Authors: Jose Corpus, Kenneth Kong, Aida Raquel Recinos Ibarra, ​ Jacqueline Salazar Romo, Alexandra Vasquez, Jose Velasco

ANTHRO 25A: Environmental Injustice Instructor: Prof. Dr. Kim Fortun Department of Cultural Anthropology

Graduate Teaching Associates: Kaitlyn Rabach Tim Schütz

Undergraduate Teaching Associates Nina Parshekofteh Lafayette Pierre White

University of California Irvine, Fall 2019 TABLE OF CONTENTS

What is the setting of this case? 3

What environmental threats contribute to slow disasters in this setting? What data is available to characterize these threats posed by slow disasters in the community? [Jose Corpus] 6

What factors -- social, cultural, political, technological, ecological -- contribute to environmental health vulnerability and injustice in this setting? [Jose Alejandro Velasco] 10

Who are the stakeholders, what are their characteristics, and what are their perceptions of the problems? [Alexandra Vasquez] 15

What have different stakeholder groups done (or not done) in response to the problems in this case? [Collaborative] 16

How have big media outlets and environmental organizations covered environmental problems related to worse case scenarios in this setting? [Collaborative] 18

What extra-local actions (at state, national or international levels) would reduce environmental vulnerability and injustice related to fast disaster in this setting and similar settings? [Kenneth Kong] 22

What kinds of data and research would be useful in efforts to characterize and address environmental threats (related to fast disaster, pollution and climate change) in this setting and similar settings? [Jacqueline Salazar Romo] 24

What, in your view, is ethically wrong or unjust in this case? [Aida Recinos Ibarra] 26

BIBLIOGRAPHY 28

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Fig 1: Location of South Los Angeles in Los Angeles County. Wikipedia. Retrieved November 9, 2019, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Los_Angeles. ​ ​

1. What is the setting of this case? Compton is a city in southern Los Angeles County, California, United States, situated ​ south of downtown Los Angeles. Compton is one of the oldest cities in the county and on May 11, 1888, was the eighth city to incorporate. Compton has 97,612 overall population, 49% male residents and 51% female residents. 29.6% for White ​ Non-Hispanic residents, 25.4% for Black residents, 27.5% for Hispanic or Latino residents, 52.8% for American Indian residents, 32.8% for other race residents, 22.1% for two or more races residents. Compton is a relatively young community, the median resident age is 30.4 years, which is 6 years younger than CA resident median age. The median household income in Compton city is $49.125, which is lower than the median household income in CA, and estimated median house or condo value is $327,900 which ​ also lower than the median CA value. Mean prices in 2016 in Compton city: all housing units: $322,233; detached houses: $332,162; townhouses or other attached units: $283,411; in 2-unit structures: $571,392; in 3-to-4-unit structures: $395,642; in 5-or-more-unit structures: $235,438; mobile homes: $57,800 (City Data 2019) The city ​ ​ ​ 2 2 has a total area of 10.1 square miles (26 km )​ . 10.0 square miles (26 km )​ of it is land and ​ ​ 2 0.1 square miles (0.26 km )​ of it (1.03%) is water. (United States Census Bureau 2019) ​

3 Following the 1965 Watts Riot, crime in Compton rose sharply as more middle class residents fled. By 1970, it had the highest crime rates in the state of California. Compton's violent reputation reached the national spotlight in the late 1980s. Compton city is a diverse and young community, but due to the low average income and high cost of living index the city has a high crime rate.

Figure 2. Fig. 1: Selected area for the City of Compton. EPA EJ Screen Report, City of ​ ​ ​ Compton, 2018. Retrieved November 9, 2019. Screenshot taken by author. ​

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Fig. 3: Demographic indicators for Compton. EPA EJScreen Report, City of Compton, ​ ​ ​ 2018. Retrieved November 9, 2019. Screenshot taken by author.

Fig. 4: High scoring census tracts in Compton, CalEnviroScreen 3.0, 2019. Retrieved ​ November 9, 2019. Screenshot taken by author.

5 Together, the data indicates Compton status as a low-income and structurally disadvantaged city. Along with the crime and demographic statistics, Compton is a community cares less about their environment, because of the low income and high crime rate. The city doesn’t have enough funds to address their environmental problems. But since Compton has a younger population group, it will be easier to motivate people to take their environmental issues seriously.

2. What environmental threats contribute to slow disasters in this setting? What data is available to characterize these threats posed by slow disasters in the community? [Jose Corpus] Some major environmental threats which contribute heavily to slow disasters in South Los Angeles are air pollution, soil contamination, lead poisoning, and noise pollution.

A massive contributor for slow disaster is the air pollution. The effects of continual exposure to this exposure can be detrimental to a person’s health. This is because small particles of gasoline and diesel use can penetrate the lungs of surrounding people and ​ lodge into their lungs (Scauzillo 2018). As a result this can cause health complications amongst residents such as: pulmonary disease hard of breathing, and more. Again, this further shows the threat of this slow disaster amongst numerous residents as a result of air pollution. As seen in Figure A below, the orange line indicates the amount of particles ​ (referenced in the paragraph above) present in the air versus the amount of particles present in the area just 1800 feet away from the freeway. This substantiates that due to the amount of particles present from being near the freeway, these residents are likely to experience health complications due to fine particles.

Noise pollution is also a major contributor to slow disasters. In a study by Stansfeld and Matheson, noise can: increase blood pressure, increase heart rate, and disturb mood, reaction time and more. As seen in Figure C, these increases in blood pressure and heart rate can lead to very serious threats such as heart attack and heart failure (heart.org 2016).

Another contributor to slow disasters is lead poisoning. As seen in Figure B below, a majority of the areas in LA have elevated levels of lead above the recommended national value amongst children. This shows that lead is present in thousands of children, and if these levels continue to rise, it can lead to adverse effects. These effects can lead to

6 decreased ability to speak and move in children (Schneyer 2017).

The final environmental threat which helps contribute to slow disaster is soil contamination. At lead-based soil contamination can cause birth defects and various forms of cancer (Chandler 2017). Thus, in this same article by Chandler, when soil contamination was found at Jordan Downs in the Watt, hundreds of people were forced to leave the area in fear of incurring these health complications.

Some data that is available to characterize these threats posed by slow disasters in the community are the number of, “unhealthy” days a community can have. A day counts as unhealthy when the, “ozone and particles [on a particular community] exceeded federal safety levels” (Scauzillo 2018). As seen in Figure D, LA has a massive lead among the number of unhealthy day when compared to other major metropolitan cities. Another are studies done by universities which correlate pollution and certain complications.

Fig A: Amount of ultrafine particles near freeways, TSI P-Trak Ultrafine Particle Counter 8525 readings on Aug 20, 2015 and Sept 24, 2015. Screenshot taken by Jose Corpus.

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Fig B: Percent of Elevated Levels of Lead in Children in Various LA areas, Reuter’s Investigates. Retrieved November 8, 2019. Screenshot taken by Jose Corpus.

Fig C: Potential Health Threats From High Blood Pressure, Heart.org. Accessed

8 November 8th, 2019. Screenshot taken by Jose Corpus.

Fig D: Number of Unhealthy Days by Major Metropolitan Area, Propel L.A. and EPA. Accessed November 8th 2019. Screenshot taken by Jose Corpus.

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3. What factors -- social, cultural, political, technological, ecological -- contribute to environmental health vulnerability and injustice in this setting? [Jose Alejandro Velasco]

● Environmental racism ● Health Vulnerability ● Toxic Release ● Hazardous Waste ● Drinking Water ● Economic Injustice ● Community Underrepresentation ● Political Projects

Watts in Southern California is an impoverished community with majority people of color. The California Environmental Protection Agency said, “Watts is among the top 5% most polluted and vulnerable communities in the state. Unsurprisingly, the residents of Watts have the lowest life expectancy of any other community in California nearly 12 years lower than the residents of nearby Brentwood.” (PSR*LA) Many sites such as schools, housing and other local areas show contaminated areas that stopped a local project that would better the neighborhood. When factoring in how South LA is enclosed by freeways and high traffic commercial corridors– the I-10 to the North, I-105 to the South, and I-405 to the West and the Alameda Corridor to the East. This can contribute to high amounts of air pollution and is thought that these routes went through politically disenfranchised black and brown communities. Reports show, “Testing of the site has shown toxic levels of lead and other deadly chemicals.” (Russell 2018 ). Environmental racism refers to the way in which minority group neighborhoods are burdened with a disproportionate number of hazards, including toxic waste facilities, garbage dumps, and other sources of environmental pollution and foul odors that lower the quality of life.

Census tract score provided by the CalEnviroScreen rank Watts in Los Angeles California as a disadvantaged community due to its index score of 74.46 making it in the 96th percentile community that are disproportionately burdened by, and vulnerable to, multiple sources of pollution (CalEnviroScreen). Social and economical status could contribute to environmental injustice in this setting because solutions to keep the community safe are not being taken immediately. Community member said, “It’s a

10 difficult subject to address when you’re just trying to get food on the table,” Ybarra said. “And a lot of the people here live in fear based on the [Trump] administration. Even naturalized citizens are not safe right now. So it’s not high on people’s priority list but it should be, because this directly affects the school-to-prison pipeline” (Russell 2018). This community is now considered one of California’s most environmentally vulnerable neighborhoods due to its close proximity to toxic cleanup sites, air pollution, and poverty. Health statistics for South LA reflect the struggle to breathe clean air. In 2010, this area had one of the highest asthma emergency visit and hospitalization rates in the county. A study says, “Environmental injustice has a powerful hold on communities of color and those in poverty because it affects their quality of life to a deadly extent. Studies have been conducted to study the harmful effects of noise and air pollution on its victims, who are most likely communities of color and low-income” ( Morrison 2019 ). TheCalEnviroScreen scores highest on drinking water, asthma, toxic releases, hazardous waste and other pollutants compared to other communities which show environmental threats and injustice in this community.

Many social, political and economical factors contribute to environmental health vulnerability and injustice in this setting. Governments don’t take initiative to clean up or help low income communities because they don’t hold the same power as other communities. Huerta said, “South LA is often talked about it terms of its economic issues such as high unemployment rates and lack of job training opportunities, and in the past much of SCOPE’s work has focused on these issues” (Huerta 2017). It’s impossible to separate environmental injustice from economic injustice and sources of pollution have undeniably created cumulative impacts on the health of South LA’s predominantly low income, black, and brown residents. With a median income of $31,905, South LA households also face limited access to healthcare, healthy foods, and green space, which only serve to worsen their vulnerability to air pollution. South LA is an underrepresented area in which The City Project, a policy and legal advocacy nonprofit organization, has represented Concerned Citizens in this environmental justice work. Garcia said, “Our mission at City Project is equal justice, democracy, and livability for all—a mission reflected in our work with Concerned Citizens” (Garcia 2013). With The City Project, Culver City, and the other attorneys and organizations. The outgoing county supervisor was retiring and did not fully represent the community. The legal and organizing effort made the environmental protections better. The studies will provide hard data the community needs going forward.

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Fig. 5: Hazardous materials strewn throughout the neighborhood in Watts, California. Better Watts Initiative (YesMagazine 2018). ​ ​

12 Fig. 6: South LA is enclosed by freeways and high traffic commercial corridors– the I-10 to the North, I-105 to the South, and I-405 to the West and the Alameda Corridor to the East (Huerta 2017).

Fig. 7: President Obama discussing green justice with The City Project’s Robert García at the dedication of the San Gabriel Mountains National Monument 2014 (TheCityProject 2014).

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Fig. 8: Councilmember Marqueece Harris-Dawson says that four schools in Watts were so worried about the water that they've shut down drinking fountains, giving kids bottled water instead (Barragan 2016).

14 4. Who are the stakeholders, what are their characteristics, and what are their perceptions of the problems? [Alexandra Vasquez] Stakeholders are groups of people or businesses affected by a problem or are interested in a problem and want to make a change. The area of South Los Angeles, specifically Compton and Watts are affected by air pollution and lead contamination. Some of the stakeholders in this instance include the Los Angeles City Government, the South Coast Air Quality Management District, the Environmental Protection Agency, the residents of South Los Angeles, and Corporations who use the area to their benefit. The Los Angeles city government keeps allowing homes to be built around freeways even though it is known that living near a freeway has negative effects on people’s health. “The city issued building permits for 4,300 homes near freeways in 2015… and signed off on an additional 3,000 units last year” (Barboza and Schleuss 2017). The Los Angeles city government benefits from having more housing, therefore, they do not block building permits for homes near freeways. The Los Angeles City government has also allowed and benefitted from lead contamination in the area of Watts. According to an article in the Los Angeles Times, in 2017 lead contamination was found in the soil at David Starr Jordan High School (Kohli 2017). The school had to conduct its own investigation because the city of LA ignored their requests until a lawsuit was upon them. It is quite obvious that the Los Angeles city government is more interested in money than the well-being of its residents. Corporations such as Ralphs, Food 4 Less, and DHL also have their headquarters on the outskirts of Compton. These companies heavily rely on trucking companies to transport their merchandise. With that being said, the number of trucks in the area also contribute a great deal to the pollution. The South Coast Air Quality Management District, a government air pollution agency responsible for regulating stationary sources of air pollution in Southern California would also be considered a stakeholder. According to an article on Envera Consulting, the South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) this company has stricter air quality rules and regulations than in other regions such as the Bay Area, Hawaii, and Nevada (Aguinaldo and Vu 2018). The Los Angeles area with the worst air pollution mostly consists of low-income people of color yet no actions from the SCAQMD have been reported to help. Another stakeholder would be the residents of Compton and Watts. The residents in Compton are exposed to the highest rates of hazardous waste, impaired water bodies, and pesticides in California (Janin and Solomon 2014). The people who live in this area on average make less than $20,000 a year. Due to their lack of money and status, there is not much they can do to stand up to these corporations who see their home as a place to dump their waste. Los Angeles County does nothing to make

15 residents feel as if their voices are being heard. The EPA, environmental protection agency, would also serve as another major stakeholder. The EPA has a lot of federal power and could easily come between to help resolve air pollution and lead contamination in these areas.

Fig 9: Compton Creek dumping site. Courtesy of Flickr. Retrieved Nov. 9, 2019. Screenshot taken by Alexandra Vasquez.

5. What have different stakeholder groups done (or not done) in response to the problems in this case? [Collaborative]

In the neighborhood of Watts, the residents suffer from toxic pollutants left over from industrial sites, including lead, in their soil and water. There are regions like the Jordan

16 Downs projects where pollutants are so rampant that the children living there have elevated levels of lead in their bodies. Obviously lead leads to many health problems as demonstrated in Flint, Michigan. The inhabitants of this neighborhood are predominantly Black and Latino and suffer a disproportionate amount of negative health consequences (Ross 2018). To address this situation, Tim Watkins launched the Better Watts Initiative back in 2015 “with the intention of accomplishing a number of important objectives—the primary one has been to educate residents on toxic pollution in their air, soil, and drinking water” (Ross, 2018). Tim Watkins is the CEO of the Watts Labor Community Action Committee, which launched BWI and is working with other organizations to address environmental injustice (Ross 2018). BWI is also working to monitor air pollutants to warn citizens of the air quality so they can prepare for the worst and focuses on schools and children. In addition to the toxic wastes in Watts, there is also generally poor air quality in the South L.A. region due to a high amount of traffic exposure. This leads to serious complications such that, “In 2010, this area had one of the highest asthma emergency visit and hospitalization rates in the county” (Huerta 2017). Community city based organizations like the Transformative Climate Communities push for a transition out of neighborhood oil drilling and more community driven climate investments (Huerta 2017). Many local environmental groups have also done their own testing of lead levels in the soil as well as testing the air quality, however whenever the local environmental groups would contact bigger state organizations such as the Department of Toxic Substances Control, they would often times dismiss their evidence or they’d do their own testing as state it did not pose an “unacceptable human ​ health risk to the residents” (Ross 2016). This shows that often times bigger state organizations often times do not take actions to address this problem, or if they do often times they try to brush off these problems by making them seem more miniscule than they actually are.

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Fig 10: Watts projects where most of the lead contaminated soil was found. Photo courtesy of Flickr. Retrieved Nov. 9, 2019. Screenshot taken by Alexandra Vasquez.

6. How have big media outlets and environmental organizations covered environmental problems related to worse case scenarios in this setting? [Collaborative] When it comes to pollution in the South Los Angeles area news articles such as the Los Angeles Times, do a good job covering the subject. There are multiple articles that talk about pollution over the years in the Los Angeles area. In an article, the Los Angeles Times explains that the amount of smog from pollution is highly dependent on where you live. For example areas farther from the north, so Westside and downtown LA are largely spared persistent unhealthy levels of ozone pollution (Barboza and Mukherjee 2019). The Los Angeles times also covers other incidences in other areas of South L.A such as Watts as well as gets multiple stakeholders opinions on environmental events that happen such as when LA Unified School District sued Housing Authority of L.A they interviewed residents, as well as the Head of the Housing Authority of L.A (Kohi 2017).

18 Local newspapers such as the Compton Herald also do a good job of covering pollution in smaller areas. The Compton Herald has an article that talks about air pollution affecting the poor. This article highlights the major differences in polluted areas by race and income. Those who have an average household income of less than $20,000 a year and people who do not own cars suffer vehicle pollution levels about 20% higher than the state average (Boyd-Barrett 2019). Compton, California’s demographics fall right under this category. A study found that Central Bakersfield and Los Angeles County had the highest concentration of PM2.5, particulate matter pollution, from vehicles (Boyd-Barrett 2019). This pollution affects all of the residents in the area and should be taken more seriously.

Local environmental groups such as the Angeles Sierra Club have covered issues about air pollution in L.A so that they made sure to include that the air pollution is harmful to people who live there. They have even filed a complaint to the U.S Court of Appeals in 2014, when Los Angeles’ South Coast Air Quality Management District' smog plan got passed by the EPA which “deferred emissions reductions and continued pollution…”(Sierra Club 2014). Even though they are aware that smog is harmful to many people in L.A, it is important to note that this topic has not been covered enough. The Sierra Club as a whole national organization seems to cover very general environmental issues such as wildfires, conservation of forests, conservation of resources, and things of that nature. Although the Sierra Club has also covered topics such as contamination of California water, as well as air pollution that comes from freeways they do not go into further details. They do not cover who this pollution affects the most, nor what social, economic, or political conditions have led to these slow disasters.

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Fig 11: Sierra Club protesting for a cleaner environment. Photo courtesy of Sierra Club Angeles Chapter. Retrieved Nov. 9, 2019 by Alexandra Vasquez.

7. What local actions would reduce environmental vulnerability and injustice related to fast disaster in this setting? [Collaborative]

Since 1997 LA has been trying to monitor the air quality in the area and whether or not the air quality missed the national standard line, then they must declare the affected area an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) and set out a recovery plan. “‘According to Public Health England even short-term exposure to NO2, particularly at high concentrations, can lead to coughing, producing mucus and shortness of breath because it is a “respiratory irritant”(Pengelly 2019). We know that most air pollution in the area is caused by the release of nitrogen dioxide gas. Primarily, nitrogen dioxide comes from vehicle exhaust and from burning fossil fuels. “There is a lot of traffic at rush hour with cars stopping and starting due to the pedestrian crossing traffic lights further down the road”(Pengelly 2019). Which means the LA city government needs to increase fund on public transportation programs, encourage people to rely more on public transportation like bus, taxi, and bike. Also, use renewable energy to replace fossil fuels. More and

20 more people in LA right now are using the skateboard, Birds, which are electric scooters which charge per mile to use or taking ubers or taxis rather than driving their own car. In addition, the city could add more bike lanes and improve sidewalks in order to encourage residents to bike and/or walk more often. The highest priority action as of right now would be more funding from the city towards increasing funds on public transportation to use more renewable energy or at least use less fossil fuels and instead more renewable sorts of energy.

Fig 12: Bumper to bumper traffic in Los Angeles. Photo courtesy of Global Reality. Retrieved Nov. 9, 2019. Screenshot taken by Alexandra Vasquez.

21 8. What extra-local actions (at state, national or international levels) would reduce environmental vulnerability and injustice related to fast disaster in this setting and similar settings? [Kenneth Kong]

Extra-local actions that would help reduce environmental invulnerability/injustice at the federal level could be the EPA’s new update on the Clean Air Act standard, which is mainly aimed at oil refineries in fenceline areas. The new standards require oil refineries to monitor and report on the air pollution and chemicals, such as benzene, which causes cancer, that are released into communities close by the factories (Fox 2015). This makes a significant impact in the South L.A. region because there are so many refineries and active oil wells that constantly pollute the air with fumes, probably because L.A. is an area rich in fossil fuels and hydrocarbons. The new regulations protects people from health hazards such as respiratory problems and cancer since, “This new rule will reduce ​ exposure to cancer-causing chemicals for more than 1.4 million people” (Fox 2015). The reports on air emissions will also be made public and can be seen by affected residents as a neighborhood watch to warn them (Fox 2015). In addition, this renewal is also fighting against global warming since emissions are being closely monitored.

The state of California has also filed a lawsuit against President Trump due to his actions to revoke the waiver that allows the state to control its own auto emission standards (Thebault 2019). The city of Los Angeles is situated in a basin which makes air circulation terrible so the high amount of vehicle exhaust gets trapped in a dense smog which plagues the residents. Because of this, “Sacramento intervened in 1959 and set ​ up the California Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board, which later became the Air ​ Resources Board, and set the first ozone limit: 150 parts per billion of the pollutant in a cubic meter of air, more than double today’s federal standard” (Thebault 2019). This helped to reduce air pollutants in the city and cleanse the air. Now that Trump is threatening to remove this policy it would mean the poor air quality will come back if vehicles have a lower cap on their exhaust.

Another action that can help with reducing the environmental concerns is the Senate Bill 100 bill proposed by Senator Kevin de Leon of Los Angeles. The bill proposes a transition from coal and fossil-fuel related energies to cleaner renewable ones. Within the bill it states that, “Senate Bill 100, written by Sen. Kevin de León (D-Los Angeles), ​ ​ would first accelerate the existing renewable portfolio standard to require that utilities provide 60% of their power from renewables by 2030” (L.A. Times 2018). Again, this would help bring down the levels of air pollution in South L.A. by slowly bringing the market to cleaner energy choices that don’t emit toxic chemicals into neighborhoods

22 such as Compton and Watts, which eliminates a root problem that contributes towards health vulnerability. As clean energy sourcing becomes a main goal for California, it makes toxic chemicals in refineries out-of-date, replacing it with energy sources with no emissions/carbon free. One example is the solar farm shown in Fig 13 below (L.A. Times 2018). Many refineries and factories are located around poorer communities so this bill will remove the negative effects of fossil fuels. I believe this is the action we need to focus on as a priority. Not only does it remove the threat of pollutants in fenceline neighborhoods, but it also transitions the economy to run on cleaner energy, which will benefit the environment and the future of earth by stopping the threat of global warming.

Fig 13: A large scale solar panel farm in the Port of Los Angeles, an example of the type of energy the state of California plans to transition to by 2045. Photo courtesy of the L.A. Times Editorial Board.

23 9. What kinds of data and research would be useful in efforts to characterize and address environmental threats (related to fast disaster, pollution and climate change) in this setting and similar settings? [Jacqueline Salazar Romo]

Through the work of local organizations and foundations, South Los Angeles could obtain more information to their environmental conditions, and additionally learn about and participate in taking part of better methods to work towards remediating their issues. One such organization is the LA Conservation Corps, an environmentally-focused organization whose mission is to "transform the lives of youth from disadvantaged communities through work and education" (LA Conservation Corps 2019). In their 2017-2018 Annual Report, the organization sets statistics for their environmental achievements through the span of the given year. Most notably, the report emphasizes their areas of improvement. Among their actions, the LA Conservation Corps credit themselves with having planted 4,800 trees (approximately removing pollution from 576,000 cars), and granting 232, 875 hours in job training and experiences. Most notably, the Corps "has been one of a handful of organizations nationwide that are awarded competitive funding from the US Environmental Protection Agency to train low-income, underemployed and unemployed adults in environmental remediation, better known as Brownfields clean-up" (LA Conservation Corps 2019). Another organization whose reports can be utilized by South Los Angeles would be the South Coast Air Quality Management District’s (abbreviated SCAQMD) annual report, available in a PDF format. The report for November 2018, entitled “Summary of Efforts in Compton”,provides an overview of measures and research the district has undertaken to improve living conditions in Compton, California: “SCAQMD and other agencies have done joint inspections at approximately 50 potential metal handling/processing facilities…”, for which the district reports that “Nine Notices of Violation (NOVs) have been issued to nine facilities and approximately 60 Notices to Comply (NCs) were issued to facilities in Compton, resulting in changes to operations and additional facilities coming under SCAQMD permits... Several facilities implemented voluntary measures to reduce emissions of hexavalent chromium, reducing the potential health risk to Compton residents and workers” (SCAQMD 2019). Most importantly, however, is the necessity for locally focused action based upon action from government organizations and leadership positions. A report by the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, entitled “Framework for Addressing Climate Change in Los Angeles County,” is a promising report on how to best address and act upon the changing climate present in the Los Angeles County (LA County Department of

24 Public Health 2019). Through these methods, faithful statistics can provide for plans of action such as the implemented Five-Point Plan to Reduce the Health Impacts of Climate ​ Change, among other environmentally helpful endeavors. ​

Fig 14: A chart providing framework for agencies to “work toward building resilient communities and prepared workforces while reducing the human contribution to climate change” through the Five-Point Plan to Reduce the Health Impacts of Climate Change. ​ Courtesy of the LA County Department of Public Health. Screenshot by Jacqueline Salazar Romo.

25 10. What, in your view, is ethically wrong or unjust in this case? [Aida Recinos Ibarra] In our view what is ethically wrong is that many there are many types of injustices prevalent in many of these communities in South L.A such as racial injustice as well as economic injustice. According to the Union of Concerned Scientists, one study finds that, “On average, Black Americans and Latinos breathe in about 40 percent more particulate matter from cars, trucks, and buses than White Californians” (Boyd-Barrett 2019). This is a form of racial injustice in that pollution in this circumstance is affecting people of color more than white people. This racial injustice, reflects the history of environmental racism in Los Angeles. In the 1920s the city of Los Angeles set up many districts which prohibited people of color from moving into many neighborhoods, which left them with very limited options which were mainly in South L.A, this was done in order for White communities to have their own suburbs (Kurshige 2008, 26-29). People who live in South Los Angeles are also surrounded by freeways such as 110 and the 405, primarily because it is much cheaper to live there. However even the building of these freeways in the 50s and 60s forced many people of color to relocate often times without the help of the city since many houses were in locations where freeways were set to build (Kurshige 2008, 240-241). This demonstrates that it is not just a coincidence that many people of color live near freeways or industries such as scrap metal factories. The city officials have since the beginning prioritized white upper middle class people more than those of people of color. This environmental injustice still continues today when people’s complaints about lead in their housing go unheard or ignored and projects which have contributed to these contaminations still continue.

Another type of injustice that is prevalent in South L.A is epistemic injustice. Epistemic injustice is prevalent in this city because often time residents will voice their concerns and many times it will go unheard or silenced. This is prevalent in areas such as Watts and Compton, in Watts many times people have complained about lead levels in their houses and are aware that this causes health problems such as asthma and behavioral problems amongst their children. However, when they would voice their experiences to California’s Department of Toxic Substance Control they would use “jargon to confuse [residents] and to make [residents] feel uneducated and in the wrong for even questioning” (Dick 2018). This is also a form of intergenerational injustice in that the children who grow up exposed to air pollution as well as lead may grow up with developmental issues as well as chronic health problems such as asthma. It is unjust that state organizations such as DTSC devalue the experiences of residents from communities such as these which are predominantly made up of people of color who are

26 also of low socioeconomic status. They make residents feel as if their lived experiences are not valid. State organizations and city officials should listen to all perspectives, especially when the people who are being affected by environmental problems present their own data well as stories of real individuals whose health has been affected.

Fig 15: The Jordans Down housing project is shown, which was once a shelter for factors but then turned into housing for low income families in the 1950s. The predominant population in this community is Latinos and African Americans, which affect them more. Photograph: Bethany Mollenkof/LA Times via Getty Images

27 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Artley, Anne. 2017. “Air Quality Officials Discuss Compton Pollution Issues -.” August 10, 2017. http://wavenewspapers.com/air-quality-officials-discuss-compton-pollution-issue s/. ​

Barboza, Tony, and Rahul Mukherjee. 2019. “Must Reads: The War on Southern California Smog Is Slipping. Fixing It Is a $14-Billion Problem.” Los Angeles Times. July 1, 2019. https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-smog-southern-california-2019070 1-story.html. ​

Barboza, Tony, and Jon Schleuss. 2017. “L.A. Keeps Building near Freeways, Even Though Living There Makes People Sick.” Los Angeles Times. March 2, 2017. https://www.latimes.com/projects/la-me-freeway-pollution/. ​

Bettina, Boxall. 2019. “Smoke from Saddleridge Fire Blankets L.A., Bringing Unhealthful Air Quality.” Los Angeles Times. October 12, 2019. https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-10-12/saddleridge-fire-sends-sm oke-across-l-a-as-santa-ana-winds-continue. ​

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28 Demographic Profile.” 2017. https://planning.lacity.org/resources/demographics. ​ ​

Claudia, Boyd-Barrett. n.d. “Air Pollution Greatly Impacts the Poor, Study Finds.” Compton Herald. https://comptonherald.org/air-pollution-greatly-impacts-poor-study-finds/. ​

Danelski, David. 2017. “Air Pollution Linked to Alzheimer’s Disease, Study Says.” San Gabriel Valley Tribune. January 31, 2017. http://www.sgvtribune.com/health/20170131/air-pollution-linked-to-alzheimers -disease-study-says. ​

Daniel, Ross. 2018. “How Residents of South LA Are Tackling Environmental Racism by Daniel Ross — YES! Magazine.” How Residents of South LA Are Tackling Environmental Racism by Daniel Ross. July 6, 2018. https://www.yesmagazine.org/people-power/how-residents-of-south-la-are-tackl ing-environmental-racism-20180709. ​

Elmahrek, Adam. 2018. “Fake out of Compton? Brown, Smelly Water Sparks Concerns and Allegations of a Political Ruse.” News Website. Los Angeles Times. June 20, 2018. https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-compton-water-20180620-story.ht ml. ​

“Environmental Justice Movement in Watts Flourishes with the Better Watts Initiative.” 2016. Physicians for Social Responsibility- Los Angeles. April 20, 2016. https://www.psr-la.org/environmental-justice-movement-in-watts-flourishes-wit h-the-better-watts-initiative/. ​

Environmental Protection Agency. 2019. “2017 TRI Factsheet for Los Angeles County, California | TRI Explorer | EPA.” Government Site. Environmental Protection Agency. 2019. https://enviro.epa.gov/triexplorer/tri_factsheet.factsheet?pzip=&pstate=CA&pcit y=&pcounty=Los%20Angeles&pyear=2018&pParent=TRI&pDataSet=TRIQ1. ​

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Fox, Miranda. 2015. “5 Things to Know About the EPA’s New Rule for Oil Refineries.” Earthjustice. November 6, 2015. https://earthjustice.org/blog/2015-november/5-things-to-know-about-the-epa-s -new-rule-for-oil-refineries. ​

Garcia, Robert, and Ramya Sivasubramanian. n.d. “Environmental Justice for All: Struggle in the Baldwin Hills and South Central Los Angeles.” Environmental Justice for All: Struggle in the Baldwin Hills and South Central Los Angeles | Shriver Center on Poverty Law. https://www.povertylaw.org/clearinghouse/stories/garcia. ​

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30 L.A. Times. 2018. “If California Is Serious about Fighting Climate Change, Lawmakers Have to Commit to 100% Clean Energy.” If California Is Serious about Fighting Climate Change, Lawmakers Have to Commit to 100% Clean Energy. July 21, 2018. https://www.latimes.com/opinion/editorials/la-ed-sb100-renewable-energy-201 80721-story.html?_amp=true. ​

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SKETCHES Choosing a Community Sketch

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35 About The Authors

Jose Corpus is currently a Second-Year Student at the University of California, ​ Irvine. He is currently studying Biological Science at this institute and interning at his school’s sports medicine department. He is interested in the effects of poverty on the health of the people. Jose aspires

to be a professional in the healthcare industry as a medical oncologist or Physician’s Assistant and wants to help people in any way he can. After going to graduate school for his career, he hopes to stay in the Southern California area and work to better the lives of his patients, family members, and overall those around him.

Kenneth Kong is a first-year undergraduate Physics major attending the University of California, Irvine. He is interested in the consequences of oceanic pollution and climate change. He hopes to be able to reduce the negative impact society has on the environment.

36 Aida Recinos Ibarra is a fifth-year student majoring in Anthropology and Psychology and Social Behavior at the University of California, Irvine. Aida has a wide variety of interests such as environmental anthropology, child psychology, medical anthropology, as well as cultural psychology. After college, Aida plans on getting her Masters in Clinical Psychology and becoming a Child Psychologist where her fields of study will help her understand her clients better.

Jacqueline Salazar Romo is a first-year undergraduate student at the University of California, Irvine. Originating from an agriculturally centric background, she is interested in the environment and its effects upon California field workers. As a first-generation Mexican immigrant from a low-income community, Jacqueline has experienced the sociocultural and economic implications of field work firsthand, and she seeks environmental justice through pacifist activism and research.

37 Alexandra Vasquez is a first-year Psychology student under the School of Social Sciences at the University of California, Irvine. She is interested in mental health disorders and homelessness specifically in low-income communities where the residents mostly consist of people of color. She aspires to become a clinical psychologist and later come back to her hometown, Compton, California, where people with most mental health disorders are abandoned and left with no choice but to live on the streets. She hopes to be able to eliminate the negative stigma associated with mental health disorders in communities where mental health is not seen as important or valid.

38 Jose Velasco is a second-year Biological Science student at UC Irvine, interested in the effects of toxins on the human body. Jose has an interest in the field of dentistry and hopes to own a practice in an area of low income.

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