxey son wouldspringupanddancearoundinanoisyfitofecstasy.” to believeandthepersonhadagreeddoso,“theyoungper and unforgiven.” tion concerningtheirsupposedawfulconditionofsinscommitted females—“would falldownonthefloorinafitofnoisydespera the preachers,members of thecongregation—frequentlyyoung of immorality.” intense opposition to all formsof pride, profanity and every form troversy, adeeplydevoutfeeling,devoidofall ostentation, attended their meetings, observed, “There was,beyond all con Regarding thebeliefsofUnitedBrethren,JobSmith,who Saint missionaries arrived in the Three Counties area of England. the samemessagewhenWilford WoodruffandotherLatter-day Kirtland areaoftheUnited States,thepeoplewerepreparedfor gospel whenParleyP.Prattandhiscompanions arrived inthe had theirmindsinreadinesstoreceivethemessageof therestored missionaries arrivedin1840.JustasSidneyRidgon and hisgroup tions that existed in Britain when Wilford Woodruff and his fellow These werethesocial,political,economic,andreligious condi 38

36 Afterthepreacherhadexhortedindividual 37 - - - -

Green.) William PhillipsofLimeStreet, Worcestershire.(PhotobyCynthiaDoxey William PeartofKilcot,Gloucestershire.(PhotobyCynthiaDoxeyGreen.)

37 A People Prepared

38 The Field Is White preached themessageofrestoredgospel. been shockedwhenthemissionariesusedthesemethodsasthey all partoftheirreligiousexperience.Hence,theywouldnothave dreams andvisionsasmanifestationsofdivineinterventionwere lay ministryandmemberparticipation,acceptanceof Itinerant andoutdoorpreaching,sharedpersonaltestimonies,a 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. D. Gilbert, 12. 11. 10. oseph Arch, “Rich andPoor intheParish Church,” in 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. . F. C. Harrison, ed., 2. 1. Notes

(Salt LakeCity: SignatureBooks, 1994), 29, 31. Chapel and Social Change, 1740–1914 and Politics in England, 148. Politics inEngland, 175. 1965), 4. Selection ofReadingsandComments(New York: Harperand Row, Press, 2002), 3, 5. Britain (London: Macmillan, 1984), 18. Society andPolitics inEngland, 43. The ReadingMercury Harrison (New York: Harper andRow, 1965), 150–52. J. F.in England, 1780–1960: A Selection of Readings and Comments, ed. C. Milburn, Milburn, Geoffre Gilbert, Gilbert, Gilbert, Gilbert, Alan McCleod, J Hugh His Majesty’ Harrison, Samuel Coulson, Harrison, J Richard McCleod, y Milburn, Religion andSociety, 30–31. Religion andSociety, 33, 35. Religion andSociety, 19–21. Religion andSociety, 66. S. VanWagoner, Primitive Methodism,7. Primitive Methodism, 3, 5, 11. Religion andthe Working Class, 18. Society andPolitics, 124. Society andPolitics , 22–23. s Commissioners, “The 1834Poor Law Report,” in Religion and the Working Class in Nineteenth-Century “Child LaborintheFactories,” in Religion and Society in Industrial England: Church, Primitive Methodism(Peterborough: Epworth , 11May 1795, “The SpeenhamlandSystem,” in Society andPolitics inEngland, 1780–1960:A Sidney Rigdon:APortrait ofReligiousExcess (New York: Longman, 1976), 34. Society andPolitics Society and Society

38. 37. 36. 35. ilford Woodruff, 34. An EcclesiasticalHistory, chapter80, The Fifteenth Century, p. 172– 30. ob Smith, “The UnitedBrethren,” 29. 28. 27. 26. 25. 24. 23. 22. ulia Stewart Werner,ulia 21. 20. 19. ob Smith, “The UnitedBrethren,” 33. 32. ohn Petty, 31.

Press, 1984), 175–76. ground andEarlyHistory Grantsville, UT, 1997), 126–27. Instructor Office, 1881; republished by LDS Archive Publishers, cuit),” PrimitiveMethodistMagazine3(1833): 64–65. Origin totheConference of1859 (London: Danks, 1860), 298. in England, 187–88. 74,” PrimitiveMethodistMagazine5(May 1835): 174.74,” 248.6 U58p1840, ChurchHistoryLibrary, SaltLakeCity. Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, W “ Milburn, J “Memoir ofSarahHarding(OfF Henry Werner, Werner, McCleod, Werner, J McCleod, McCleod, J “United BrethrenPreachers’ J “The UnitedBrethren,” 821. “The UnitedBrethren,” 821. “The UnitedBrethren,” 820–21. “The UnitedBrethren,” Woodcock, “Piety amongthePeasantry,” The PrimitiveMethodist Connexion,158. The PrimitiveMethodistConnexion,185. The PrimitiveMethodistConnexion, 174. Primitive Methodism,28. Religion andthe Working Class, 27. Religion andthe Working Class, 29. Religion andthe Working Class,26. The HistoryofthePrimitive MethodistConnexionfrom Its Leaves from MyJournal The PrimitiveMethodistConnexion:ItsBack (Madison: The University of Wisconsin PlanoftheFrooms HillCircuit, 1840,” 819. rooms Hill, Herefordshire, CwmCir Improvement Era, July 1910, 820. Improvement Era, May 1910, 821. (SaltLakeCity: Juvenile

in Society andPolitics - -

39 A People Prepared