INTRODUCTION ABOUT THIS ISSUE Towards Understanding he Andaman and Nicobar T Islands is a union territory of Recovery India that spans across 500 km in the Bay of Bengal. It is an aledictory Address flows and actions are taken. And archipelago that is composed of 572 V I am honored to be speaking at yet tsunami recovery remains an islands which are categorised under the Tata Institute of Social Science under-studied and under- two island groups, viz. Andaman (TISS) on the occasion of this round researched area in AIDMI's Islands and Nicobar Islands. Known table. TISS is one of the few opinion. This round table by JTSDS, for their beautiful and fragile institutes in the country that has Mumbai and King's College, ecosystems, these islands are also had a tremendous impact on London addresses this gap by home to many indigenous tribal India's development story and focusing on island recovery, the groups like the Sentinelese people, trajectory. The institute has been recovery process, and recovery-to- a pristine tribe that still lives at the firmly devoted to all aspects of development links. Paleolithic level of technology. development studies including However, the Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 led to widespread disaster studies. It has also Ever since its inception, AIDMI has devastation in these islands. More consistently churned out graduates been associated with multiple than 2,000 people lost their lives, who drive and achieve positive disaster recoveries. The experience more than 4,000 children were social change in their respective of working on multiple disaster orphaned or suffered the loss of one fields. Some of these graduates recoveries across 12 regions spread parent, and a minimum of 40,000 work with us and the bring best across India, South Asia and Asia people were rendered homeless. ideas to the table and help achieve Pacific has been quite rewarding More than 46,000 people were results for the All India Disaster and enriching. Based on these injured as well. Following the Mitigation Institute (AIDMI). experiences and my review of 10 Tsunami, major recovery efforts years of recovery in the report were taken up by state and non-state AIDMI was established in 1995 and titled ''South Asia Disaster Report actors in these islands. within a year or so started 2016: Are We Building Back experiencing a very real gap Better?'' let me point to five Nearly 14 years after that devastating between social science research and directions for further research and Tsunami, it is warranted to assess the practice of disaster studies. the extent and sustainability of management in India. The way in these recovery efforts. This issue of which the Jamsetji Tata School of One, when does recovery start, Southasiadisasters.net is titled, after a disaster or before it? Is "Understanding Recovery in the Disaster Studies (JTSDS) has filled Andaman and Nicobar Islands" and in the gap is both unique and recovery distinct from ongoing highlights the various aspects of the innovative. Generating new development work or do we make post-tsumani recovery process knowledge and research around it distinct with funds and project there. This issue focuses on many disasters has opened up newer labels? What kind of social base is themes related with the recovery opportunities across India and required to make recovery robust process in the islands such as the beyond. and sustainable? What are the new importance of understanding the theoretical considerations? Is there underlying factors of vulnerability, Tsunami recovery has brought in a scope for demand driven the role of international some of the most exciting studies recovery as against needs humanitarian agencies in assisting and reports, including the reports assessment on supply driven the recovery, civil-military by Disasters Emergency recovery? What about plurality in cooperation in the response efforts, Committee (DEC), Tsunami recovery to move from a recovery importance of housing, food and Evaluation Coalition (TEC), Active to many recoveries? Can recovery nutrition for a sustainable recovery Learning Network for process bring about financial and rehabilitation, etc. Most Accountability and Performance in inclusion of citizens such as those importantly, this issue highlights Humanitarian Action (ALNAP), of Andaman and Nicobar Islands the nature of vulnerability and risk reduction in these beautiful and several universities. These (ANI)? islands. – Kshitij Gupta studies have impacted the way aid

2 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 Two, how can recovery become transformative, that is, move on towards clean, green and "new" development work? Dr. Lyla Mehta and Dr. Lars Otto remind us that there is a long way to go in defining transformation. What was the environmental impact of tsunami recovery on islands' water, vegetation, air, settlements, society, coastal ecosystem, and economy? Did ANI recovery miss out on transforming local economy into "green" or "low carbon" or "circular" economy? How can we, in the future, introduce the ideas of "happy money" or "social enterprise" in recovery? Are we making investments in research and innovation to make recovery faster, Singhji called for "Collaborative In the above five directions for better and sustainable? Federalism" as India's approach to further research and studies I have disaster recovery at Sendai in 2015? tried to mop up many of the insights Three, what is this idea of a Is there a case for use of new we have gained here today in this "community" in recovery? Currently, technologies such as drones in round table, as well as open up Terry Cannon is asking us again and humanitarian recovery in such windows for us to have a better and again this question about limits to distant and difficult locations in clearer view of recovery in ANI, as community based approaches. Does India? well as recovery in India, perhaps community work in islands situation in recovery per se. better than the mainland? As there Five, do we know any more now on are limited Self Help Group (SHGs) "how" and "what" of accountability Let me suggest, Dr. Mahesh Kumble, or unions or cooperatives or Small of recovery process and its results? to capture the discussions of the and Medium-sized Enterprise (SME) To whom is recovery process round table into a book. We all owe in Andaman and Nicobar Islands accountable to? Humanitarian a book on recovery to ANI after this (ANI) is community agency more sector? Development? Both? And round table. Let me suggest possible? Do at least in some cases, how best to govern the recovery to considering this round table as a first community based approaches make it more accountable to the of the regular annual series of Round penalise the poor and weak citizens? citizens? And what do we do with Tables on Recovery in ANI. We owe And did the Japanese occupation of what John C. Mutter calls disaster it to the recovery studies and action. ANI in World War II make any profiteers in relief and recovery? And difference to the idea of recovering is there a role for surveillance and Let me welcome the support from community? Were there punishment in the accountability National Institute of Disaster extraordinary local leaders in process that can take such Management (NIDM) to Jawaharlal recovery and what is their legacy? profiteering? Was Right to Nehru University (JNU) and suggest Information used, or can be used, to to General N.C. Marwah to kindly Four, how is the nature of recovery open up a new space for repeat the timely action by requesting different in islands from recovery in accountability of the administration National Disaster Management the mainland? Do islands offer a to the citizens? Is there a need for Authority (NDMA) to support JTSDS geography that makes recovery third party monitoring of future for a recovery studies programme. I more cohesive? Or does it depend recovery? Is recovery inevitably hope Dr. Janaki Andharia agrees on the distances between the two Centre-driven as recovery money with me in these suggestions. islands? What does ANI recovery tell flows from the Centre? us about the changing Centre-State Thank you. relations? Especially since Rajnath – Mihir R. Bhatt

October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 3 REDIFING DISASTER RECOVERY The Multidimesionality of the Idea of Recovery

recovery programme provides as also in many south Asian regions, Aan opportunity to "build back it is essential to focus on issues of better" and improve living equity, social justice and ecological conditions and overall well-being of security in the recovery process. the people who are assisted. It Therefore, a post disaster situation integrates disaster risk reduction must also be viewed as a context for through structural measures, policies introducing sustainable housing, and regulations and reduces livelihoods and energy solutions vulnerabilities of the communities. through recovery interventions The notion of "recovery" in disaster which can contribute to improved discourse comes from a bio-medical development practices. A recovery

model of illness that implies programme is more than bringing Janki Andharia. reverting back to normalcy after an the community back to its feet; it is response of rescue and relief, which ailment which disrupts homeostatic also about ensuring sustainability. is to meet the emergency needs of functioning of the body. However, community in the immediate societal conditions in a pre-disaster Post-disaster recovery commences aftermath of a disaster. A critical context are not always optimal as immediately after a disaster event, objective of the recovery process is this notion of recovery suggests and and programatically it is to restore infrastructure and to that extent post disaster implemented over a period of two livelihoods in a way that reduces programmes must be more forward to five years, under the leadership vulnerability and makes looking and developmental in their of the national government. It is to communities more resilient when orientation. In a country like India, be distinguished from humanitarian faced with possible new disasters. On

The tribals of Chaura island built this boat locally even as government struggled to provide support for recovery.

4 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 small islands regeneration and enhancement of livelihoods in post- disaster situations remains a fundamental challenge for a variety of reasons. High external transport costs, time delays in bringing in goods, reduced quality of information flow and poor governance and monitoring mechanisms- to name a few. Islands also tend to have fragile environments and economies.

Small islands are particularly vulnerable to a number of natural hazards, which are further aggravated due to human efforts at development. Moreover, islands have large coastal zones which make them increasingly vulnerable to Nicobari women grating coconut. coastal erosion, floods and some of the most devastating "Post Disaster Recovery and very little for many years, causing hydrometeorological and geological Development: Reflecting on pressure to build up. When the disasters such as cyclones and Processes in the Andaman and accumulated pressure is suddenly earthquakes. Many islands are of Nicobar Islands after the Tsunami" released, a major earthquake takes volcanic origin and are located on organised by the Jamsetji Tata place. This is what happened in plate boundaries, as a result of which School of Disaster Studies of TISS in December 2004 below Sumatra. The they experience frequent partnership with Kings College A and NIs experience vulnerability earthquakes. The Andaman and London. caused by their small size, insularity Nicobar Islands (A & NIs) were and remoteness (they are over 1,000 severely impacted during the Located in the Bay of Bengal, the A km from the Indian land mass). The earthquake and tsunami of 26th and NIs cover an area of 8,249 sq capital, Port Blair, is 1,255 km from December 2004. km. They lie in a Zone V seismic Kolkata and 1,190 km from Chennai. category, experiencing intense On the other hand, the northern end The southern group of A&NIs – the tectonic activity and therefore highly of the islands lies just 193 km away Nicobar Islands, declared a Tribal prone to earthquakes. These 572 from Cape Negrais in Myanmar and Reserve – was worst affected in islands of volcanic origin are formed Sumatra, the closest landmass, is 145 terms of human casualties and loss by a sub-marine mountain range and km away from the Nicobar group of forest, plantations and public are located between the latitudes 6° of islands at the southern end. Of the amenities. The destruction on the to 14° North and longitudes 92° to total 572 islands, only 36 are islands was compounded by their 94° East. The Indian Ocean is inhabited. relative isolation in both geographic dominated by the presence of mid- and administrative terms. It was ocean ridges where the Indo- The islands experience chronic against this back- drop that the Tata Australian and African plates are difficulties maintaining adequate Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) moving away from the Antarctica water and energy supplies. The took up the challenge of working on plate along the ridges. original inhabitants of the A and NIs relief support, assessments and local are the Onge, Sentinelese, Jarawa capacity-building in close On an average, the Indo-Australian and Great Andamanese of Negroid collaboration with the local plate moves below the Eurasian plate descent in the Andaman Islands, and authorities of the islands. at around 70 mm per year. Along the Shompen and Nicobarese of the Andaman-Sumatra Sunda trench, Mongoloid descent in the Nicobar This special issue contains several the Indian plate is subducting below Islands. The communities have lived papers that were presented at a the Burmese plate. Often, however, here for 20,000 years, but their recent Roundtable conference titled the plates become locked and move collective population (excluding the

October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 5 Nicobarese) has decreased to 500 in in this special issue on Island it impossible to negotiate or engage the last 150 years as a result of Recovery. with a multi-layered regulatory colonial policies and the system which is often insensitive to modernisation activities of Post disaster recovery is a complex the local (or tribal) ways of living independent India. Outbreaks of multi-dimentional process. A flawed and being. measles and other diseases have recovery programme could end up wiped out large numbers of these re-building the very risks that caused What is the situation on the islands, tribes. Tribal communities live in destruction. Quite often short-term what are the lessons learnt in the highly diversified and varied and myopic programmes with a arena of recovery and long term environments, adopting simple narrow focus on economic development? What are the current technologies. Typically, use of development increase disaster risks concerns? This issue brings together natural resources is largely by ignoring vulnerabilities or diverse perspectives on the subject. sustainable with no over- ecological integrity of specific The gaps in literature are many and exploitation. The communities live geographies. In the governance of we need more research to develop a in a synergistic and symbiotic island eco-systems co-ordination better understanding of how relationship with nature. (The across departments often remains the communities recover after a disaster. Nicobarese, for instance, despite greatest challenge. Therefore, it is Robust longitudinal studies on post being coastal communities, do not important to forge collaboration disaster recovery processes are not carry out fishing as a source of across government line departments many and multiple perspectives on commercial livelihood, but only for and local communities along with disaster recovery are evolving as subsistence.) Their deep relationship robust land use planning practices they get debated and discussed. with nature has helped maintain that integrate knowledge from – Janki Andharia, their ecological environment despite diverse disciplines. Tribal Ph.D, Professor and Dean, Jamsetji centuries of habitation. It is this communities in A&NIs are a Tata School of Disaster Studies, Tata context that foregrounds the articles disenfranchised population that finds Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

DISASTER RECOVERY Challenges of Post–Tsunami Recovery in A&N Islands

ndia is one of the ten worst especially complex emergencies. The stakeholders at various levels. I disaster prone countries in the need for a pool of experts as well as NDMP clearly enunciates that World. Out of 35 States and Union increased community participation approach towards post-disaster Territories in the country, 27 are and systems in monitoring and restoration and rehabilitation shifts prone to one or more disasters. evaluation to ensure long term to one of better reconstruction and Besides a huge number of deaths and recovery is reiterated. taken as an opportunity to build millions of people getting affected back better (BBB). by various disasters every year, National Policy on DM 2009 released India's average annual economic by MHA has very briefly (barely 4 In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, loss due to disasters is estimated to pages) covered few aspects of the I applaud the imprints left by the be $9.8 billion (>2% GDP). approach towards Relief & TISS Team during the Tsunami relief Rehabilitation and Reconstruction & work and commend the work it Disaster Recovery requires well- Recovery. However, the first carried out as a small team in prepared institutional arrangements, National Disaster Management Plan adverse situations especially during better coordination between (NDMP) released on 1st June 2016 uncertain times, coupled with agencies, Public-Private Partnerships which has been aligned with four limited resources and support. TISS (PPP), more efficient use of priorities as enshrined in the SFDRR was involved in Tsunami relief at Information and Communication has covered salient aspects of the the Andaman and Nicobar islands Technology (ICT), Decision Support Recovery Process. NDMP is laid out from 2004-2007; thereafter Professor System (DSS) for improved incident in the form of a matrix giving out Andharia undertook an extensive response during emergencies responsibilities of all concerned review of recovery processes in 2017

6 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 and shared the findings with Unfortunately, more often than not, that is subject to frequent disasters National Disaster Management the effort of disaster management of varying intensities. Authority (NDMA). has not focused beyond immediate relief and response. The recent study The 2017 Study on recovery in A&NI TISS's initial report on post-disaster by TISS study is has been covered changes that had taken place, relief identified 2 distinct sets of instrumental in bringing to the fore providing NDMA with specific insights on sustainable development the social, economic and cultural instances of successes and failures in and long-term recovery of the issues of relatively insulated recovery processes on several islands. The first part focused on societies, especially the tribal areas islands of the Nicobar district. There TISS's relief work on Katchal Island of A&NI where they inhabit fragile had been major improvement in the which had been severely affected ecosystems. The approach adopted to work carried out by the public health and largely ignored during relief. rehabilitate the inhabitants and the centres and the overall There were valuable insights on environment must also be unique administrative response. The local many other Southern Nicobar and in harmony with the demands schools have an increased number Islands. Second part of TISS's report of that ecosystem. of Nicobari teachers that have provided an analysis of relief efforts contributed to good results from the and capacity building programmes To maintain a long-term recovery of students. In addition, road launched for the inhabitants. the region, community participation connectivity to the islands has is key. However, facilitating the improved significantly. Remote The need to create forward and community's participation is sensing data shows that plantations backward linkages between the challenging in a region where there and ecosystems that had been Government agencies and the local is a lack of awareness about basic destroyed are on their road to community is very important. In citisenship rights among regeneration. Capacity building of extreme events, Government communities. Therefore, the first the local community along with agencies and local communities are step to ensure community their integration into normal life has affected severely and therefore the engagement requires mutual respect been significant. Critiques of onus on relief and rescue should be between different stakeholders. This recovery work include lack of collaborative effort between them, approach is indispensable to support institutional mechanisms that helped with contributions by both for a geographically fragile ecosystem ensure better livelihoods, rehabilitation. sustainable housing and sensitive integration of public policy for the culturally and ecologically sensitive region of ANI.

The extensive work done by TISS in field of relief work and rehabilitation programmes in the aftermath of major disasters viz, Latur Earthquake, Bhuj Earthquake, Tsunami in A&NI and Uttarakhand Floods is indeed laudable. Though reports of their involvement have been documented and their work has been widely published, I think it is pertinent to consolidate the repository of their experience and formulate a framework which could be of tremendous benefit to policy makers at the National & State level. TISS may steer this initiative with NIDM & NDMA. – Lt Gen N C Marwah, Member, National Disaster Management Authority, New Delhi, India A typical Nicobari canoe- the dominant mode of local transportation.

October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 7 BOOK REVIEW (Re)Understanding Recovery from Asian Tsunami

hat is the best way to The chapter on conflicting W understand humanitarian paradigms and the danger of recovery afresh? Make humanitarian discourse introduces us to re-think programming supple? Perhaps a the national disaster management review of the timely book edited by framework after tsunami. But the Dr. Sunita Reddy offers a direction. book does not argue for a change in the humanitarian paradigm, but The book 'The Asian Tsunami and invites the readers to develop a far Post-Disaster Aid' (by Springer 2018) more nuanced understanding of is a welcome addition to the knowledge humanitarian concepts of relief, repository of understanding the un- recovery, and rehabilitation. intended consequences of humanitarian aid for recovery. Indian Ocean tsunami received such a flow of aid that left almost none A wide range of authors, some without more than adequate resources experts and some practitioners, (re)fabrication of hazardous - organisations and authorities had many both, and all committed to waterscapes to resilience and ruptures. resources to try out almost any idea improve the effectiveness of or insight gained from past humanitarian action, have The book tells the reader that humanitarian action or learning - on contributed 15 chapters to this book accountability in relief; delivery of the ground. The chapters give a wide covering India – Andaman and Nicobar basic services of food, water, health, range of such initiatives. Islands as well as Tamil Nadu coast education and finance; and but not Kerala or Andhra – Sri Lanka, effectiveness of ongoing public and The book asks us if we ever think of Thailand, and Indonesia. The NGO relief systems are far more the un-intended consequences of chapters cover a wide range of topics important than so far recognised in humanitarian aid. I am reminded of ranging from ethno-political issues aid circles. Accountability in fact the famous lecturers at to accounting for loss and damage, shapes the recovery process and Massachusetts Institute of and from learning from nature to improves the quality of results. Technology in late 1980s (and their

8 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 books) Dr. Albert O. Hirschman and Andaman and Nicobar Islands are of tsunami are other two publications Dr. Judith Tendler. Both pointed out visited from many points of view in that built on the above knowledge what they called the ''hidden hand'' this book, including sustainability of platform. This book starts from where that is never visible when aid, social fabric of Nicobarese, and the above four landmark evaluations development projects are planned the concept of New Andamans. The and review of tsunami left the debate but always influence the way reader is able to see both, what is around accountability, performance, development results are formed. It done, and results achieved, but also, programming, and impact. is up to the development (and in our what was left out and perhaps why. Something that Amitaji is now case humanitarian recovery) planner What are the limits of Rights-based persuing in Kerala after floods. to be able to see this hidden hand approach in recovery in an island and adapt the recovery plans and and tribal communities? Why local Dr. Sunita Reddy is Associate activities to better achieve the health traditions are bypassed to Professor at the Center of Social recovery results. bring in health for all concept in Medicine and Community Health recovery? These questions come up and Adjunct Faculty at the Special While the humanitarian studies for the reader. Center of Disaster Research, move closer to defining and Jawaharlal Nehru University, New developing better performance or Two first of its kind evaluations; Delhi. She has in the end offered us opposing the humanitarian concepts one, by Disaster Emergency a template of what to do, when, and this book encourages us to reflect Committee of UK; and two, by with what and whom, to make our more on what we do and how we Tsunami Evaluation Coalition future humanitarian programming remember what we do to recover. offered a solid platform. The flexible, and adaptive. Memory Interventions: Gujarat and UNDP's publication of innovations Book review by Mihir R. Bhatt Sri Lanka is the chapter that points in tsunami aid and IFRC evaluation As presented at Indira Gandhi National Centre for this out to the reader. the Arts, New Delhi, October 17, 2018.

DRR PERSPECTIVES Andaman & Nicobar Islands: After the Tsunami SEEDS Experiences

hen the Tsunami hit the have moved in the last century or On landing in the islands, the SEEDS W Andaman and Nicobar so and significant portion of them team was overwhelmed by the local Islands and other Indian states along are government employees. Local chaos immediately after the disaster, the coast of mainland India we at indigenous communities are as people from smaller badly hit SEEDS faced a huge dilemma. completely marginalised. The fact islands were being evacuated to Port Whether to rush to the badly hit that it is a territory directly under Blair, the capital. The team engaged coasts of Tamil Nadu where the the control of the national with the local government in damage was extensive and large Government in New Delhi has its organising information for external numbers of people were impacted, own implications. Citizens' voice is aid agencies. Information kiosks set or assist the people of Andaman and weak and there is limited public up outside the District control room Nicobar Islands, where relatively accountability. Besides, governance, provided guidance to all visitors who fewer people were impacted but the logistics too plays an important role had intended to provide relief loss was more intensive. Almost on the socio-economic fabric of the support. SEEDS set up two relief impulsively we decided to head out islands. The islands are difficult to camps, community kitchen and to the islands. A decision we never access, expensive to service, and temporary play areas for children. regretted. usually far from the media's eyes. The community stayed in these The results could be seen in the camps for nearly two months. The ecology of the islands poised a impact of the Tsunami. It destroyed unique challenge. Different from the the islands' transport infrastructure, With water overrunning most of the coastal mainland, the small islands and other small community assets smaller islands, transition shelters community have a distinct coping that were painstakingly built. had to be provided. With strategy to deal extreme events. Rebuilding efforts in the islands took Government providing design and What makes it even more complex much more time, and were far more material, agencies mobilised is that the large populace of these expensive compared to efforts in the manpower and support to ensure islands are external settlers who affected areas of the mainland. timely construction. SEEDS' previous October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 9 Community Center-Indian Ocean Tsunami Response. experience of working in Gujarat Municipal Council to introduce building against future disasters. helped mobilise trained construction disaster risk reduction practices in The programme was a huge success artisans from Patan District, who the cities and schools. Advocacy with local fisherwomen, small travelled all the way to these islands efforts relied on awareness, learning shopkeepers, and local contractors. and provided the necessary help to and practical pilot demonstrations. local workers. A good sense of A unique citizens resource centre was In our experience, working in the solidarity enthused local workers set up with information on hazard Andaman and Nicobar Islands after and homes could be built in time threats to the islands and their the Tsunami was a very unique despite challenges of monsoons, causes. It became a popular hit with experience. As an external agency access and amenities. SEEDS took the the local citizens especially school spending more than three years in opportunity to construct a children. Many of such pilots were the reconstruction work, we community centre using locally subsequently taken up by the experienced the same set of appropriate bamboo and thatch Government for wide-scale challenges as the people living in the technology. It marked the beginning implementation. islands did. We realised how a top- of our advocacy efforts to promote heavy remotely controlled bamboo based construction for the Direct engagement with the affected governance could influence local islands as against pre-fabricated community ranged from learning systems of governance and cement and steel structures that were practices to actual handholding prosperity. We witnessed the becoming popular and attractive support in rebuilding homes and implications of lack of media and specially after the Tsunami. livelihoods. The Tsunami had a huge hence the donor attention on the impact on the livelihood of small plight of affected community. And Advocacy efforts in the islands enterprises. Those who could afford perhaps our greatest lesson as a required mobilising and organising had already started moving to humanitarian agency was to learn local citizen groups; a difficult mainland India. With inputs and and understand how through our proposition in a geography with advice from the local business, own actions we can potentially weak political leadership, and strong SEEDS developed a micro-credit destroy an inherently strong local central government control. programme. The objective of the systems of resilience that islanders Nevertheless, with support of small programme was to help the tsunami know best having spent their citizen groups, local chamber of affected community in reviving their lifetimes overcoming challenges of commerce, SEEDS was able to build livelihoods. It was more than just a their natural environment. constructive partnerships with the loan programme; its added value – Manu Gupta, Co-founder and Executive local government including the was self-development and resilience Director, SEEDS, New Delhi, India

10 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 DISASTER RECOVERY Lessons from Tsunami Recovery in Andaman & Nicobar Islands

eing closest to its epicentre, use and, in some islands, outright of consultations with the affected BAndaman & Nicobar Islands abandonment of the new people. were affected, more than any part of settlements. Houses were designed India, by the Indian Ocean Tsunami by consultants, following the The other crucial lesson learnt from on the boxing day of 26 December principles of 'building-back-better', the recovery programme is scant 2004. Triggered by massive marine using pre-fabricated materials attention paid to the livelihood earthquake of magnitude 9.1 in the transported from mainland, and recovery of the affected islanders. Richter scale, the tsunami resulted assembled by engineers of CPWD, Livelihood restoration initiatives in huge sea waves that inundated APWD and NGOs locally, at focused almost exclusively on the large parts of the islands and exorbitant costs of Rs. 10 lakhs per community of fishermen and shattered lives, livelihoods, houses unit of 450 per sq.ft. The houses agriculturists of South Andaman. and infrastructure. Government of looked alien to the native Massive ingress of saline water had India launched extensive search, environment of the islands and did rendered almost entire cultivated rescue, relief and rehabilitation not provide much satisfaction to the land in Nicobar unfit for cultivation operations, which were followed by end users. Many affected families for several years making the reconstruction and recovery reconstructed their habitats with islanders dependent on irregular programmes. The outcome of the locally available materials. supplies of subsidised food grains programmes are clearly visible in Maintenance of the houses in from outside for sustenance. This reconstructed houses and subsequent years became another disturbed the self-sufficient infrastructure and in overall issue as the materials for repair were economy of the islands and further bouncing back of the life and not locally available. The lesson affected the health and nutrition of economy in the islands in less than learnt is that 'building-back-better' the islanders, particularly of the five years, but the long term impacts can be effective as well as cost- women and children. This highlights of tsunami recovery are beginning effective if these are driven by the needs for placing livelihood at to be understood and appreciated communities themselves. Even if the centre stage of long term only recently. innovative designs and materials are recovery from any catastrophic to be introduced, these must be done disasters, especially in remote There was an uneven pattern in through mature understanding of communities. tsunami damage and losses in the the local environment and process islands – while damages of Every disaster prone area should infrastructure were localised almost have a pre-disaster recovery plan exclusively in South Andaman, more The outcome of the prepared and updated through a specifically in Port Blair, damages to programmes are clearly consultative process based on lives, livelihoods and houses had visible in reconstructed various scenarios. This would help taken place mostly in Nicobar designing recovery programmes Islands. 84 per cent of deaths and 72 houses and infrastructure during post-disaster situations when per cent of damage of houses were and in overall bouncing issues of long term recovery tend to confined to 8 islands of Nicobar, each back of the life and economy be forgotten due to compulsions of inhabited by aboriginal tribes with quick decision making and readily their traditional houses, habitats, in the islands in less than available solutions that short-circuits culture and styles of living. five years, but the long term the process of understanding the Involvement and participation of impacts of tsunami recovery needs of local affected these affected islanders in designing communities. and reconstruction of their houses, are beginning to be – Dr. P.G. Dhar Chakrabarti* as per the much touted model of understood and appreciated *Retired Civil Servant who headed the 'owner driven constructions' did not only recently. National Institute of Disaster take place, resulting in sub-optimal Management (NIDM) during 2005– 2011

October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 11 ECOLOGY AND RISK Let us not Increase the Vulnerability of the A&N Islands Picture credit: Pankaj Sekhsaria. A 2005 picture of farmlands and houses in Sippighat, on the outskirts of Port Blair submerged due to the earthquake and tsunami of 2004.

n a roundtable on post-disaster That being said, a look at the meta- station in the islands as part of his Irecovery in the Andaman and narratives about these islands in the vision for the islands' future in a Nicobar Islands (ANI) held recently last decade suggests rather defense seminar in Port Blair in 2009 at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, emphatically that this awareness and and more recently, the formulation Mumbai, Govind Ram, Director, alertness has been restricted to the of a tourism and infrastructure Disaster Management, ANI local context. It has not percolated centered plan by the NITI Aayog for administration made an insightful upwards from the ground and the the 'Holistic development of the observation during his presentation. sea into the higher echelons of islands', where the initial documents It was his claim that while more than power and of policy making. That invoked the experiences of Dubai 3000 people died in these islands in this is a matter of serious concern is and Singapore but were ominously the tsunami of 2004, even three stating the obvious. Very little is silent on matters related to the people won't die if a tsunami of a visible in the policy and public disaster vulnerability, resilience, similar magnitude was to hit the discourse today that is related to the ecological concerns and future of the islands today. Awareness is the key vulnerability of the islands and to indigenous and other communities to this, he explained. People didn't their large socio-cultural, ecological of the A&N themselves. know what a tsunami was in 2004 and geological volatilities. The and many actually walked towards islands if they are being discussed My key concern is simple and their death when the sea first at all, are almost exclusively located straight-forward. The idea of withdrew. This, he emphasised, will within the geo-political-strategic or development, strategic importance never happen again. infrastructure-tourism development and of exercising power has frames and here too with explicit trumped the geological, ecological This is an awareness, one can argue, linkages between the two. and socio-cultural realities and that has been generated sui generis challenges of the Andaman and because no additional effort was There are any number of examples - Nicobar islands, and in this the needed to make it happen; it was prominent political commentator vulnerabilities of this extremely only to be expected, in fact. Indeed, Ashok Malik referring to these fragile and sensitive island system an aware and an alert citizenry and islands in a piece in the Hindustan are being increased many times administrative system is going to be Times in 2014 as "a prized piece of over. key in this island chain that is mid-ocean real estate that policy – Pankaj Sekhsaria, Senior Project located in Seismic Zone V, is part of gurus in Delhi have consistently Scientist, DST-Centre for Policy the Ring of Fire and where neglected and left unexploited", Research, IIT-Delhi; Member, earthquakes and tsunamis are former president, APJ Abdul Kalam Kalpavriksh Environmental Action regular occurrences. proposing a 250 MW nuclear power Group

12 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 HUMANITARIAN EFFORTS IN RECOVERY Tsunami Recovery in Sri Lanka, South Asia: Role of Japan

he Indian Ocean Tsunami, housing, public places, now called Quick Impact Projects T caused by the Indian Ocean infrastructures and others in Japan (QIPs) and implemented in other Earthquake of 26 December 2004, Sri Lanka Friendship Villages parts of Asia in disaster recovery and devastated India, Indonesia, Maldives, (JSFVs), among others. Since there reconstruction stages, and Sri Lanka and Thailand. It was one were different ethnic/religious implemented for local women to of the deadliest natural disasters in groups relocated to the JSFVs, revive their lives for sustaining and recorded history in Asia, leading to reconciliation workshops were building back better (BBB). more than 220,000 casualties. conducted for both the Tamil and Muslims and men and women. JICA The lessons learned from the Indian The tsunami hit the entire coastline also collaborated with Women's Ocean Tsunami were applied by of Sri Lanka, particularly the south Coop, a local NGO, to provide JICA during the reconstruction and east coasts. On the east coast, saving and micro financing activities process of 2013 Typhoon Haiyan in Ampara, Batticaloa, Mullaitive and to revive and generate income the Philippines and 2015 Nepal Trincomalee districts were severely sources in afflicted communities. Earthquake. In both cases, gender affected. In total, more than 35,000 and diversity perspectives have been persons were killed, 21,000 persons In the recovery and reconstruction integrated in JICA's disaster were injured, and over a million stage assistance, JICA had been assistance. However, as stipulated in people were internally displaced mainly focusing on rebuilding hard Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk from their homes. Although the Post- infrastructures, such as road, bridges, Reduction (DRR), JICA still faces Tsunami Operational Management hospitals, school buildings, market challenges to improve gender- Structure(P-TOM) was agreed places, port and sea-walls. However, diversity data gathering and needs between the Sri Lankan government JICA started to initiate Community assessment, enhance women and and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Empowerment Projects (CEPs), various stakeholders leaderships and Eelam(LTTE) in January 2005, people which are quick and small-scale active and equal participation in greatly suffered from the double delivery and conducted by local planning and implementing DRR disaster of the tsunami and armed governments and NGOs, such as programmes and activities at all conflicts during recovery process. providing skill training and small levels. – Yumiko Tanaka, machineries for livelihood recovery Professor, Josai International University, More women died than men in this and building multi-purpose and JICA Senior Gender Advisor, disaster. Almost three times more community centers. The CEPs are Togane-shi Chiba–ken, Japan women and girls died age between 16 and 30 years old in Sri Lanka. According to the joint research conducted by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security in 2016, it was found that due to gender stereotyped roles and traditional norms, as well as a lack of information and early warning system, many women, especially Muslim women, were delayed in escape from tsunami in Trincomalee seaside areas. Therefore, based upon the results of the post-disaster needs assessment, JICA supported early recovery from tsunami through rebuilding Ms. Dan Maya Gurung is from Barpak, extremely remote mountainous area in Gorkha District, which was seriously hit by the 2015 Nepal Earthquake. communities, providing them with October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 13 EFFECTIVE RESPONSE Civil—Military Cooperation in Disaster Response in India

Are the local authorities becoming over dependent on the armed forces because they are inadequately prepared? Further, is there a gap in the coordination and communication between civil and military authorities, resulting in unnecessary and prolonged deployment of forces in disaster response? A systematic review of these issues is required. Although it has been nearly a decade since the creation of SDMAs was mandated under the DM Act, only 14 of the 36 states and UT have functioning SDMAs. Even among these SDMAs, logistical awareness and speedy n regions such as the Andaman However, disaster response and deployment of resources remain Iand Nicobar Islands (572 islands) relief is only a secondary function variable and the level of training of India, which are geographically for the armed forces, enshrined in and capacities seem inadequate more remote from the Indian the idea of "aid to civil power". Their across diverse state departments and mainland, after the tsunami the capabilities in terms of logistics at various levels of hierarchies. In presence of the Army, the Air Force storage and movement, and recent years there has been some and the Navy was the single deployment of personnel to progress in improving coordination significant factor in mounting rescue remotely affected regions are well through training and mock drills. and evacuation missions with recognised. In India, disaster unprecedented speed which helped management is a state subject and In 2017 alone, joint drills were save many lives. However, the issue the State Disaster Management conducted in Hyderabad, Guwahati, of civil military co-ordination during Authority has all the power, given Vishakapatnam, Bhuj and Karwar in disaster response is a vexed one. that disaster management is their various mock scenarios such as primary mandate. The local police, earthquakes, floods, and cyclones. India is one of the most disaster the local fire fighting departments During Cyclone Vardah for example, prone countries in the world, with and the SDRF are the state arms in December 2016, the updated DM around 805 million affected people responsible for disaster response. In plan for the state as well as joint due to weather-related disasters, principle, the armed forces are preparedness measures by both the coming in second only to China supposed to operate on the concept SDMA as well as the armed forces, among the top 10 countries with the of 'last in, first out' but in many ensured the evacuation of more than highest absolute number of affected instances, it has been seen that the 20,000 people and minimised loss of people, according to the UNISDR forces are 'first in, last out'. For life to a great extent. Continued report (2015) - The Human Cost of example, in the 2013 Uttarakhand mock drills such as in 2017 can Weather Related Disasters. In deluge disaster, rescue operations enhance response capacities to a responding to disasters in India, did not start until the first batch of great extent, lessening the there are four main actors: national Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) dependence on the armed forces and and local government (including the could reach the area. If potential building trust in the capabilities of NDRF), civil society organisations, helipads and rescue routes had been the SDMAs. communities, and the armed forces. identified as part of preparedness – Ms. Madhuvantthe, Research drills, rescue efforts could have Officer, Jamsetji Tata School of Disaster Studies, TISS, Mumbai begun sooner. 14 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 RESILIENCE AND PEOPLE Reflections on Disaster Recovery in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

ight years after I left the island The touch of the tsunami is still New Year's Eve, 2004. Little do we Eand nine years after the tsunami evident however. The small salt know and fathom what a tsunami is of 2004, I return to the island of Car water lakes formed as a result of the and what a tsunami can do. But as Nicobar for a short visit. I have sudden onslaught of the sea still we alighted on ground on the island, wanted very much to see for myself exist as marshes. Also in view are it was all there to see. the resurgence of the islands in the the large pieces of concrete sticking years following the catastrophe and out of the sand, the broken, coloured A giant hand seems to have come subsequent rebuilding, of which I corals lying around on the beaches, out of the ocean and ripped through was fortunate to be a part. the broken and darkened homes in everything. Trees lie around like the abandoned villages and some matchsticks, and the land looks I am both happy and sad at what I large tree trunks lying rotting within scorched and brown wherever the see. New homes stand on stilts, local the green undergrowth. All these water has found its way. Homes are businesses seem to be thriving, shops are grim reminders of the catastrophe in ruins with their innards lying all are flush with items, the roads are which takes me back in time. over in the open. Among this mass busy with honking traffic and the of mangled remains of metal, plastic markets are full with shoppers. The I reflect on the day when I first and concrete, lie the living dead. It happiest moment for me, however, landed up on the island, having is a scene out of a horror film- a scene is to see how tall the casuarinas we volunteered to help in the rescue, which makes permanent imprints on had planted over the rubble have relief and rehabilitation (R-R-R) our minds. grown and brought back some process. We are a group of 70 fresh greenery along the beaches. hands and legs who had been put Having somewhat settled in, our together as a team and flown in to work to rebuild the airbase and the the IAF base at Car Nicobar around island starts in earnest. There are

October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 15 severe constraints of manpower as but come back in a few days; most so many positive stories of human well as resources during the first few probably due to the fact that they resilience and endurance...May be it days. Then there is this important miss their home and don't feel at will be helpful later. aspect of managing the men on this home on the mainland. With the difficult and physically and mentally 'stabilisation' phase over, we shift The whole experience has been a life draining job. They have to be kept seamlessly into the relief and changing one for me. I now have motivated, well fed and as rehabilitation phase. The relief respect for all that I have; do not comfortable as possible so that they material starts flowing in and yearn much for the material things continue to deliver at peak presents another set of logistical in life and understand the fragility efficiency, day in and day out. The problems- we require space to store of life better. I also learn how to other difficulty, though initially, is it, helicopters are employed to move understand human behaviour in to get these 70 men woven into an it to other islands and also ensure stress and distress and also how to integrated team and also to build that it reaches the correct hands in extract work under extremely liaison with the other groups of usable condition. It is truly a stressful situations. We, people on the island who are also logistician's dilemma. unknowingly are exposed to and there for a similar job. become experts in various facets of On the island, as we go through management of men, material and Working with death and destruction 'routine' life of 'self' survival and the intangible 'morale' in the time all around us, we understand the helping others to do the same, we we spend here. These are lessons for need to prioritise the work and start planning for the future. The a lifetime; never to be forgotten. move forward incrementally. And seeds of the new infrastructure that then there are pulls and pressures will come up are sown and we shall At the end of 99 days, we have the from all directions which sometimes see some of them fructifying in the air base ready to receive fighter slow us down-from the politicos and next few months. But before we start aeroplanes. We have promised HQs in Delhi, the people in Port Blair reconstruction, we need to clean up ourselves that we would get the base monitoring our path and progress, the tons of debris lying strewn to fully operational status in 100 the local administration and of around. With just a few earth days. To achieve this seemingly course amongst ourselves. We moving equipment's available, it is insurmountable task is morale realise that since we are closest to a task that needs to be done on boosting to say the least. We get ground zero, we can take the best priority. The broken homes also good press for the same and we work decisions based on the real picture. need to be razed to the ground-as with fresh vigour. such they are beyond economical The most important issue is to get repair and too close to the sea for I leave the island exactly a year after the connectivity-both physical and comfort now. It is as if we want to I first landed there to experience electronic going. Communication wipe out the signs of the disaster as something that I always wanted to and connect with the mainland and soon as possible so that normal life do - to be of some use and help to Port Blair is the most important to can begin. fellow humans. I thank god for keep the R-R-R mission going. We leading me through the trials and get the roads cleared upto the jetties Days pass into weeks; and weeks tribulations of life in the aftermath so that the engineers start their into months. The pace of work of the tsunami. repairs to get the ships berthed at continues at full swing. Now there the earliest. The runway is cleared are tangible results for all to see. The I have been part of a historic part by part and the deep cuts filled essential services like power and rebuilding but I am sure that nature's by sand so that the aircrafts can water have been restored to a large work and ours remains ever execute safe operations. Whilst all extent. The plinths for the pre-fab unfinished. I sit down to write my this is on, the search for survivors shelters are being made at a new experiences of the tsunami and the continues. location and the raw material for the aftermath. same arrives in bulk by the giant The rescue mission peters out in aeroplanes. The islands are well fed PS– A year later, I am able to release my about a week's time. Those not found and new shelters are coming up, the first book titled "A Few Good Men & are presumed dead. The injured are tragedy seems to be so far relegated the Angry Sea", on the tenth rescued from the smaller islands and in time, and I am sure, it will fade anniversary of the tsunami. sent on to the mainland for medical from memory soon. I start writing – Air Commodore Nitin Sathe, rehabilitation. Some natives leave about what we saw and what we did. Sl Air Force, DSSC, Wellington the island in fear of another tsunami So many anecdotes of survival and (Nilgiris), Tamil Nadu, India

16 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 BUILDING BACK BETTER Observations on the Built Habitat and the Techno–Legal Regime of the Andaman– Nicobar Islands

n the aftermath of a disaster, the As part of the Department of Science the peculiar situation in the Islands Ifirst responders (alongside the and Technology, Government of that makes safety of the built habitat community) are search and rescue India Reconnaissance Team, I was at far more challenging to achieve than teams. Additionally, when an Port Blair within 10 days of the in Mainland India. earthquake disaster strikes a major December 26 2004 Indian Ocean city with high-density multi-storey Tsunami and Earthquake but Like most of mainland India, buildings, there is an urgent need restricted my survey to Port Blair residents of Port Blair aspire to have for structural engineers to be present and its surrounds in view of the reinforced concrete houses- symbols at site to inspect and tag buildings difficult situation in the Nicobar of prosperity and safety. But unlike that are safe for occupation or Islands. Some of my colleagues Mainland India, Andaman and otherwise. In smaller towns or explored the Nicobar islands (and Nicobar Islands did not have a single villages (with low density) subjected some affected Andaman islands) and civil engineering degree college until to significant earthquakes, the detailed reports of our observations after the earthquake (there is now a immediate rush of "forensic" have been published elsewhere1. private college). As a result, most of engineers however could put an the buildings, even posh two and unnecessary strain on the already Subsequent to this visit, I revisited three storeyed houses were designed fragile infrastructure. Thus, it is the islands (including the Nicobar by non-engineers (or government judicious for engineers to weigh the islands) in 2011 to review the engineers who engaged in private situation and schedule reconnaissance reconstruction and disaster consultancy on the side). Needless trips to earthquake disaster zones preparedness of the islands. I am to say, the designs were empirical sensitively. sharing herein my observations on and did not incorporate earthquake- resistant features. Since the earthquake shaking of 2004 in Port Blair was not very high (shaking intensity was VI-VII), houses that were sensibly built on a regular grid and on reasonably good soil fared quite adequately and suffered only non-structural damage and some minor structural damage. Buildings which were complex with a lot of architectural gymnastics and no clear load path were punished severely and many such houses collapsed or suffered heavy structural damage and needed to be torn down. The topography of Port Blair is fairly undulating and sliding of the plinth was observed in many buildings.

Photo credit: C.V.R. Murty. Foundation failures due to erosion Shore-front building on Car Nicobar Island was inundated by the waves, but the and excessive settlements were also frame resisted the wave effects. observed.

1 The Great Sumatra Earthquakes and Indian Ocean Tsunamis of 26 December 2004 and 28 March 2005 Reconnaissance Report – EARTHQUAKE SPECTRA, Special Issue III Volume 26, June 2006.

October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 17 But what was surprising was the over the years. There are about five high investment cost in these failure of many important hundred to six hundred civil infrastructure works. A government buildings, some of engineers in all of the Andaman and comprehensive audit of the quality which had been completed less than Nicobar Islands of which about of build will identify all the gaps 5 years prior to the earthquake. hundred are in the private sector. and help pave the way for improved The rest of the engineers work in construction in the future. The passenger terminal building at the Government or Defence sector. the Haddo Wharf is a case in point. The total annual civil works in 2013 Majority of lives lost in 2004 were One would have expected that this was in the range of one thousand due to the Tsunami (the loss of lives building designed by a reputed crore rupees. The volume of new due to earthquake shaking was not government institute and agency works is too low to attract good high, even though economic losses would have been designed and quality contractors form the were very high). It is practically not detailed as per the prevalent mainland and hence the quality of possible to design homes in the path earthquake codes of the country. (BIS construction suffers. The cost of of tsunami waves (unless the houses Codes IS 1893-1984 and IS 13920 - construction in the islands is many are made as fortresses). In view of 1993). Shockingly, that was not the times more than that in the this, the government has disallowed case. Similarly, the type-designs mainland due to unavailability of any housing on the coast. However, prepared by the Andaman Public local material and expertise. This the lifestyle of local people requires Works Department (APWD) for also opens up situations fraught with them to live by the sea. A dialogue government office buildings across lack of transparency, not only in is required to find a solution to the the islands did not follow the financial matters but also in matters contradictory demands of safety and national earthquake codes and were of quality of work. convenience rather than simply badly damaged. In successive denying the functional requirements earthquakes (the 2014 Sikkim Furthermore, as the islands are away of the people. And there are indeed earthquake is another example) in from media glare, poor construction workable options, if only the India, government built structures and resulting damage/collapse goes technologists were inclined to look have been faring as badly if not unreported, further emboldening the at the situation in a more holistic worse than privately constructed contractor-engineer nexus to rather than a bi-polar way. This is buildings. This raises the question continue with more of the same. where a conversation between social of liability. How shall the There was a heightened awareness scientists, engineers and the users government who is tasked of of seismic risk but it had not would help to evolve a win-win ensuring the safety of the built percolated adequately to masons and solution. habitat, clean its own house? To my other stakeholders. There are no knowledge, no APWD engineers or functioning regulatory mechanisms There is a lot that can be done to government designers were held and monitoring policies for review improve the built habitat in the accountable. of structural design and construction islands, both in its planning and its and there are no punitive systems implementation. Some of it is low Many important positions in the for non-compliance. hanging fruit such as bringing in islands such as that of Chief more rigorous procedures and more Engineers of the APWD, ALHW Post-Tsunami reconstruction in tribal accountability in the government (Andaman and Lakshwadeep areas has its unique set of challenges. cadres (APWD, ALHW, Defence) Harbour Works), senior Defence To share a couple of illustrative which account for over 80% of the Officers and other significant examples, houses built on stilt in construction in the islands. But this stakeholders are held by people Car Nicobar with structural steel requires a strong resolve in the local imported from the mainland and sections had incomplete or and central governments. Else we have short tenures. Such a situation inadequate connection details. The shall experience the adage, Those who does not foster a sense of ownership houses swayed significantly in gusty do not learn from history are doomed to of the challenges of the islands and winds. A quick review of some of repeat it. there is reluctance in the incumbent the works (such as at Mousse Bay) – Alpa Seth, to initiate something which may not revealed heavy corrosion in liners VMS Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, get completed in his/her tenure. of newly constructed piles. This is Maharashtra, India This has been a recurrent observation especially disappointing given the

18 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 ECOSYSTEM RECOVERY Ecosystem Recovery Post Tsunami: Untapped Role of Communities

he 2004 Tsunami caused massive anticipated that the majority of the While disaster preparedness is Tdamage to the Indian ocean affected reefs would self- recover in important, it is nevertheless just one islands, including in the Andaman five years or so. Similarly, it was aspect of the entire disaster risk and Nicobar Islands to the tune of believed that mangrove forests management continuum. Focus INR 3300 cr and proved to be a would too be self- replenished. This should therefore also be on other shocking reality check to the state could happen provided that human aspects including conservation and of disaster preparedness and threats can be minimised by management of natural environment response in the regions most sustainable management and proper and resources. For a long time, sensitive and vulnerable to natural enforcement of legislation with redundant land use policies, disasters. involvement of communities. That conventional protective (Policing) has unfortunately not been the case measures are still relied upon for Apart from the loss of life and and even now the focus is more conservation. The role of property, the ecosystem damages in technical aspects of disaster communities in this regard is still Andaman and Nicobar Islands were preparedness in terms of early an untapped field. more pronounced. The saline water warning systems. ingress into agricultural land affected Importance of Communities' crops spread over about 200 km2 of Lack of Comprehensive Disaster Risk Participation land area. The Earthquake shock Management Research has established the role of waves caused uplifting of land by The Indian National Institute of communities as custodians of more than 1 m in the North and Ocean Information Services has traditional knowledge with Middle Andamans and further planned to set up 35 seismic stations innovative survival capabilities. resulted in subsidence of land by on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands They can also prove to be the best more than 1 m in the Nicobar group and is in the process of setting up an channel to be involved in restoration of Islands. Coral reefs were damaged elaborate system of sensors on the of ecosystems. In one such example, in two ways- (i) erosion and Andaman and Nicobar Islands for communities including women help breaking up of reefs, and (ii) real-time monitoring of in restoring coral reefs in Belize after deposition of sand and debris on earthquakes. Strong Motion Sensors receiving training in marine ecology reefs. Estimated erosion of coral with Global Positioning Systems coral protection. Training and reefs in the Andaman Islands was (GPS) have also been installed at 28 capacity building with the help of 22978 ha and 17180 ha in Nicobar locations on the islands. civil society and other partners are islands. Many beaches were needed to train communities in seriously eroded causing ecosystem restoration. Further, interference with turtle nesting. For a long time, more vulnerability assessments Among the aboriginal tribes in the required to be carried out to identify Andaman and Nicobar islands, redundant land use specific vulnerabilities. Additional Nicobaries suffered the most due to policies, conventional steps such as the development of their greater vulnerabilities. integrated coastal management protective (Policing) plans and coastal vulnerability maps Post Tsunami, while the immediate measures are still with communities in planning and and primary focus was on re- implementing and creation of building public infrastructure in the relied upon for policies beneficial for communities form of buildings, bridges, roads and conservation. The would go a long way in empowering steps were also taken to ensure communities and making them the power supply, food aid, water role of communities most significant stakeholders in supply; ecosystem recovery, coastal in this regard is still ecosystem conservation. protection and environmental – Dr. Vijeta Rattani, measures were relatively neglected an untapped field. Climate Change Division, Centre for which continues till this date. It was Science and Environment, New Delhi, India

October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 19 COMMUNITY PERSPECTIVES Andaman Nicobar Islands Recovery: A View from the Communities Photo credit: S. Blackburn 2014. Figure 1: Permanent shelters in Little Andaman, built during post–tsunami reconstruction.

t is now widely accepted that rehabilitation is an opportunity not Development Goals' indicator to Idisasters are not natural events only to recover what came before leave no one behind2 – this is a high but fundamentally human ones. the disaster, but to improve or even priority in post-disaster settings Whilst we cannot prevent transform affected-persons' since poor or socially marginalised earthquakes, volcanoes, storms, opportunities for prosperity and people are often worst–affected. tsunamis and other extreme natural well-being in the future. Building hazards from occurring, what we can back better can mean reducing Key to this approach is consulting do is make sure we are as prepared vulnerability through local communities both before and and as resilient as possible for when improvements to physical after a hazard event, to understand a hazard strikes. In anticipation of infrastructure (e.g. enforcing risk- diverse community needs and the hazard, this means having resistant design in reconstructed priorities. If these locally–specific effective early warning systems, buildings or investing in essential needs are not prioritised in disaster high–quality and accessible public public services like schools and planning, then reconstruction is services, and capacity to respond healthcare). Alongside, it is equally likely to benefit the few – not the quickly and appropriately to important to protect and invest in many – and the potential for emergent hazards; post-disaster, it the social and cultural life of affected progressive development is lost. means rebuilding communities in communities, to ensure that all ways that protect (not undermine) people (rich and poor, old and This article draws on research into existing development gains. As young, from all walks of life and of community experiences of post- emphasised by the globally- all abilities) have full and equal tsunami relief and reconstruction in recognised Sendai Framework for capacity to benefit from Little Andaman (Andaman and Action1 priority to build back better, reconstruction investments. This Nicobar Islands, ANI), to post–disaster reconstruction and approach reflects the Sustainable demonstrate why local voices are 1 UNISDR (2015) Sendai Framework for Action, see: www.unisdr.org/we/coordinate/sendai-framework. 2 United Nations (2016) The Sustainable Development Goals Report, see https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2016/ leaving-no-one-behind.

20 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 Economic impacts + Large amount of post-tsunami relief and rehabilitation funding (both from government and NGOs) has led to investment in key infrastructures. + Alongside, new NGO activities provide added funding/support in under-funded areas - e.g. child and education support, psycho-social care, livelihood trainings, self-help-groups (SHGs). + Some communities have better household facilities and standards of living now they live in tsunami houses (permanent shelter), e.g. indoor toilet and kitchen, concrete house, running water, electricity. + Initial rise in job opportunities (but this has now reduced again). – Many tsunami houses are located far away from the site of their normal livelihood, either family land/farm or fishing areas (coastline); difficult to continue livelihood as before, increased duration and cost of commute. – In situ livelihood options not supported, e.g. houses had insufficient outdoor space for communal agriculture, for drying fish, rearing livestock; kitchen gardens not allowed in some places. This affected households and villages in different ways and to different degrees, e.g. the poorest families were worst affected because they no longer have space to grow their own food. – In some cases the construction quality of houses was poor (e.g. leaking roofs, cracked walls); increased cost of maintaining concrete houses with non-local materials is borne by local people. – Key infrastructures cannot deliver essential services as promised (e.g. the hospital lacks equipment and trained staff).

Social impacts + Education has gone up after tsunami: families place greater emphasis on education after tsunami, indicated by e.g. more families investing in private education, youth going away for college. This could be associated with increased exposure to educated 'outsiders' (government workers, foreign aid agencies) during relief and rehabilitation, but also mirrors similar trends on the mainland. + More women undertake paid employment and/or are participating in SHGs post-tsunami. Women feel good that they are more mobile outside the home, financially independent, and have more skills. – Many felt they were not properly included in decision-making around house design and location; this was frustrating for them. Failure to take local voices into account (or the perception that this was the case) has led to some loss of faith in government processes and transparency. – Community fragmentation ("the love has gone") - social groups were divided when tsunami houses were allocated randomly, and many people feel the distribution of houses was not fair. This effect was differentiated, e.g. some communities were permitted to be resettled as one group whilst others were mixed–up. – In some places alcoholism has increased – likely because of combination of unemployment and relief money – Many lived in temporary shelters for up to 5 years before permanent shelters were handed over – these provided inadequate personal space and were uncomfortably hot, affecting quality of life in negative ways.

Cultural impacts + (Particularly young people) are more aware of life outside the islands; exposure to outsiders, government officials; general awareness on the island has increased, increasing aspirations. – Small size of tsunami houses has affected family living: e.g. houses do not accommodate more than one nuclear family, so extended families cannot live together in the traditional way (particularly for tribal groups). Figure 2: Economic, social and cultural impacts of post-tsunami reconstruction in Little Andaman, from the community perspective. essential for designing disaster years post-tsunami, over 9,500 houses impacts of post-tsunami relief and management plans that build back were reconstructed (see Figure 1) reconstruction from the community better and leave no one behind. plus a range of replaced or new perspective. Fieldwork was conducted over 9 infrastructures (including a new months in 2014, and included 100+ hospital, port, schools, community These findings show that the mode interviews with non–tribal tsunami- centres and roads). The research and process of post-disaster response affected persons and agencies revealed positive and negative (both relief and reconstruction) have involved in post-tsunami relief and outcomes of relief and major ramifications not only on the reconstruction (governmental and reconstruction, with differential physical landscape, but on the non-governmental). The island lost impacts that produced winners and livelihoods, well–being, life 60 lives in the tsunami and far more losers. Figure 1 summarises the opportunities and resilience of homes and livelihoods. In the ten economic, social and cultural affected people. The fact local

October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 21 livelihoods have failed to recover community throughout the disaster and needs. It respected local voice and a number of day-to-day costs cycle (not just when the disaster and agency by allowing them have increased indicates it is strikes, when time is very short). flexibility in choosing their final insufficient for rehabilitation efforts This has co-benefits for government house design, and helped protect to focus wholly on infrastructure; and for local people: if reconstructed livelihoods and culture. From the rather, reconstruction strategies areas are closely attuned to local government's perspective, this should aim to promote pro-poor and needs, communities are more likely increased local satisfaction with the inclusive development over the to be satisfied with the outcome and houses and supported economic long–term – putting local needs at less likely to abandon permanent recovery, whilst at the same time the centre. In part this requires a shift shelters or encroach alternative sites placing a limit on the degree of in perspective away from viewing to build their own homes. A key flexibility (the overall budget, house disaster reconstruction as a reactive, challenge for decision-makers, size and location remained in their one-time 'fix', towards a pro-active however, is precisely how to control). vision of reconstruction as playing incorporate local voices into an active role in the on-going social- decision-making processes and how The second recommendation, economic development of a place. to engage productively with flowing from the first, is to allow For this, learning from past communities. Reconstruction after a NGO involvement in select areas of successes and failures is essential. large-scale disaster is, after all, a reconstruction. Working with NGOs Five policy priorities for progressive time- and emotionally-sensitive does bring challenges (amongst post-disaster reconstruction, task, and there are legitimate which, minimising redundancy and stemming from the above findings, concerns about ensuring fairness duplication), however they also are summarised in Figure 2. when myriad local needs and bring expertise, capacity and viewpoints are at stake - both funding that can support already- The principles are generalisable for between and within communities. stretched government departments most disaster settings - but to fulfil Oft-raised challenges include the cost (e.g. child support). Many NGOs them in practice will be highly place- of in-depth community consultation, specialise in participatory methods specific. With regards livelihoods, and lack of government capacity to and could assist governments in for example, two neighbouring support less tangible (yet highly consulting local communities. NGOs villages affected by the same disaster valued) aspects of rehabilitation (e.g. adopting a rights-based approach may require very different housing psycho-social care). can also be beneficial in helping to styles or village layout, depending educate local people (particularly on their predominant means of Two practical recommendations young people) about how to income. In the Andaman context, arise from the research that address communicate productively with fishing communities require space to these concerns. First is to follow the government agencies. This is dry the fish (perhaps on a flat roof), model of the South Indian important since a common barrier and low-income households without Federation of Fishermen Societies to effective local consultation is local private land require space for kitchen (SIFFS) in Tamil Nadu, who people's own fear to speak openly gardens (or a communal growing undertook a year-long period of in- with 'outsiders', and/or lack of area). Ensuring cultural norms and depth participatory consultation (1) Investing in LIVELIHOODS is social networks are not interrupted with local communities, then key to long-term is similarly sensitive and place- constructed a number of to-scale development specific: social groups that share model houses based on the feedback (2) CULTURE MATTERS - caregiving duties or work gathered (see Figure 3)3. Families intrinsically and for well-being cooperatively benefit from being were invited to view each model (3) Protect SOCIAL rehoused close together, rather than house and choose the design they Build back better NETWORKS for enhanced randomly allocated shelters. preferred, and were involved in the resilience construction process. From locals' (4) Emergency relief should Leave no one

Attuning rehabilitation efforts to perspective, this approach was protect DIGNITY behind specific local needs requires hugely valued as it paid close (5) Ensure EQUITY in grounded consultation with the attention to their own preferences distribution (or at least, transparency) 3 SIFFS (2009) "Building Habitats: Process Document", South Indian Federation of Fishermen Societies (SIFFS) Tsunami Habitat Reconstruction Project Report. Figure 3: Priorities for socially– Trivandrum, Kerala: SIFFS. Available at: www.siffs.org/Books/ progressive post–disaster Project%20report.pdf [accessed 31.07.18]. reconstruction.

22 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 people have the energy and motivation to participate in reconstruction decision-making. Listening to those voices - both before and after disaster strikes - is essential. The challenge now is to create spaces and opportunities for their voices to be heard.

This article draws on ideas and findings published in the following paper: Blackburn, S. (2018) "What does Photo credit: S. Blackburn 2014. transformation look like? Post- Figure 4: Photo of to-scale model houses in Tarangambadi, Tamil Nadu. House design took account of local livelihood needs, in this case having an accessible disaster recovery politics and the case flat roof so fishing families had space to dry fish. for progressive rehabilitation", Sustainability, 10(7). Special Issue: awareness of the appropriate recognition that attuning and Transforming Development and channels through which to express tailoring interventions to specific Disaster Risk (eds. F. Thomalla and their views. local needs is central to building J. Ensor). DOI: 10.3390/su10072317. back better and leaving no one – Sophie Blackburn, In conclusion, transformative post- behind. Evidence from Little Liberal Arts Early Career Development disaster reconstruction requires Andaman demonstrates that local Fellow in Geography King's College London, UK

CASE STUDY Contribution of TISS in Andaman and Nicobar Islands Recovery: A Short Account

n response to the twin disasters- The TISS team while working with development skills. Over 100 women Ithe high magnitude earthquake relief and rehabilitation of the and men graduated and moved to and the massive tsunami in 2004 islands conducted an assessment on their islands to work with the which was the most devastating ever impacts of the Tsunami on communities in rebuilding recorded, the Tata Institute of Social livelihoods. One of the critical Nicobarese economy and society. Sciences (TISS) was involved in findings of the assessment was that providing immediate relief and a significant proportion of leadership TISS also recognised that the disaster recovery of Nicobar Islands. The was eliminated due to deaths in the had impacted entire plantations, rough waves of Tsunami engulfed Tsunami and therefore, there was an affecting the livelihood of the the Islands and submerged large urgent need to create a cadre of Nicobarese. To support people in portions of land, carrying away trained development workers from restoration of livelihood, the villages and their populations in its the community to mobilise them as administration of the Andaman and waters. It devastated the coconut dynamic leaders. TISS decided to Nicobar Islands and TISS renewed a plantation and the tuhets (household) intervene and initiated a dialogue fresh MoU in November 2009 to causing displacement and affecting with Andaman and Nicobar develop livelihood support the livelihood of the island. At this Administration, the Tribal Councils, programmes in the Nicobars. TISS critical juncture, TISS responded by and communities in 2005 to develop took stock of the existing situation sending a team of TISS faculty and a Certificate Course in Sustainable of livelihood, and developed students who worked in the Development. A MoU between the suitable livelihood strategies for the immediate aftermath at Katchal- one ANI administration, TISS, and Nicobarese. of the worst affected and least Action Aid International was signed reached islands, providing relief and to train 3 batches of selected In response to the lack of knowledge rehabilitation services. personnel for enabling them with on basic information on government leadership and community schemes and early warning signs of

October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 23 disaster among the Nicobarese, TISS capacity building centre by NGO were non-functional, and there set up five Island Knowledge providing a variety of services is great potentiality for bio-gas Centres (IKC) in Nicobar to act as towards building sustainable generation due to availability of bio- resource and capacity-building livelihoods. gas material. It worked at ways of centres and provide basic enhancing community access to information on government schemes To help support and enhance these alternative and easily available and early warning systems. Each dissemination of information across local sources of energy with the IKC was run by two trained Fellows the islands, TISS also developed an local population. from the community who acted as a SMS service with support from IBM catalyst between the community and volunteers. It provided urgent as The TISS work in the ANI, post the the IKC. The IKC fellows were well as useful information such as Tsunami, thus focused on four key trained to help develop an job vacancies, ship timings, price of areas to enhance the recovery of the understanding of different forms of copra and virgin coconut oil through islanders - capacity building of local communication and identify various regular and free SMS services to all leadership, livelihood regeneration, stakeholders in the community. the islands. Another initiative to setting up island knowledge centres share and enhance communication to enhance communication between Further in 2009, with funds from the was a Community Newspaper the islands and mainland, working Sustainable Indigenous Futures of covering people's current issues and on alternative sources of energy and Austria University, TISS initiated the concerns as well as expressions of seeking to understand the impact of Baseline Survey titled, 'Improving their creativity till date. The the Tsunami through a baseline Sustainable Livelihood of Tsunami- newspaper covered the concerns and survey. It worked with like-minded affected People of Nicobar Islands creativities of the people. organisations, NGOs, government through Community-Based institutions, and different Ministries, Cooperative Unit and Islands To help resolve the on-going issues diverse interns from TISS Mumbai Knowledge Centres' for of availability of electricity and fuel, campus who had range of expertise strengthening livelihood strategies, TISS conducted a study on the and skills to address disaster capacity building through IKCs, and availability, access and use of response and management. exploring feasibility of Renewable renewable energy sources in all – Prof. Surinder Jaswal, Energy. Simultaneously the network Nicobar Islands. The study revealed Deputy Director (Research), School of of Island Knowledge Centres across that there was huge surplus of Research Methodology, Centre for the Nicobar archipelago were coconut husk which can solve energy Health and Mental Health, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, strengthened to act as a resource and crisis, solar lanterns distributed by Mumbai, India

Moving to the islands for the survey.

24 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 LONG TERM RECOVERY Andaman Nicobar Islands Recovery: Food and Nutrition Schemes

child residing in Car Nicobar, Aone of the 10 inhabited islands out of 22 Nicobar Islands forming the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI), a group of 572 islands in the Bay of Bengal, may have become a young adult today, if she survived the 2004 Tsunami that had completely devastated it, including the Indian Air Force airbase.

After surviving, she also had the least probability from dying from under-nutrition post tsunami period. It is because she is likely to be from the Nicobarese tribal community. Nicobarese have been mainstreamed and 'modernised' (unlike Shompen tribe also inhabiting Nicobar islands) where children wear crisp uniforms and go to anganwadi centre run by the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS).

This is backed by evidence. A TISS study on ANI in 2011 funded by erstwhile Planning Commission, of Children, Anganwadi Workers and Helpers at Anganwadi Centers in Port Blair, which this author was part of, had the capital of Andaman & Nicobar Islands. found that the tribal ICDS project of form of malnourishment followed policy and practice in governance of Nicobar, which has majority of by Port Blair with 38% children nutrition programmes. Despite Nicobarese tribal populations had moderately or severely vulnerabilities including post the lowest rate of child malnutrition malnourished in 2008-09. disaster recovery, tough accessibility in ANI. Tribal project of ICDS in ANI only by sea route, farthest from includes all 10 inhabited islands of For ANI as a whole, there was a capital Port Blair, etc., superior Nicobar. A majority of children - 94 sharp increase in moderately nutritional health of children in % were normal in terms of their malnourished children from 5% in Nicobar group of islands post weight for age; about 5% were 2004 to 22% in 2008; severely tsunami can be attributed to certain moderately malnourished and less malnourished children increased key factors. Firstly, tribal than 1% severely malnourished in from less than 2% in 2004 to 8% in households probably became food 2009. 2007 - a period of reconstruction, secure faster as they could resume rehabilitation and recovery soon fishing, farming and animal rearing To contrast with other regions of after tsunami. Clearly, Nicobar in addition to disaster aid they ANI, mainly 3 rural ICDS projects contributed miniscule to this received. Therefore, household level (Rangat, Ferrargunj and Diglipur of statistic. food security is crucial. Secondly, North, Middle & South Andaman) ICDS in Nicobar had a near universal and one urban ICDS project (Port These observations compel few coverage (100 per cent) because of Blair of South Andaman), Ferrargunj explanations and offer lessons for absence of any other child care project had 41% children with some

October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 25 programmes or private crèches. It 2015, only 0.63% children in ANI are shocking 20% decline in beneficiaries means when both rich and poor severely malnourished while 10.27% since 2009. It means that number of access a public service, it is less likely children fell in grade I & II malnourished children may be much that the service delivery will remain malnutrition. These 'achievement' more than recorded. In addition, 63% poor. Thirdly, strong community figures are misleading. Actually, low women and 47% children aged 6 participation and organisation prevalence of malnutrition in ANI months to 3 years are anaemic in through tribal councils ensured is largely attributed to gradual ANI (2011). Exit of beneficiaries accountability for sustaining quality decline in the total beneficiaries of from ICDS is a serious concern not and access. And finally indigenous ICDS that includes children under 6, just in ANI but as a general trend child feeding practices were followed pregnant women, lactating mothers elsewhere in India. Public policy by mothers and women despite and adolescent girls. Total isn't factoring 'exit' at all, seriously access to international readymade beneficiaries reduced from 86% in under-mining the universal nature baby food brand like Nestle. 2004 to 49% in 2009. In 2009, ICDS of nutrition programme and hence reached 20,000 children which its outcomes. Government figures show that ANI reduced to 12,550 children in 2016. – Dr. Jaya Goyal, Social Scientist has one of the lowest child In 2016, only a total of 15,827 Specialising in Accountability & malnutrition rates among young beneficiaries are registered in ANI Institutions, Social Policy, Public children in India at 2.4% in 2009. In (Social Welfare Department ANI), a Service Delivery, Community & Child Nutrition, India

DISASTER RECOVERY The House that Jack Built: Rebuilding Homes after the Tsunami of 2004 actually met Jack. Jack that built months in the Nicobar Islands I was ending the evening with Juglu Ithat house... that ate the dog, that washed over by the tsunami of 2004 and Ramesh, sons of settlers on that ate the cat, that ate the rat, that ate were overwhelming to say the least. island; we spent the afternoon the grain in the house that Jack built. Ravaged, damaged, washed away, walking along the edge of a spit of death, tsunami, loss were adjectives sand along the Galathea river mouth It was March 2005, at Shastri Nagar that constantly rang through my and returned to the 35th km and Great Nicobar. The past three head like am sure it did many others. rested the road. Soon two gentlemen walked around the turn of the road, and walked along the remaining bits of road supporting themselves with sticks. They were from the CPWD (Central Public Works Department) in Delhi, and we learnt, on a mission. They were here to help design houses for victims of the earthquake and tsunami that rocked the Nicobars and rendered more than 20000 people homeless and in the lurch with empty hands in a devastated landscape. We exchanged notes, and they spoke briefly of the plans, showing me designs and architectural knowhow. I asked, why couldn't people build their own houses as they've always done? The response was a vehement 'No'! The Figure 1. Samson and Captain Gibson in front of their regenerated Nypa patch- Government couldn't put this on Pulo Ulon.

26 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 Figure 2. New thatch roof made with Nypa fruiticans at Pulo Panja village, Little Nicobar Island. them after such a devastating practically no windows with glass and other shared assets? The more experience. that could break in a storm, wood pressing question to them was how they could replace, space for more would they make roofs for their In 2011, I was in Chowra on than one family and so on. Making traditional homes? Through our fieldwork, living at an islander's a long list of complaints is possible, discussion, we decided that I would home, one of the single-family units and there are many similar tales to get them seeds of Nypa fruiticans, a built by the CPWD. I woke up one tell from the Nicobar Islands. mangrove palm they formerly used morning to the smell of burnt from their creeks to regrow this timber. The neighbouring house had Rewinding back to 2005 in Campbell resource. Nypa groves were nearly partially caught fire at night. I learnt bay Great Nicobar Island, I stayed completely washed away from from him that family of rats lived with friends in their tin tenements nearly all creeks. Towards the end in-between the plyboards concealing at the tsunami relief camp at Rajiv of that year we planted 650 seeds wiring. They had laid waste Nagar for about 6 months. After they across Little Nicobar Island and parts electrical wiring which sparked off helped each other build these tin of Great Nicobar in an attempt to a fire at night while I snored away shacks, a few elderly friends brought restore the species. The following barely 15 feet away. The owner up their issues of reconstruction. year we did a count and realised the complained, his cats couldn't get the Their families were now in single effort had about 5-10 percent success rats, as they had total protection units rather than living together. given the vagaries of creeks finding living between plyboards of the Getting help wasn't easy as it was their course. In 2015, I secured a house that Jack built. He reminisced, slowly dawning on them that it was grant from the Department of earlier with their self-built timber, upon each family to solve their own Science and Technology, GoI, and we thatch or tin roofed houses, there issues. How were they to recreate reinitiated this effort with renewed was fresh air, no hidden wires, plantations, maintain their livestock vigour and were able to establish

October 2018 southasiadisasters.net 27 Figure 3. Regenerating coconut plantations and a house built by William the elder using salvaged parts from a shipwreck and timber hewn by his sons and friends - Pulomilo island, Little Nicobar. close to 2500 young and growing built, but also use thatched rebuild their own houses using their Nypa palms. Collecting bundles of tenements where possible. All these own designs and requirements of leaves from a creek which still traditional houses were built by family, hearths and livelihood assets, harboured the palms, a single house hewing planks, pillars and collecting the rats in the house that Jack built was constructed to accommodate a thatch, flotsam ship rope and buying wouldn't have been much of a joint family as before. By 2017, there nails from shops. They accommodate problem. were eleven such houses including large families, dogs, cats, and in – Dr. M. Chandi, Sr. Research two large ceremonial thatched some homes - effigies of ancestors. Associate, Andaman Nicobar houses. Most islanders today If only the communities were given Environmental Team, North Wandoor continue to use the houses that Jack the materials and the chance to village, South Andaman Island, India

Editorial Advisors: Denis Nkala Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu Regional Coordinator, South-South Cooperation Sub-Regional Coordinator, Central Asia & South and Country Support (Asia-Pacific), United Caucasus, United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Nations Development Programme, New York Reduction (UNISDR), Kazakhstan

Ian Davis Mihir R. Bhatt Visiting Professor in Disaster Risk Management in All India Disaster Mitigation Institute, India Copenhagen, Lund, Kyoto and Oxford Brookes Dr. Satchit Balsari, MD, MPH Universities The University Hospital of Columbia and Cornell, New York, USA Dr. John Twigg Senior Research Fellow in the Risk and Resilience T. Nanda Kumar programme, Overseas Development Institute Former Chairman, Institute of Rural Management (ODI), London Anand (IRMA), Anand, Gujarat, India

ALL INDIA DISASTER MITIGATION INSTITUTE 411 Sakar Five, Behind Old Natraj Cinema, Near Mithakhali Railway Crossing, Ashram Road, 28 southasiadisasters.net October 2018 Ahmedabad–380 009 India. Tele/Fax: +91-79-2658 2962 E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.aidmi.org, www.southasiadisasters.net