Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 9 (3), July 2010, pp. 551-561

Sustainable management of tropical forest through indigenous knowledge: A case study of Shompens of

Kavita Arora Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies, Rajiv Gandhi Foundation, Jawahar Bhavan, Dr Rajendra Prasad Road, New Delhi 110 001 E-mail:[email protected] Received 6 May 2008; revised 17 November 2009

All over the world tropical forests are depleting at very fast pace. Today, rainforest cover which is less than about 6% of the earth’s land area still contain more than 50% of all species. It is important to preserve this biological diversity. The genetic resources contained in the forests are the common heritage of humankind, and may well prove to be vitally important to the progress and development of the human race. But it is virtually impossible to preserve these resources unless we take the help of indigenous people and their knowledge. In this context, the study aims to provide a glimpse of the vast repository of indigenous knowledge of an autochthons Andamane tribe namely Shompen under lifestyle, knowledge about forest/plants and biodiversity and indigenous methods of forest management.

Keywords: Indigenous knowledge, Autochthons, Shompen , Nicobares , Great Nicobar Island, Tropical forest IPC Int. Cl. 8: A61K36/00, A61P1/02, A61P1/04, A61P1/14, A61P11/04, A61P17/00, A61P17/02, A61P19/00, A61P29/00, A61P31/00

The Andaman and Nicobar region has a rich diversity cane, like the Jungli bet (Calamus longisetus ) and Lal of flora, fauna, which have been used by the tribal bet (Kosthalsia laciniosa ) are found all over the region. people for generations. The shompen tribe belong to Luxuriant growth of fern is seen on the banks of mongolid race and inhabit in the Great Nicobar Island. streams. Lush mangrove swamps and sea grass The Great Nicobar Island is the southernmost of the meadows provide the necessary habitat for crocodiles Bay Islands situated between latitude 6˚45’ and 7˚15’ and turtles 2. North and longitudes 93˚38’ and 93˚55’ East, it is the The Nicobaris produce few trees of any commercial largest in area among the Nicobar group of islands. The value as timber, and those probably not in large Great Nicobar Island is blessed with unique flora, quantities: the best of these are Myristica irya and interesting fauna and a network of five rivers Terminalia bialata, and of secondary value in this (Alexandra, Jubilee, Galathea, Amrit Kaur and respect are Minusops littoralis, Hopea odorata, Dogmar). The Great Nicobar Island is considered as a Artocarpus chaplasha, lakoocha (Calophyllum unique zone of biodiversity housing many rare, spectable ), Terminalia procera and species of Garcinia. endangered and endemic plant species 1. The island is Evergreen forest predominates, and mixed forest appears covered with dense forest, full of tropical trees like the only occasionally, but pure leaf-shedding forest is not white chuglam ( Terminalia bialata ); black chuglam met with; and as regards species, there is a marked (Terminalia manii ), mango ( Mangifera silvatica ), absence of Dipterocarpus trees 3. Richly endowed with white Dhup (Canarium euphyllum ), Poon flora, these islands are poor in fauna. For wild mammals, (Calophyllum spectabila ), Jamun (Schizigium sp), they have only the pig ( Sus nicobarensis ), and the black Rudraksh (Eliocarpus gangestus ), and Badam faced grey monkey ( Macacus umbrosus ).Domesticated (Terminalia procera ). Coconut , pandanus (Pandanus animals found on this island are the cat, the dog, the tanctoria ) and Jungli supari (Areca triandra ) are found buffalo, the cow and the goat. The birds found in this in plenty, especially along the coastal belt in the west. area are pigeon ( Muscadivora aenea insularis ), the Besides, there are certain wild edible fruits like the Great Nicobar serpent eagle ( Haematronis cheela Jungli aam ( Mangifera andamanica ), Mohwa or hill Klossi) and Oberholsar’s Mohwa (Bassia butyracea ), Gular (Ficus sp) , cane and (Megapodius Nicobariensis Abbotti ). Besides the above bamboo that also grow profusely. Different varieties of mentioned birds, there are also hens and cocos on the 552 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 9, No. 3, JULY 2010

island. There are a number of lizards, pythons and shompens , which are being lost at a very fast pace. snakes (mostly non-poisonous), and salt water The study is based on secondary sources. The study crocodiles ( Crocodilus palustris ) widely distributed in undertakes a discussion on indigenous knowledge of almost all the creeks and backwaters. The water around tribe under life style, knowledge of forest/biodiversity the island is full of sharks, tuna, mackerel, sardines, ray and methods of forest management. fish, octopi and different varieties of crustacean . This unique zone of biodiversity is also the abode of wood Life style age tribe known as shompen or the Forest Dwellers. It is Life style precisely points to the tribal people’s probable that shompens were the first aborigines to mode of living. The tribal communities are not only occupy Great Nicobar followed by the immigration of forest dwellers but they have also evolved for Nicobarese. At present, the shompens inhabit the interior centuries, a way of life which on the one hand is forest area of the Great Nicobar and maintain economic woven round the forest ecology and forest resources ties with the Nicobarese of coastal Great Nicobar and and on the other ensures that the forest is protected the neighbouring Kondul Island. Despite their recent and against depredation by human and nature. The growing dependence on imports, the shompens have glimpses of their life show that their life is sustained themselves through wise use of natural inextricably linked to forest besides their awareness of resources 4. the surroundings, which provide the basis for the They number just about 398 persons according to development of indigenous knowledge. The shompens the 2001 census. A recent UT Administration survey, live in nomadic bands of 25-30 people. According to however, seems to put their number at 297 including 9 the movements of bands and inter band interactions, persons missing after the December 2004 Tsunami. the Shompen area could be divided into 4 distinct Very little is known about them. Recent unpublished regions/zones, Northern covering Trinket Bay, Laful genetic studies have indicated that the shompen have Bay and Zhavu Nalla; Northwestern covering the different origins from the ordinary Nicobarese, Dogmar and Alexandra river basins; Southwestern although both groups have Mongolid ancestry. The covering the Kokeon, Koshintown and Pulobha ancestral shompen came to Great Nicobar from village regions and Central regions covering the upstream Galathia river basin and camps around the , more (maybe much more) than 10,000 yrs 5 ago. The Nicobarese, on the other hand, came from the shompen hut Complex . A small patch of forest about East, from mainland Southeast Asia many thousands of 10-15 m long and 10-15 m wide is cleared by the years later. There is some genetic and linguistic shompens before raising their pile huts. Shompens evidence that the two groups mixed to a limited extent. accomplish the preparation of camp site in less time Earlier suspected links to Negrito populations, with fewer efforts which is required for their nomadic however, have not been found. A peculiarity of the way of life by cutting the tree at a certain height. The shompen discovered in 1967 was that all of 55 trunk of trees are cut from such side that they fall individuals then screened turned out to have blood centrifugal to the site for huts so that generally huge group O in the ABO system. While the Nicobarese trunks do not occupy the small patch of cleared were seafarers and traders and were in contact with the ground. Scaffolding is raised near the tree to stand outside world, the shompen, at least after the and cut the trunk at the required height. The clearance Nicobarese had arrived, were inland people, living of a patch by felling the trees is essential to raise huts hidden lives in the dense jungles of their island with a space is required, but the tropical forest is thick limited contact to the outside world. The Nicobarese therefore felling of trees is needed to get some spac; living on Great Nicobar call the shompen Shamhap . shompens themselves say that clearing of a patch is Indeed, shompen may be a British mispronunciation of essential to avoid possible fatal accidents due to trees that name. The shompen have no common name for falling on their huts as falling of the trees is common themselves; those living on the western side of the and frequent in the forests of Great Nicobar; and the island call themselves kalay, those in the eastern part clearance of patch results in opening of the keyet - with each group calling the other Buaviea . continuous trees canopy thereby allowing the sun to reach the otherwise inaccessible tropical forest ground Methodology and so the direct sun light is available at such camps The study is an attempt to provide a comprehensive where they could grow the tobacco, chilli, lemon and insight into the existing indigenous knowledge of often colocasia. ARORA: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF SHOMPENS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND 553

Settlements Bar carrier The huts in which the shompens dwell, although It is a simple wooden bar used for carrying two always built on piles, show considerable differences, and pandanus fruits at a time by the shompen on his vary from a well built floor with a carefully constructed shoulders. The bar-carried on his shoulders with loads roof of palm leaf atop, to a rough platform often placed in deep stuck while they are being carried. against the side of a tree and sheltered by 2 or 3 palm branches fastened to the corners. (Those that are of a Gouge It is a short pole with a chiseled end, i.e. one end of permanent character sometimes partake of the same the pole is sharpened into a chisel. The shompens beehive which commonly marks the dwellings of the collect the larvae ( loh in their language) from the coast people, being in like manner raised on posts 1.8 or decaying wood and eat it. 2.4 m above the ground. To build a house they use about 0.74 sq m space, and at one end of house they attach a Spatula small platform, on which they make a fireplace, with It is a small green wooden rod with its one end cooking apparatus of bark sheets covered with large carved thin. The spatula is used for separating the green leaves, to prevent charring. In a corner of each hut bark sheet from the underlying trunk. The bark thus they keep a shelf of split sticks, and a long trough of split collected is meant for making bark cloth. and hollowed palm trunk sloped from ground to floor for the dogs and other animal to mount by. For human, they Javelin use ladders, about 45.72 cm wide, with cross-pieces The shompens used to have battles with coastal fastened on by rattan bindings. Nicobarese in the past probably to establish their territorial sovereignty and to settle the dispute Garments regarding barter. The battles ended in most cases in The shompens men wear loin cloth while women peace agreement, wherein the interior forest was wear scanties. Nevertheless, shompen women do not recognized as the shompen’s territory and the rest use upper garments; they make a bark felt, unwoven belonged to the Nicobarese, for example, those of (felted) cloth for their garments. The bark of Ficus Laful Bay and other places of Northern coasts of the brovicuppis or Stercules macrophylla Vent is used for Great Nicobar Island. The battle weapon, the javelin is the cloth. The bark is carefully removed from tree a simple implement made of wood like areca nut strips trunk; kept in water for some time and thereafter bast is and no iron is used. The weapon head is sharply separated from outer hard cortex using the machete. pointed and has a series of barbs behind the sharp end. Then bast is beaten up thoroughly by wooden hammer till it turns out into a fibrous even sheet of cloth. It is Bark casserole then dried and used by shompens as loin cloth or Bark casserole is the bobby-dazzler in the material scanties. Making of bark cloth is the job of women culture of the shompen. It is a bark cooking vessel and is folk; however, bark is collected and brought to hut by one of their distinct and unique artifacts. They did not men. have cooking utensils made of earth or any other materials. The bark vessels are ben trovoto for the Material culture nomadic life of shompens in comparison to Crafts constitute the material aspect of a culture. cumbersome, time consuming and breakable terrines, The basic constituent material of crafts of the i.e. earthen pots. The use of bark casserole indicates that shompen has been firstly the soft wood and secondly the shompen have through knowledge of the the iron. Soft wood is available in plenty in the forest characteristics of the various plants available in the which is made use of by the shompen . Iron used by forest. They use the bark of Areca catechu Linn. , the shompen comes from the drift material available Anthocephalus cadama (Roxb) mid , Achinensis (Lamk) on the coast. The crafts of shompen could be a rich ex-walp , Calophyllum inophyllum and Termanilia categorized as hunting, fishing and gathering manil king for making the casserole. The bark of these implements, battle implements, domestic articles, plants is comparatively more fire resistant than the rest. garments, ornaments, and transport crafts. Brochette Plucker It is a thin rod like wooden stick measuring 50-60 It is a long pole with a knife to pluck the pandanus cm long with both the ends sharpened. The shompen fruits, the staple food of the shompen . broil the fish, etc. using this brochette. 554 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 9, No. 3, JULY 2010

Water cask sticks. When the torch is lighted, the sticks burn with Making of bamboo water cask is another instance the flame and provide illumination. The shompens to indicate the ingenuity of the shompen in using the carry this torch when they move at night. natural resource available for them. Bamboo container is a simple yet effective device. The shompen collect Ornaments bamboo poles of wide girth of about 50 cm. These Some bands of shompen eg. of Zhavu nallah, Laful grow in the forest in plenty. The poles are cut into Bay and Trinket bay have the custom of wearing ear– pieces, each with 5 nodes and 5 internodes. Then such plug while other bands like those of central region or a piece of bamboo is made into a container. The Dogmar river region do not have this custom. And as bamboo is hollow like a pipe but with a septum at such, Ninyya camp (Central region), shompens call each node, thus dividing the hollow into number of shompens of Northern region as earpluged people. compartments or chambers of a length of the The ear lobe is perforated wide enough to plug a internodes. The shompens perforate all the septa of 5 cylindrical piece of wood which is about 5 cm in node bamboo piece except the bottom one using a diameter and 8-10 cm long. The hair is trimmed using pointed stick. The perforation is done soon after the a machete and a wooden anvil which is placed on the collection, i.e. while the bamboo is green, soft, and neck of person while his/ her hair is dressed. The tender. Then the top internodes is turned into the shompens reportedly use the comb made of wood. mouth which gets into all chambers through Still louse is quite common in their scalp hair. perforations on its septa. Green leaves cork is put at the mouth to close it. This water container is kept in Transport craft such a position that its mouth turns up. Though shompens are forest dwellers, they are adroit navigators as the inland navigation is a Bark tub significant mode of transport for them. As such, It is a single piece bark made into a tray of about shompens have water transport crafts, i.e. outrigger 60 cm long and 30 cm wide. The tray has a cane rim canoes. There are two types of outrigger canoes one tied all along. It is used by the shompens as baby bath suitable for inland navigation and the other for tub. Half coconut shells are used as mug to pour water maritime navigation, former is the traditional or over the body of the baby. original one and the latter is the modified or adopted Fire generators version. The wood used in building the canoe and Fire generator is a wooden device fabricated by the outrigger is specific. One used for float is very soft shompen to produce fire by friction method. It is yet and light. The following plant species are used in another distinguished item of the shompens material canoe building. Amoora wallichi king, Barringtonia culture. Only the wood pieces are used in the design asirtica (L) Kurtz, Autocarpus chapleosha Roxb, of fire generators. There are two types of fire Calaphyllum Sonlattri Burn, F. Sterculia macrophylla generators, viz. the simple non-mechanized. The Vent and for the float Leea sp is used. shompens gather the resin from the forest and keep it in their huts. The powdered resin is used as an igniter Spear in the hearth. Resin powder if put on the damp/dull The spear of the shompens is a hunting device and hearth produces a column of fire flame. The shompens has two basic parts, one is the head and the other is use the resin powder particularly during rainy season. the handle. The head of the spear is a sharp cutting It is noteworthy that the match boxes distributed as tool of iron while the handle is a wooden bar to which gifts to the shompens were not used but were found the head is fastened. The shompen make three discarded near their camp. pronged spears for killing fish and single blade spears for killing wild pigs, monkeys, etc. The pieces of iron Illuminators are rubbed against the stones and sharpened in the Due to influence of outsiders, some of the shompen shape of spears. From the tree trunk of Areca palm, bands have now a variety of illuminators like the shompens make poisoned spears for self defense flambeau or candescent torch, and lamp. Those bands, against enemies 6.They also make wooden fishing who have not been influenced by others, continue to spear. This fishing implement continues to be totally use their own traditional devices like faggot torch. made of wood. It is similar to the four iron headed The faggot torch consists simply of a bundle of dry fishing spear with the only difference in the head. ARORA: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF SHOMPENS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND 555

Machete subsistence economy demands whole time activity, the The machete is the basic implement required shompens are found engaged in one of these activities everywhere including for making other or those related to them most of the time. implements/craft by the shompens. The machete is a large iron knife with or without wooden handle. It is Arboriculture not an indigenously devised implement though it is It is one of the major occupations of shompens . The the basic one. It is imported from outside since the practice of arboriculture like agriculture would have beginning and continues to be imported till date. In led the community to a settled life, but shompens early times, traders gave the machete in exchange of continue to lead a nomadic life due to other causes and rattan and as the gift. Because of this, the shompens not because of the inadequacy in the practice of do not make the machete themselves except the arboriculture. The pandanus is the single most wooden handle for it. Wood and shells were equally important plantation crop as it is a major source of food important; there had been people using only wood, for for shompens. Though shompens recognize pandanus example, Orang and Semang of Malaysia. The survey in different varieties based on their morphological of the shompens’ material culture reveals that wood features and colours of the dough, they categorize them continues to be the preponderant base till date. The into two broad groups, viz. summer and monsoon bamboo knife is used to sever the umbilical cord varieties, while the botanists have reported two species, following the birth of a baby and logs are used to viz. Pandanus andamanusium Kurtz and Pandanus build a bier following the death of a shompen. From odoratissimus Kurtz. their basketry to the toiletry, wood is used. Shompens Following are the varieties of pandanus as per the defecate squatting on a buttress on any fallen log. shompens classification:

After the defecation they remove a small piece of Monsoon red varieties wood from the trunk of a nearby tree which is used as Sandy pandanus (Biuangm-buingm) –Dough is sandy the toilet material. Though the iron is used by in texture shompens, they can still be considered to be belonging Pole pandanus (Biuangam-pukheiheit) –The branches to the wood age. The description of material culture are long and slender of shompen showed that not only their life is totally Rattan pandanus (Biuangm eyhang) - Branches grow dependent on the wood but they also have thorough like rattan. knowledge of their immediate environment, which is Megapod pandanus (Biuangm katchav) - pandanus the mostly rain forest area of Great Nicobar. nut resembles megapod bird and dough is white Axe pandanus (Biuangm karangm) - Economic life Crab pandanus (biuangm puiyeng)- nut appears like Their economy is literally a subset of the the red crab ecosystem they inhabit. There are 3 kinds of economy among the shompens ; subsistence economy, barter Summer white varieties economy and gift economy categorized on the basis Dwarf stalk pandanus (Biuangmtahmn) - pandanus of the nature of their activities, particularly the stalk is short amount of labour and time put therein on a Mullet pandanus (Biuangm kabak)- Nut resembles subordinate activity and therefore gift economy is not the mullet fish as an activity on the part of shompens. It is not an Mirror pandanus (Biuangm endengm) – But of the evolutionary classification, since the subsistence and nut shines like mirror barter economies are contemporaneous though the gift Colocasia is next important source of plant food for economy is the latest. Shompens. They raise colocasia on hill slopes by clearing the jungle and erecting a palisade around the Subsistence economy garden. The strong palisade is a defense against the Both plants and animals are the sources of food maraud of the pigs. Lemon is raised by shompens in for shompens. They are the hunting–fishing small plantations. Betel nut plantations are also raised arboriculturists, practicing the apiculture too. Hunting by shompens along the stream valley slopes. The betel and arboriculture are complementary to each other, nut parings constitute one of the ingredients of pan while the fishing and apiculture are the supplementary chewed by shompens. Tobacco is an important plant activities in their diversified subsistence economy. As grown by all the bands of shompens. It is not raised in 556 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 9, No. 3, JULY 2010

separate plantations but they grow it individually in their place of honey, lemon and resin. The second stage in the camp itself. The coconut is the mainstay of the coastal barter economy began with the end of hostilities Nicobarese and as such, the shompen bands who interact between the shompens and Nicobarese . The shompens with Nicobarese often have planted few coconuts in in this stage, visited the Nicobarese with commodities their camps. They, however, do not raise the coconut and exchange them with their requirements i.e. tobacco, plantation like the Nicobarese. Clear felling of trees and machete and cloth in person. The change of martial thereby opening of the forest canopy are required to situation to peace eased the total atmosphere as any raise coconut plantations. The clear felling of thick forest aberration in accepted behavior would not lead may lead to unknown ecological disasters like kasnoor immediately to feud. The shompens were treated by the disease. Nicobarese in a casual and relaxed atmosphere in their villages, where the shompens would not have taken Hunting exception to such situation as they would be defenseless The animal source of food is an indispensable item amidst the large number of Nicobarese in the village. of the shompen diet. Shompens do not return home The shompens would be asked to attend some works like unless they get game and would rather go without food fetching drinking water, repairing huts or canoe during but never forego the pork or meat or fish. The pig is the their stay in the Nicobarese village. This relation in due only big game available in Great Nicobar and is an course turned the Nicobarese as a sort of Big-Brother- important source of animal food for shompens. The cum-Master of the shompens . monitor lizard is another important game for shompens. The Megapod bird and its eggs are also eaten by Gift economy shompens. The gift economy introduced among the shompens was in the form of an aid in establishing the contacts and Fishing rapport with the shompens during explorations Fishing activities of shompens are generally in the organized occasionally. Initially, the gift articles were stream creek waters and not in marine waters. The generally restricted to the item of beads, cloth, machetes, spears are used in fishing activities. etc. And as such, this practice would have had no Apiculture adverse bearing on their self contained economy. But the Honey is an important supplementary food as well gift economy introduced very recently includes the as exchange commodity in their barter economy. The practice of giving away such articles as rice, pulses, shompens practice simple and natural apiculture. edible oil and spices, clothes and machetes on regular basis. Scholars have opinion that this gift economy Barter economy Though the shompens have been living in the would be a slow poison for the shompens ultimately. interior forest of Great Nicobar Island, they have never The free distribution of ration will render the shompens been in absolute isolation. The economic relation finally dependent on such charity and weaning them from their characteristic independent existence. existed between them and Nicobarese since beginning, though the pattern varied according to the general Knowledge of forests/plants and biodiversity relations between the two communities. Thus, there are Knowledge of forests/plants and biodiversity two stages in the barter economy, viz. one that existed encompasses a brief description of the bulk of before the termination of hostilities between the knowledge which the tribal people have come to shompens and the Nicobarese and the other, which possess in course of their millennia long interaction followed the end of hostilities. The first stage may be with nature. Detailed ethnobotanical information about described as the silent barter as could be found among the shompens of Great Nicobar Island has been given many other communities like Hill Pandaram of Kerala. (Table 1) 7. In the specific context of the forest During the hostilities that prevailed between the management of Andaman and , shompens and the Nicobarese, the transaction was Government, Forest Department, forest based effected indirectly wherein the shompens and industries and non aboriginal populations each of this Nicobarese did not meet face to face. The shompens group has its own professional and cultural interests used to hang their commodities to the trees near the to which are tailored the methods, techniques and coastal belt and returned to their camps. After a day or system of forest management they pursue. All these two, they revisited the trade spot, i.e. the tree to find the self constructions are based on economic calculations commodities like tobacco, cloth and machete hung in and have significant political stakes. However, forest ARORA: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF SHOMPENS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND 557

Table 1 Plants used by the shompens Plant species Parts used Edible plants Ardisia solancea Raw fruit Blechnum orientalis Tender fronds boiled and eaten Calamus andamanicus Juice of stem as drinking water Calamus sp Raw fruit Ceratopteris thalictroides Tender fronds boiled and eaten Citrus sp Raw fruit Cocos nucifera Fruit Colocasia esculenta Rhizome boiled and eaten Dioscorea glabra Tuber boiled and eaten Diospyros cauliflora Raw fruit Flagellaria indica Stem & leaf boiled and eaten Ficus sp Fruit boiled and eaten Helminthostachys zeylanica Tender fronds boiled & eaten Mangifera camptosperma Raw fruit Morinda citrifolia Leaf as vegetable Musa sapientum Fruit eaten raw or after boiling Pandanus leram var. andamanensium Fruit forms the staple food; eaten after boiling and processing Pangium edule Seed roasted and eaten Pinanga manii Raw fruit Pisonia umbellifera Tender shoot as vegetable Rubus moluccanus var. angulosus Raw fruit Selaginella sp Root as vegetable Tacca leontopetaloides Rhizome boiled and eaten Terminalia catappa Raw fruit Thespesia populnea Leaf as vegetable Condiments Capsicum frutescens Fruit Narcotic Nicotiana tabacum Leaf Stimulants Areca catechu Nut Piper betel Leaf Bee repellent Hornstedtia fenzlii Rhizome extract as bee repellent Fish poison Barringtonia asiatica Fruit powder used as fish poison Pangium edule Bark powder as fish poison Construction of hut Actephila excelsa Branches used for posts, beams, thatching rods or sticks, etc. Antidesma tetrandrum Same as above Calophyllum inophyllum Same as above Casearia grewiaefolia Same as above Diospyros cauliflora Same as above Dryptes sumatrana Same as above Dysoxylum binectariferum Same as above Mallotus resinosus Same as above Radermachera pinnata ssp acuminata Same as above Saurauia bracteosa Branches used for posts, beans, thatching rods or sticks Semecarpus kurzii Same as above Reca catechu Split stem used for making floor of hut Pinanga manii Same as above Dinochloa scandens Same as above Areca catechu Leaf used for thatching of roof Calamus spp. Same as above Nypa fruticans Same as above Pandanus leram var. andamanensium Leaf used for thatching roof P. odoraussimus Same as above Contd . 558 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 9, No. 3, JULY 2010

Table 1 Plants used by the shompens (Contd.) Plant species Parts used Calamus spp. Twig Connarus semidecandrus Twig C. paniculatus Twig Cloth Sterculia macrophylla Bark Ficus spp. Bark Utensils Aglaia edulis Bark used for making large vessel for cooking pandanus fruit A. sylvestris Same as above Calophyllum inophyllum Same as above Neolamarckia cadamba Same as above Terminalia sp. Same as above Tremma tomentosa Same as above Areca catechu Pathe used for such purposes Cocos nucifera Shell used as mug Plate/cover Macaranga indica Leaf M. nicobarica Leaf M. peltata Leaf Brush Nypa fruticans Dried fruit with fiber used for cleaning the hands Pandanus leram var. andamanensium Same as above Dug out canoe Barringtonia asiatica Trunk Calophyllum inophyllum Trunk C. soulattri Trunk Sterculia macrophylla Trunk Garcinia nervosa Branches used for making paddle of canoe Leea sp Branches used for making balance of canoe Fishing harpoon Atalantia monophylla Branch Dinochloa scandens Stem Mat/basket Calamus sp Strip of cane used for making crude mat and basket Leea sp Leaves often used as bed sheet Pandanus odoratissimus Leaves used to make crude mat Ornaments Coix lachrymal jobi Seeds used to make necklace Dinochloa scandens Slender piece of branch used as ear ornament. Medicinal plants Actoplanes canniformis Decoction of stem and root taken orally in fever. Alstonia kurzii Bark, root or leaf boiled in water and vapor inhaled for curing fever. A. macrophylla Same as above Ardisia solanacea Root boiled in water and used for washing uterus after childbirth; decoction of root also taken orally to remove blood clot and cure internal haemorrhage. Croton argyratus Seed paste eaten as laxative and in stomach disorders. Dischidia benghalensis Leaf paste is applied externally for reducing pain on mumps & sores. Twig paste is applied externally for healing of fractured bone. Glochidion calocarpum Seeds or bark paste is applied externally in skin diseases; decoction of leaf is taken orally for curing fever. Leea sp Leaf eaten in fever. Myristica sp Seed or bark paste is applied externally for skin diseases. Ophiorrhiza nicobarica Fresh leaf paste is applied on wounds. Semecarpus kurzii Fruit is used to cure injuries.

ARORA: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF SHOMPENS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND 559

conservation in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands by fighting between claimant and violator. Normally, the the tribal people as old as their own history. The claim is accepted by all, and moreover such claims tribals don’t know about the silvicultural practices are very rarely put up by individual shompens . especially raising of nurseries, use of mulches, use of Another interesting example of their forest fertilizers and clonal propagation, etc. Their forest management skill is related to the bees. The shompens conservation and management practices are very help the bees in the forest. The bees require a suitable simple and are the part of their cosmology, ethos and spot sheltered effectively against the rains to build beliefs. These practices are part of their regular life their hives. The hollow tree trunks serve as ideal and are essential to fulfill their basic needs of places for bee hives. The hollow results from the survival. More importantly, most of these practices action of insects like termites. Such trees could be are advantageous and productive from the standpoint found in forest in large number. The bees find their of maintaining ecological balance. They are aware way into such hollow place if the trunk has some about the judicious and scientific use of their opening through which they could move in and out. immediate environment. For example, they are known The shompens in this context are instrumental to help as nomadic primitive tribe. They do not live in single the bees. They locate such hollow tree trunks by aggregate village but in number of bands at different resonating it with blunt edge of the machete that they temporary camps. They clear a small patch of forest, carry while moving in the forest. Then they cut an say 10-15 m long and 10-15 m wide for their opening into the hollow trunk and leave it as such. In temporary camps. The trees are felled by cutting the due course, the bees may locate this tree and build trunk using the iron machete. The trunks are cut not at their hive therein. The shompens after some weeks base or ground level but at a fairly high level of about may come back to harvest honey. They ward off bees 5-6 m above the ground. This is an ingenuous action by moving the pinanga leaves over the beehive and as the trees in the forest of Great Nicobar have wide spit the juice of a plant so that bees turn torpid. If a wing like basal trunk growths called buttress. If the shompen desires to claim the personal right over the tree is to be cut at base, it would take more time and honey, he would mark the hollow tree that he located efforts as girth at that level is many times more than and other shompens would not harvest the honey from the actual girth of trunk. It also provides a chance to such identified trees on seeing the markings. the jungle to grow again. Great Nicobar displays high levels of endemism They are also said to possess gardens enclosed in and extraordinary diversity at species and community zigzag fences, where they cultivate bananas, yams, levels. Studies of species interaction in the processes and other tubers. They also raise pandanus, colocasia, of ecosystem and of mechanisms of species lemon, chilli, tobacco, betel, betel nut, tapioca and coexistence on Great Nicobar are still at a coconut. These plantations are raised with a rudimentary level. Fifty yrs ago, there were no large systematic way and considerable care and attention. mammals on the island other than humans. Today, At last, these plantations seem the integrated part of however, cattle forage at the edges of the rain forest forest. The pandanus is the single most important and help pave the way for invasive plants. Ironically, plantation crop as it is a major source of food for the nutrient content of the island’s soils is generally shompens. The pandanus plantation shows their poor; plant detritus is rapidly broken down through management skill. Each band of shompens has a microbial activity and nutrients are delivered to number of pandanus plantations within its territory in above-ground biomass, rather than being fixed in such a way that at any point of time shompens would plant root systems and soil. Great Nicobar’s lushly not face dearth of pandanus. Though the pandanus is fertile appearance and its infertility with respect to raised as community plantation by the band, many intentionally introduced plant species have individual could claim personal rights over the fruits complicated issues of tribal protection, immigrant of few trees by putting up a contrivance. The settlement and economic development in recent adventitious roots of pandanus tree whose fruits to be decades. The indigenous inhabitants of the Great claimed as personal property are connected with a Nicobar are the shompens and the Nicobarese. The long pandanus leaf and a crude wooden spear is struck ANI (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) Regulation of on to an adventitious root. This contrivance indicates 1956 recognized their exclusive right of settlement on the personal claim over the fruits of such trees and Great Nicobar. Indeed, there were no permanent non- further cautions that the infringement would lead to tribal residents in the island until the late 1960s, when 560 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 9, No. 3, JULY 2010

the government permitted limited additional factors leading to habitat destruction, species loss and settlement for strategic reasons involving territorial observable ecosystem disruption in the reserve and on claims by Indonesia. The Government of started the island remain continue. The Ministry of Tribal to settle the ex-servicemen in Great Nicobar. The Affairs, Government of India has presented a draft coastal forest land on the Southeastern coast was policy of shompen which advocates no contact of the reclaimed by felling trees. The reclamation of forest primitive tribes with the outside world. The policy land and settlement of ex-servicemen as the proposes restrictions on the "outside intervention in agriculturists resulted in the retreat of the shompens the life and culture" of the shompen tribe and with usurpation of their territory. There were shompen inclusion of a provision to provide "deterrent huts in the villages of Jogindernagar and Laxminagar, punishment" to persons entering the shompen reserve which have been deserted by shompens following the and buffer areas without a "tribal pass". Government settlement of ex-servicemen there. The ex-servicemen has also initiated efforts for the protection of the fast- farmers found the pigs and monkeys as their crop depleting shompen primitive tribe in the Nicobar menace and hence they used to kill them in a Islands and proposed granting it the status of "unique clandestine manner and as such, these species have human heritage" of the country. been declared as endangered ones. Apart from this, the people used to hunt the pigs, megapod, etc. Thus, Results and discussion the large population of outsiders started encroaching Shompens have abundance of local expertise in upon the food resources of the shompens and plant genetic resources that have been in use over a depleting them. Furthermore, the huge population considerable period of time and evolved with the depends on the forest resources for housing materials constant use of forest resources. Their forest and firewood. There was an incessant demand for management practices are very simple and are the part these housing materials because of non availability of of their daily life. Forest mangers have long been basic building materials like good quality stones and ignored this vast repository of knowledge. Therefore sand and quite unfavourable climate for the longevity in order to understand, conserve and manage the of wood materials. Thus, that increased the stress on biodiversity, better research and documentation are the forest resources both flora and fauna which once required on the ethno botanical knowledge of belonged exclusively to the autochthons of the Great shompens . In the absence of ethnobotanical, even Nicobar. purely external forest management system in Great Mainland India is spending to control the spread of Nicobar cannot be effective. Celebratory references to invasive species, whereas the island ecosystems that are most vulnerable to such disasters have been Table 2 Major invasive species in Great Nicobar Island largely taken for granted. Ships arrive in the Great Nicobar from without any quarantine, bringing alien Species Spread and kind of impact. species along with grains, vegetables, poultry, Chromolaena Spread along open areas in the forest close livestock and other imports. A survey undertaken by odorata to human habitation. Lantana camara Few clumps have been noted at 28-km researchers identified 46 exotic plant species on the point on East-West road. island, of which 12 are well known invasive species Ageratina spp. Weed with a creeping habit, covering most 8 (Table 2) . Clearings made in the forest in recent open fields. decades offered multiple niche opportunities to Merremia peltata Covers large patches close to streams. invasive species; these have spread extensively and Ischimum rugosum Spreads over fallow land. made the soil unsuitable for agriculture. Though the Cyperus rotundus Occupies marshy land cleared and abandoned. nutrients in the soil do not support agriculture after a Mikania micrantha Found around abandoned encroachments few cycles of cropping, they are enough to sustain and forest edges. enormous weed populations. Globally known Dogs Numbering approximately 2,100; a menace terrestrial invasive such as Chromolaena, Mikania and to sea turtles, Megapodes and wild pigs, as Ageratina have covered clear felled areas on the they have taken to pack hunting. island. For the protection of this fragile ecosystem, Cats Threat to Megapodes and other ground birds, they are present in numbers matching this diversity rich island has been declared as a those of dogs. Biosphere Reserve. But encroachments by non-tribal Cattle Large number of cattle feed in the forest, people, invasive species and poaching are among destroying ground flora. ARORA: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF SHOMPENS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND 561

indigenous knowledge are unconvincing if policy Acknowledgement makers and conservation officials fail to make serious The study is based on the ICSSR, New Delhi efforts to incorporate indigenous knowledge in their funded post-doctoral research. scientific forest management system. An important reason for taking local knowledge seriously is that References 1 Chauhan Nidhi, Padalia Hitendra, Gupta Stutee, Porwal MC external agencies cannot understand ecosystem & Roy PS, Psilotum complanatum Sw., a rare epiphytic fern processes and biodiversity dynamics without ally of Great Nicobar Island: Exploration and habitat understanding the roles played by indigenous people monitoring, Curr Sci, 85 (2) (2003) 193-197. in maintaining their natural environments. The cause 2 Rizvi SN, The Shompen; A Vanishing Tribe of the Great of the concern is that the Indigenous knowledge is Nicobar Island , (Seagull Book, Calcutta), 1990, 5. 3 Kloss C Boden, The Narrative of a cruise in the Schooner vanishing at a fast pace in these islands. Therefore, ‘Terrapin’, with Notices of the Islands, Their Fauna, not only the identification but the recording of the Ethnology, etc. , (John Murray, Albemarle Street W, indigenous methods of forest conservation requires London), 1903, 208. immediate attention. 4 Suresh Babu & Denys P Leighton, The Shompen of Great Nicobar Island (India)-between development and disappearance, Policy Matters (13) 2004. Conclusion 5 Awaradi SA, Computerized Master Plan for Welfare of Forest management strategies for the Great Nicobar Primitive Tribes of Andaman & Nicobar Islands, (Andman and Nicobar Administration), 1990, 28. should involve the direct participation of those whose 6 Shashi SS, Island Tribes of Andaman and Nicobar , (Anmol resource uses have shaped the island for thousands of Publications Pvt Ltd, New Delhi), 1995. years. The shompens living long before modern 7 Sinha BK, Hajra P K & Rao PSN, Flora of Great Nicobar societies had any real impact on them. Sustainable Island , (Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata), 1991. management of tropical forest of the Great Nicobar 8 Babu S, Sharma S, Love A & Babu CR, Niche Opportunity: A New Paradigm in Invasion Ecology , Proc Centenary may not be an oxymoron if forest management in Journal Seminar of the Bombay Nat Hist Soc, 14-16 island utilises the indigenous knowledge of shompens . November 2003.