Introduction

Notes

Introduction

1. These definitions are drawn from Neal Riemer and Douglas Simon, The New World of Politics: An Introduction to Political Science, 4th edn (Totowa: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997) 3. Chantal Mouffe sees the political as an essentially antagonistic process involving contending collective identifica- tions. See esp. Chantal Mouffe, On the Political (London and New York: Routledge, 2005). 2. Michael Sadleir, Blessington D’Orsay: A Masquerade (London: Constable, 1947) 189. I have drawn the biographical details in this discussion primarily from Sadleir’s study. 3. He inherited his mother’s estate, Knebworth, and her maiden name, Lytton, upon her death in 1844. I will use ‘Bulwer’ when I am referring solely to his pre-1844 activities. 4. Sadleir, Blessington 220. 5. Sadleir, Blessington 190. 6. Sadleir, Blessington 191–193. 7. Virg inia Woolf, A Room of One’s Own (1928; London: Penguin, 1967) 66. 8. Dorothy Mermin, Godiva’s Ride: Women of Letters in England, 1830–1880 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993) 17, xvii, and see Nancy Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel (Oxford: OUP, 1987). 9. ‘[If] by aristocracy, those persons are meant ... who seek honours without merit, places without duty, and pensions without service ... the sooner it is carried away with the corruption on which it has thriven, the better.’ Lord John Russell, quoted Edward Pearce, Reform! The Fight for the 1832 Reform Act (London: Jonathan Cape, 2003) 76. 10. See Leonore Davidoff, The Best Circles (London: Cresset Library, 1973). 11. See Isobel Armstrong, ‘Msrepresentation: Codes of Affect and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Women’s Poetry’, in Isobel Armstrong and Virginia Blain (eds) Women’s Poetry, Late Romantic to Late Victorian (New York: Macmillan, 1999) 3–32; Harriet Kramer Linkin and Stephen C. Behrendt (eds) Romanticism and Women Poets: Opening the Doors of Reception (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1999); Anne Mellor, ‘The Female Poet and the Poetess: Two Traditions of British Women’s Poetry, 1780–1830’, Studies in Romanticism 36 (1997): 261–276. 12. J.V. Beckett, The Aristocracy in England, 1660–1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986) 16–22. 13. See N.P. Willis, Evening Mirror (11 November 1844): 2/1 and Anthony Trollope, Can You Forgive Her? (1864–1865; Oxford: OUP, 1973) 1. 14. Lawrence Stone and Jeanne Fawtier Stone, An Open Elite? England 1540–1880, abr. edn (Oxford and New York: OUP, 1986) 3.

184 Notes 185

15. This is a central tenet of David Cannadine, Class in Britain (London: Penguin, 2000). 16. See Francis O’Gorman and Katherine Turner (eds) The Victorians and the Eighteenth Century (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004). 17. See Catherine Hall, Keith McClelland and Jane Rendall (eds) Defining the Victorian Nation: Class, Race, Gender and the Reform Act of 1867 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). 18. Peter Mandler, ‘Namier in Petticoats?’, review of Aristocratic Women and Political Society, by K.D. Reynolds, Reviews in History (February 1999) 3, Institute of Historical Research http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/paper/ mandler.html, accessed 30 June 2008. 19. See Beckett, The Aristocracy in England; Norman Gash, Reaction and Reconstruction in English Politics, 1832–1852 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965); D.C. Moore, The Politics of Deference: A Study of the Mid-Nineteenth Century English Political System (New York: Harvester, 1976). See also Frank O’Gorman, The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1831 (London: Arnold, 1997) 368–371. 20. Hall, McClelland and Rendall, ‘Introduction’, in Hall et al. (eds) Defining the Victorian Nation 10. 21. David Cannadine, Aspects of Aristocracy: Grandeur and Decline in Modern Britain (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1994) 10. 22. Davidoff, Best Circles 33–34. 23. See Anne Summers, ‘A Home from Home – Women’s Philanthropic Work in the Nineteenth Century’, in Sandra Burman (ed.) Fit Work for Women (London: Croom Helm, 1979) 33–63; F.K. Prochaska, Women and Philanthropy in 19th Century England (Oxford: OUP, 1980); Marjorie Morgan, Manners, Morals and Class in England, 1774–1858 (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1994) 40–42. 24. K.D. Reynolds, Aristocratic Women and Political Society in Victorian Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998) 118–119. 25. Peter Mandler, Aristocratic Government in the Age of Reform: Whigs and Liberals, 1830–1852 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990) 35. Mandler uses ‘whigs’ and ‘Whigs’ to distinguish between the individuals and ideals concerned and the party identity. 26. Mandler, Aristocratic Government 2–3. 27. Mandler, Aristocratic Government 42. 28. Reynolds, Aristocratic Women 153. 29. Catherine Hall, ‘Private Persons versus Public Someones: Class, Gender and Politics in England 1780–1850’, White, Male and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (Cambridge: Polity, 1992) 151–171. See also Kathryn Gleadle and Sarah Richardson, ‘Introduction’, in Gleadle and Richardson (eds) Women in British Politics, 1760–1860: The Power of the Petticoat (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 2000) 20 and Amanda Vickery, ‘Introduction’ in Vickery (ed.) Women, Privilege and Power: British Politics, 1750 to the Present (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001) 14–15. 30. Peter Mandler, ‘From Almack’s to Willis’s: Aristocratic Women and Politics, 1815–1867’, Vickery (ed.) Women, Privilege and Power 157. 186 Notes

31. Catherine Hall, ‘The Rule of Difference: Gender, Class and Empire in the Making of the 1832 Reform Act’, in Ida Blom, Karen Hagemann and Catherine Hall (eds) Gendered Nations: Nationalisms and Gender Order in the Long Nineteenth Century (Oxford and New York: Berg, 2000) 125, 127. 32. Davidoff, Best Circles 15, and see 15–17 for a general discussion of the threats posed by new social mobility. 33. Reynolds, Aristocratic Women 136–143. 34. James Vernon, Politics and the People: A Study in English Political Culture, c.1815–1867 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), esp. 48–104. 35. See esp. Stefan Collini, Donald Winch and John Burrow, That Noble Science of Politics: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Intellectual History (Cambridge: CUP, 1983); Stefan Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain 1850–1930 (Oxford: OUP, 1991). 36. See Gareth Stedman Jones, Languages of Class: Studies in English Working- Class History 1832–1982 (Cambridge: CUP, 1983); Patrick Joyce, Democratic Subjects: The Self and the Social in Nineteenth-Century England (Cambridge: CUP, 1994); Vernon, Politics and the People. 37. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983). 38. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition, 2nd edn, intro by Margaret Canovan (1958; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998) 52. 39. Arendt, The Human Condition 35. 40. Arendt, The Human Condition 28. 41. Patrick Joyce (ed.) Class, Oxford Readers (Oxford: OUP, 1995) 183–184. 42. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. Thomas Burger with the assistance of Frederick Lawrence (1962; London: Polity Press, 1989). 43. Joyce, Class 183. 44. Joan B. Landes, ‘The Public and the Private Sphere: A Feminist Reconsideration’, in Landes (ed.) Feminism, the Public and the Private (Oxford and New York: OUP, 1998) 141, and see Geoff Eley, ‘Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures: Placing Habermas in the Nineteenth Century’, in Craig Calhoun (ed.) Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992) 289–339. See also Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988). 45. Calhoun, ‘Introduction’, in Habermas 3. 46. Denise Riley, ‘Am I that Name?’ Feminism and the Category of ‘Women’ in History (London: Macmillan, 1988), rpr. Joyce, Class 226. 47. Riley, ‘Am I that Name?’ 227. 48. Riley, ‘Am I that Name?’ 228. 49. Seyla Benhabib, ‘Models of Public Space: Hannah Arendt, the Liberal Tradition, and Jürgen Habermas’, in Landes, Feminism 87. 50. Denise Riley, The Words of Selves: Identification, Solidarity, Irony (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000) 7. 51. Seyla Benhabib, ‘The Personal is not the Political’, Boston Review (October– November 1999) v. 52. Seyla Benhabib, The Claims of Culture: Equality and Diversity in the Global Era (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2002) 8. 53. Benhabib, Claims of Culture 15. Notes 187

1 Aristocratic Lives: Life-Writing, Class and Authority

1. Laura Marcus, ‘The Face of Autobiography’, in Julia Swindells (ed.) The Uses of Autobiography (London: Taylor & Francis, 1995) 15. 2. Marcus, ‘The Face of Autobiography’ 15. 3. Felicity A. Nussbaum, The Autobiographical Subject: Gender and Ideology in Eighteenth Century England (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989) 223. 4. Nussbaum, The Autobiographical Subject xii; Alison Booth, How to Make It as a Woman: Collective Biographical History from Victoria to the Present (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004) 4. 5. Linda Peterson, Traditions of Victorian Women’s Autobiography: The Politics and Poetics of Life Writing (Charlottesville and London: University Press of Virginia, 1999), and see Regenia Gagnier, Subjectivities: A History of Self- Representation in Britain, 1832–1920 (New York and Oxford: OUP, 1991). 6. Peterson, Traditions 1–42. 7. For women’s uneasy relationship with the spiritual autobiography’s inter- pretative structures, see Linda Peterson, Victorian Autobiography: The Tradition of Self-Interpretation (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1986) 120–155. 8. Nussbaum, The Autobiographical Subject 155. 9. Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class 1780–1850 (London: Hutchinson, 1987), esp. 76–106. 10. Dror Wahrman, ‘ “Middle-Class” Domesticity Goes Public: Gender, Class and Politics from Queen Caroline to Queen Victoria’, Journal of British Studies 32 (October 1992): 402. See also Paul Langford, Public Life and the Propertied Englishman, 1689–1798 (Oxford: OUP, 1991), chapter 8. For a reading of religion as a political organising force, see Richard Brent, Liberal Anglican Politics: Whiggery, Religion and Reform, 1830–1841 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987). 11. Mandler, ‘From Almack’s to Willis’s’ 161. 12. Alison Adburgham, A Punch History of Manners and Modes 1841–1890 (London: Hutchinson, 1961) 31, 33. Puseyism was a popular term for the earlier stages of the ritualist Oxford Movement, in which Edward Bouverie Pusey became an influential figure. 13. Mandler, ‘From Almack’s to Willis’s’ 165–166. 14. Jessica Gerard, Country House Life: Family and Servants, 1815–1914 (Oxford: OUP, 1994) 105. 15. Mandler, ‘From Almack’s to Willis’s’ 125–127. See also Prochaska, Women and Philanthropy 137. 16. Stone, An Open Elite? 146. See also Beckett, The Aristocracy in England 5 and Cannadine, Aspects 25. 17. Mandler, ‘From Almack’s to Willis’s’ 166. 18. The importance of personal religion to philanthropy is emphasized in Prochaska’s Women and Philanthropy. 19. Julia Swindells, ‘Introduction’, in The Uses of Autobiography 9. 20. For a (partisan) discussion of nineteenth-century upper-class converts to Catholicism, see Madeleine Beard, Faith and Fortune (Leominster: Gracewing, 1997). 188 Notes

21. Mandler, Aristocratic Government 30–31, 71; Michael Brock, The Great Reform Act (London: Hutchinson 1973) 62–65. 22. Morgan, Sydney [Owenson], Letter to Cardinal Wiseman (London, 1851) 5. Subsequently cited in text. 23. For a discussion of the role of salons, see Sarah Richardson, ‘ “Well- neighboured Houses”: the Political Networks of Elite Women, 1780–1860’, in Gleadle and Richardson, Women in British Politics 56–73. 24. Davidoff, Best Circles. 25. John Henry Newman, The Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman, eds Charles Stephen Dessain et al. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973–1977), see esp. Vol. XX. 464–465 and XXII. 65–67. 26. Mary Elizabeth Herbert (Baroness Herbert of Lea), How I Came Home (London: Catholic Truth Society, 1894). 27. Herbert, How I Came Home 6. 28. Andrew W. Robertson, The Language of Democracy: Political Rhetoric in the United States and Britain, 1790–1900 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1995) 97. 29. Herbert, How I Came Home 12. 30. Froude’s biography, together with his 1881 edition of some of Carlyle’s papers, was comparatively frank about his subject’s flaws and domestic life, generating anger from Carlyle’s relatives. 31. Elizabeth Missing Sewell, The Autobiography of Elizabeth M. Sewell, ed. Eleanor Sewell (London: Longman, 1907) 1. 32. Leonore Davidoff, Megan Doolittle, Janet Fink and Katherine Holden, The Family Story: Blood, Contract and Intimacy, 1830 to 1960 (London and New York: Longman, 1999) 79. 33. Peterson, Traditions 19. 34. Helen Rogers, ‘In the Name of the Father: Political Biographies by Radical Daughters’, in David Amigoni (ed.) Life Writing and Victorian Culture (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006) 145–164. 35. Stone, An Open Elite? 80. 36. Ruth Perry, Novel Relations: The Transformation of Kinship in English Literature and Culture, 1748–1818 (Cambridge: CUP, 2004) 40. 37. Perry, Novel Relations 41. 38. Perry, Novel Relations 36. 39. Beckett, The Aristocracy in England 103–104. 40. Lady Georgina Bertie, ‘Preface’, in Five Generations of a Loyal House, Part I (London: Rivingtons, 1845) v. 41. Bertie, ‘Introduction’, vi, vii. 42. Georgiana, Lady Chatterton (ed.) Memoirs, Personal and Historical of Admiral Lord Gambier, 2 vols (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1861) I. 1. 43. Chatterton, Memoirs I. 3–4. 44. Mary Cotton, Viscountess Combermere and W.W. Knollys, ‘Preface’, Memoirs & Correspondence of Field-Marshall Viscount Combermere, 2 vols (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1866) I. v. 45. Combermere and Knollys, Memoirs I. 321. 46. Patricia Meyer Spacks, Imagining A Self: Autobiography and Novel in Eighteenth Century England (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976) 57–91. 47. Sadleir, Blessington 185. Notes 189

48. Richard Cronin, Romantic Victorians: English Literature, 1824–1840 (London: Palgrave, 2002) 23. 49. Lady Blessington, ‘Preface’, in Conversations of Lord Byron with the Countess of Blessington (London: Colburn, 1834) 1. 50. Blessington, Conversations 95, and see 78, 93–96. 51. Sadleir, Blessington 75–76. 52. Cronin, Romantic Victorians 32. 53. Blessington, Conversations 46. 54. Mellor, ‘The Female Poet and the Poetess’. 55. Cronin, Romantic Victorians 24–25. 56. Lady Charlotte Bury, The Diary of a Lady-in-Waiting, 2 vols (London, 1838) I. 1–2. 57. Bury, Diary I. 27, 16. 58. Bury, Diary I. 23–4; I. 363–400. 59. Edward M. White, ‘Thackeray, “Dolly Duster”, and Lady Charlotte Campbell Bury’, Review of English Studies XVI (1965): 36. 60. Charles Greville, The Diaries of Charles Greville, ed. Edward Pearce (London: Pimlico, 2006) (12 January 1838): 166. 61. Greville, Diaries (20 February 1838): 168. 62. White, ‘Thackeray, “Dolly Duster”, and Lady Charlotte Campbell Bury’ 36. 63. Greville, Diaries (20 February 1838): 168. 64. Henry Brougham, review of Diary of a Lady in Waiting, [by Lady Charlotte Bury], Edinburgh Review 67 (1838): 1–80; Review of Diary of a Lady in Waiting, [by Lady Charlotte Bury], Athenæum (6 January 1838): 4–5. 65. W.M. Thackeray, review of Diary of a Lady in Waiting, by Lady Charlotte Bury, The Times (11 January 1838): 3; review, Fraser’s Magazine 7 (March 1838): 353–359. 66. J.W. Croker, Quarterly Review 61 (January 1838): 150–164. 67. White, ‘Thackeray, “Dolly Duster”, and Lady Charlotte Campbell Bury’ 42. 68. Mandler, ‘From Almack’s to Willis’s’ 162. 69. Burton Pike, ‘Time in Autobiography’, Comparative Literature 28 (1976): 327. 70. See Paul John Eakin, Touching the World: Reference in Autobiography (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992) 29, and see 29–53 for a summary of the general debate on this matter. 71. Peterson, Traditions 4–6. See also Clinton Machann, The Genre of Autobiography in Victorian Literature (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994) 6. 72. Mermin, Godiva’s Ride xiv and passim. See also Barbara Leah Harmon, ‘In Promiscuous Company: Female Public Appearance in Elizabeth Gaskell’s North and South’, Victorian Studies 31 (1988): 351–374. 73. Amanda Foreman, Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire (London: Harper Collins, 1998) 61. The next chapter will discuss the implications of ton, a term asso- ciated with fashionable upper-class life. 74. Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, The Sylph, 2 vols (London, 1779) I. 72. 75. Devonshire, Sylph I. 65–71. 76. Foreman, Georgiana 60. 77. Cronin, Romantic Victorians 36. 78. Solveig C. Robinson, ‘Fullerton, Lady Georgiana Charlotte (1812–1885)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: OUP, 2004) http://www. oxforddnb.com/view/article/10242, accessed 1 July 2008. 190 Notes

79. Newman, Letters (17 November 1885) XXXI. 96. 80. W.E. Gladstone, review of Ellen Middleton, by Lady Georgiana Fullerton, English Review I (July 1844): 361. 81. Robinson, ‘Fullerton’. 82. Lady Georgiana Fullerton, Ellen Middleton, 3 vols (London, 1844) I. 24. Subsequently cited in text. 83. Susan M. Griffin, Anti-Catholicism and Nineteenth-Century Fiction (Cambridge: CUP, 2004) esp. chapter five 153–178. 84. Karen Chase and Michael Levenson, The Spectacle of Intimacy: A Public Life for the Victorian Family (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000) 8–9.

2 Dilettantes and Dandies: Authorship and the Silver Fork Novel

1. Winifred Hughes, ‘Silver Fork Writers and Readers: Social Contexts of a Best Seller’, Novel 25.3 (Spring 1992): 189–209 and ‘Elegies for the Regency: Catherine Gore’s Dandy Novels’, Nineteenth-Century Literature 50.2 (September 1995): 328–347. For important earlier surveys of the genre see Alison Adburgham, Silver Fork Society: Fashionable Life and Literature 1814–1840 (London: Constable, 1983) and Matthew Rosa, The Silver-Fork School: Novels of Fashion Preceding Vanity Fair (New York: Columbia University Press, 1936). 2. William Hazlitt, ‘The Dandy School’, Examiner, 8 November 1827, repr. The Complete Works of William Hazlitt, ed. P.P. Howe (London: Dent, 1934) XX. 145–146. 3. April Kendra, ‘Gendering the Silver Fork: Catherine Gore and the Society Novel’, Women’s Writing 11.1 (2004): 36. 4. Kendra, ‘Gendering the Silver Fork’ 36. 5. Hughes, ‘Silver Fork Writers’ 329. 6. Lady Charlotte Bury, The Devoted, 3 vols (London: Bentley, 1836) II. 176. 7. Cronin, Romantic Victorians 118. 8. See Cronin, Romantic Victorians, chapter four, and Hughes, ‘Silver Fork Writers’ 328–347. 9. Edward Copeland, ‘Opera and the Great Reform Act: Silver Fork Fiction, 1822–1842’, Romanticism on the Net 34–5 (May–August 2005) 2, http:// www.erudit.org/revue/ron/2004/v/n34–35/009440ar.html, accessed 1 July 2008. 10. Kendra, ‘Gendering the Silver Fork’ 34–5. ‘Rotten boroughs’, important targets of the 1832 Reform Act, were voting districts of limited population, for which the choice of parliamentary representatives was effectively under the control of the district’s ruling (usually landed) interest. 11. See Pearce, Reform! 84, 93. 12. See Laura Hanft Korobkin, Criminal Conversations: Sentimentality and Nineteenth-Century Legal Stories of Adultery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998). 13. Edward Bulwer [Lytton], Pelham, 3 vols (London: Colburn, 1828) I. 4. 14. See Robert Baldick, The Duel: A History of Duelling (London: Chapman & Hall, 1965). Notes 191

15. Baldick, The Duel passim. 16. Michael Flavin, Gambling in the Nineteenth-Century English Novel (Brighton and Portland: Sussex Academic Press, 2003) esp. 65–82, 218. 17. Edward Bulwer [Lytton], England and the English (London, 1833) book 4, chapter 2. 18. Copeland, ‘Opera’ 4. For another view of opera and the stage as a space of reform, see Hennifer L. Hall-Witt, ‘Reforming the Aristocracy: Opera and Elite Culture, 1780–1860’, in Arthur Burns and Joanna Innes (eds) Rethinking the Age of Reform (Cambridge: CUP, 2003) 220–237. 19. Morgan, Manners 96. For the narrative importance of dinner parties in the silver fork novels of Theodore Hook, see Adburgham, Silver Fork 49–50. 20. Cronin, Romantic Victorians 109–142. 21. Hughes, ‘Silver Fork Writers’ 333. 22. Hughes, ‘Silver Fork Writers’ 329. 23. Adburgham, Silver Fork 1; Rosa, Silver-Fork School 8. 24. Review of The Budget of the Bubble Family, by Lady Bulwer, The Times (12 October 1840): 3. 25. Alice Acland, Caroline Norton (London: Constable, 1948) 46. 26. James Raven, ‘The Anonymous Novel in Britain and Ireland, 1750–1830’, in Robert J. Griffin (ed.) The Faces of Anonymity: Anonymous and Pseudonymous Publication from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2003) 159. 27. Lady Charlotte Bury, Diary 1818, quoted Adburgham, Silver Fork 26–27. 28. Morgan, Manners 21. 29. See Elizabeth K Helsinger, Robin Lauterbach Sheets and William Veeder (eds) The Woman Question: Volume III – Literary Issues (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and Elaine Showalter, A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontë to Lessing (London: Virago, 1978). 30. See ‘On Female Authorship’, Athenæum 42 (13 August 1828): 655–656. 31. Rosa, Silver-Fork School 41. 32. Morgan, Manners 90. However, Kathleen Tillotson notes the surprising resil- ience of the declining form, which lasted well into the 1850s. Kathleen Tillotson, Novels of the Eighteen Forties (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1954) 86–87. 33. Thomas Carlyle, Sartor Resartus (1833–1834; Oxford: OUP, 1999) 210–212. For countering arguments see J.W. Oakley, ‘The Reform of Honor in Bulwer’s Pelham’, Nineteenth-Century Literature 47.1 (June 1992): 49–71. 34. Robert Blake, Disraeli (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1966) 191. 35. Tillotson, Novels of the Eighteen Forties 88. For the earlier roots of fictional representations of characters further down the class scale, see Catherine Gallagher, Nobody’s Story: The Vanishing Acts of Women Writers in the Marketplace, 1670–1820 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994). 36. For a discussion of domestic fiction as the expression (and repression) of suppressed revolutionary feeling, see Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction. 37. See W.M. Thackeray, ‘Lords and Liveries’, Novels by Eminent Hands (London, 1847); Claire Nicolay, ‘Delightful Coxcombs to Industrious Men: Fashionable Politics in Cecil and Pendennis’, Victorian Literature and Culture 30 (2002): 289–304; and Sarah Rose Cole, ‘The Aristocrat in the Mirror: Male Vanity 192 Notes

and Bourgeois Desire in William Makepeace Thackeray’s Vanity Fair’, Nineteenth-Century Literature 61.2 (2006): 137–170. 38. W.M. Thackeray, Vanity Fair, intro. John Sutherland (ed.) (1847–1848; Oxford: OUP, 1998) 636. Subsequently cited in text. 39. Lady Blessington, The Victims of Society, Ann Hawkins and Jeraldine Kraver (eds) Silver Fork Novels 1826–41 (1837; London: Pickering & Chatto, 2005) I. 75. Subsequently cited in text. 40. See Ann Hawkins and Jeraldine Kraver, introduction, The Victims of Society, by Lady Blessington vii-xxvi. 41. Hughes, ‘Elegies for the Regency’ 190–191. 42. See Ellen Moers, The Dandy, Brummell to Beerbohm (London: Secker & Warburg, 1960); Laura George, ‘The Emergence of the Dandy’, Literature Compass 1 (November 2004): Romanticism section, Blackwell Publishing, 10.1111/j.1741-4113.2004.00125.x, accessed 3 July 2008; James Eli Adams, Dandies and Desert Saints: Styles of Victorian Masculinity (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1995); and Cole, ‘The Aristocrat in the Mirror’. 43. Catherine Gore, Cecil; or, The Adventures of a Coxcomb, Andrea Hibbard and Edward Copeland (eds) Silver Fork Novels 1826 – 41 (1841; London: Pickering & Chatto, 2005) I. 7. Subsequently cited in text. 44. Hughes, ‘Elegies for the Regency’ 203. 45. Andrea Hibbard and Edward Copeland, ‘Introduction’, in Catherine Gore Cecil; or, The Adventures of a Coxcomb xxii. 46. Andrew Elfenbein, ‘Silver-Fork Byron and the Image of Regency England’, Byromania: Portraits of the Artist in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Culture, intro. Frances Wilson (ed.) (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999) 77–92. 47. See Hibbard and Copeland, Cecil, notes, 402 (I. 308n), 414 (III. 40n), 431 (II. 250n).

3 Silly Novels and Lady Novelists: Inside the Literary Marketplace

1. See esp. Gaye Tuchman with Nina E. Fortin, Edging Women Out – Victorian Novelists, Publishers, and Social Change (London: Routledge, 1989); Richard Altick, The English Common Reader: A Social History of the Mass Reading Public (Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1957); Laurel Brake, Bill Bell and David Finkelstein (eds) Nineteenth-Century Media and the Construction of Identities (London: Palgrave, 2000), and Mary Poovey, Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England (London: Virago, 1989), chapter four, ‘David Copperfield and the Professional Writer’, in Uneven Developments 89–125. 2. The central argument of Tuchman, Edging Women Out, is that the post-1840 literary scene saw the development of a hierarchy of genres through definitions of high culture, formulated by an ‘invading’ male elite (and internal- ized by female reviewers), that devalued much women’s fiction as ‘low’ culture. See also Poovey, Uneven Developments and Susan Sniader Lanser, Fictions of Authority: Women Writers and Narrative Voice (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1992). 3. Tuchman, Edging Women Out 108. Notes 193

4. Mermin, Godiva’s Ride 95. 5. Tuchman, Edging Women Out 118. 6. Adburgham, Silver Fork 1. 7. Leonore Davidoff, Best Circles 31. 8. Caroline Norton, Stuart of Dunleath: A Story of Modern Life, 3 vols (London: Colburn & Co., 1851) II. 243–244. 9. Mandler, Aristocratic Government 82. 10. Helen Small, ‘The Debt to Society: Dickens, Fielding and the Genealogy of Independence’, O’Gorman and Turner, The Victorians and the Eighteenth Century 35 and Nigel Cross, The Common Writer (Cambridge: CUP, 1985) 35. The Guild of Literature and Art sought to persuade authors and painters to combine in a mutual benefit society for care of indigent members. 11. Jane Margaret Strickland, The Life of Agnes Strickland (Edinburgh and London: Blackwood, 1887) 17. 12. Adburgham, Silver Fork 25. 13. Sadleir, Blessington 198. 14. Sadleir, Blessington 216. 15. Margaret Linley, ‘A Centre That Would Not Hold: Annuals and Cultural Democracy’, in Laurel Brake, Bill Bell and David Finkelstein (eds) Nineteenth- Century Media and the Construction of Identities, (London: Palgrave, 2000) 54. 16. Tuchman, Edging Women Out 111. 17. Sadleir, Blessington 198. 18. Adburgham, Silver Fork 255. 19. Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy 27. 20. Linley, ‘A Centre That Would Not Hold’ 55. 21. Review of the Keepsake, ed. F.M. Reynolds, Athenæum (16 November 1833): 762. 22. William Maginn, ‘Fraserian Festival’, Fraser’s Magazine 13 (January 1836): 6–7. 23. ‘The Annuals of Former Days’, Bookseller (29 November 1858): 498. 24. Margaret Beetham, A Magazine of Her Own?: Domesticity and Desire in the Woman’s Magazine 1800–1914 (London and New York: Routledge, 1996) 43. 25. Sadleir, Blessington 199; Adburgham, Silver Fork 255. 26. ‘The Annuals of Former Days’ 498. Charles Heath was a noted engraver who was the main promoter of many of the Annuals. 27. Beetham, A Magazine of Her Own? 38. 28. See especially Maginn’s ‘Fraserian Festival’ 1–79, followed by the drooling over ‘Regina’s Maids of Honour’ 80–81. It is difficult to imagine the prestigious Macmillan’s Magazine running a celebration of its bevy of ‘Macmillerians’. 29. Beetham, A Magazine of Her Own? 43. 30. Mandler, ‘From Almack’s to Willis’s’ 162. 31. Poovey, Uneven Developments 103. 32. Mandler, ‘From Almack’s to Willis’s’ 162. 33. Abraham Hayward, ‘Codes of Manners and Etiquette’, Quarterly Review 59 (October 1837): 395–439. 34. Kate Flint, ‘The Victorian Novel and Its Readers’, in Deirdre David (ed.) Cambridge Companion to the Victorian Novel, (Cambridge: CUP, 2001) 20. 35. George Eliot, ‘Silly Novels by Lady Novelists’, Westminster Review (October 1856): 442–461, reprinted A.S. Byatt and Nicholas Warren (ed.) Selected Essays, Poems and Other Writings (London: Penguin, 1990) 142. 194 Notes

36. Eliot, ‘Silly Novels’ 142. 37. Deirdre David does note this, but in her reading, the essay’s focus on ‘aristocratic women who wrote long ago, very little, and very airily at that’ sig- nals lack of relevance to the mid-century literary marketplace. Deirdre David, Intellectual Women and Victorian Patriarchy (London: Macmillan, 1987) 187. 38. Sarah Eisenstein, Give Us Bread But Give Us Roses: Working Women’s Consciousness in the United States, 1890 to the First World War (London: Routledge, 1983) esp. 57–59. (These comments relate to early Victorian England.) 39. Eliot, ‘Silly Novels’ 162. 40. Eliot, ‘Silly Novels’ 162. 41. Morgan, Manners 64. 42. Peter Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England: Rational recreation and the contest for control, 1830–1885 (London and New York: Methuen, 1978), passim, see esp. 75–78. 43. Stefan Collini, ‘The Idea of “Character” in Victorian Political Thought’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 35 (1985): 39–40. 44. Small, ‘The Debt to Society’ 15. 45. Helsinger et al., The Woman Question II. 112. 46. Showalter, A Literature of Their Own 54–57. 47. Tuchman, Edging Women Out 28. 48. W.R. Greg, ‘False Morality of Lady Novelists’, National Review 8 (January 1859), repr. Andrew King and John Plunkett (eds) Victorian Print Media: A Reader (Oxford: OUP, 2005) 53. Greg grappled with the issue of ‘surplus’ women in his well-known article ‘Why are Women Redundant?’, National Review 14 (April 1862): 434–460. 49. Greg, ‘False Morality’ 50. 50. Kate Flint, The Woman Reader (Oxford: OUP, 1993). 51. William Cooke Taylor, review of Trevelyan, by Lady Scott, Athenæum (2 November 1833): 735. 52. Review of The Two Friends: A Novel, by the Countess of Blessington, New Monthly Magazine 43 (1835): 377. 53. ‘Mr Bulwer and the Lady Novelists’, British and Foreign Review V (1836) 502. 54. Review of The Wife; and Woman’s Reward, by the Hon. Mrs Norton, New Monthly Magazine 44 (1835): 233. 55. Review of Lost and Saved, by the Hon. Mrs Norton, Illustrated London News (30 May 1863): 590. 56. Quoted Dessain et al. Letters XXI. 381. 57. Georgiana Chatterton, Compensation: A Story of Real Life Thirty Years Ago, 2 vols (London: Parker, 1856) I. 262, 267. 58. Eliot, ‘Silly Novels’ 145. 59. Georgiana Chatterton, Grey’s Court, 2 vols (London: Smith & Elder, 1865) I. 218. 60. Eliot, ‘Silly Novels’ 157. 61. Robert Lee Wolff, Gains and Losses: Novels of Faith and Doubt in Victorian England (London: John Murray, 1977) 213. 62. Lady Catharine Long, Sir Roland Ashton: A Tale of the Times, 2 vols (London: J. Nisbet, 1844). Notes 195

63. Review of Sir Roland Ashton, by Lady Catharine Long, Athenæum (24 August 1844): 771. 64. Flint, The Woman Reader 263–264. 65. The classic work on Mudie’s literary standards and control over publishers is Guinevere L. Griest, Mudie’s Circulating Library and the Victorian Novel (London: Bloomington, 1970). See also John Sutherland, Victorian Novelists and Publishers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976) 24–30. 66. Simon Eliot, ‘The Business of Victorian Publishing’, in David, Cambridge Companion 40. 67. Adburgham, Silver Fork 271. 68. Showalter, A Literature of Their Own, esp. 40–44, and Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth Century Literary Imagination (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1979) esp. 546–547. 69. Mermin, Godiva’s Ride 53. See also Gilbert and Gubar, Madwoman in the Attic 546. 70. Davidoff, Best Circles 97. 71. Eliot, ‘Silly Novels’ 161. 72. Review of Ellen Middleton, by Lady Georgiana Fullerton, The Times (29 May 1844): 3. 73. Review of Ellen Middleton, by Lady Georgiana Fullerton, Athenæum 80 (July 1844): 199. 74. Review of Ellen Middleton, Athenæum 203. 75. Review of Ellen Middleton, by Lady Georgiana Fullerton, Christian Remembrancer 8 (July 1844) 86. 76. Mermin, Godiva’s Ride 95. 77. Lady Theresa Lewis, ‘Preface to the First Edition’, Extracts from the Journals and Correspondence of Miss Berry (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1866) ix–x. 78. Jane Strickland, Life 26–8. 79. Lady Charlotte Guest, Extracts from her Journal 1833–1852, ed. Earl of Bessborough (London: John Murray, 1950). See, for example, 133 (20 May 1842). 80. Pat Jalland, Women, Marriage and Politics 1860–1914 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986) 3. 81. William Hepworth Dixon, review of The Works of Lord Macaulay, Complete, ed. Lady Trevelyan, Athenæum 43 (24 February 1866): 261. 82. Jane Strickland, Life 150. 83. Antonella Braida, ‘Wallace, Grace Jane, Lady Wallace (1804–1878)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: OUP, 2004) http://www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/28532, accessed 1 July 2008. 84. Henry Fothergill Chorley, review of Beethoven’s Letters, trans. Lady Wallace, Athenæum 43 (12 May 1866): 630. 85. H.H. Statham, review of The Life of Mozart, by Karl Nohl, trans. Lady Wallace, Edinburgh Review 150 (October 1879): 358. 86. Anthony Trollope, The Way of the World, ed. Frank Kermode (1875; London: Penguin, 1994) 7–15, 753–760. 87. George Eliot, ‘Lord Brougham’s Literature’, Leader (7 July 1855), reprinted Byatt and Warren 302–303. 196 Notes

88. Mermin, Godiva’s Ride 50. 89. Adburgham, Silver Fork 70. 90. John Sutherland, The Stanford Companion to Victorian Fiction (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989) 212 (and see 452 for Murray). 91. Tuchman, Edging Women Out 126. 92. Valerie Sanders, ‘Women, Fiction and the Marketplace’, in Joanne Shattock (ed.) Women and Literature in Britain, 1800–1900, (Cambridge: CUP, 2001) 158–159. 93. Bailey, Leisure and Class 87. 94. Hugh Cunningham, Leisure in the Industrial Revolution c1780–c1880 (London: Croom Helm, 1980) 137. 95. Bailey, Leisure and Class 78. 96. Poovey, Uneven Developments 101. See also Nicola Diane Thompson, Reviewing Sex: Gender and the Reception of Victorian Novels (London: Macmillan, 1996) and Sally Mitchell, The Fallen Angel: Chastity, Class and Women’s Reading 1835– 1880 (Bowling Green: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1981) 7–18. 97. Elaine Hadley, Melodramatic Tactics – Theatricalised Dissent in the English Marketplace, 1800–1885 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995). ‘ “Real” property is by definition the land of the family that cannot be circulated for profit, while “commercial” property is that which can be alienated for profit’ (259n). 98. Arendt, The Human Condition 69. 99. Joan Perkin, Women and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century England (London: Routledge, 1989) 50. 100. For discussions of equity and married women, see Lee Holcombe, Wives and Property: Reform of the Married Women’s Property Law in Nineteenth- Century England (Oxford: Martin Robertson & Co., 1983) 37–47 and Poovey, Uneven Developments 71–72. 101. Poovey, Uneven Developments 105 and chapter four passim. 102. Catherine Seville, Literary Copyright Reform in Early Victorian England (Cambridge: CUP, 1999). See also Simon Eliot, Some Patterns and Trends in British Publishing 1800–1919 (London: Bibliographical Society, 1994). 103. Stone, An Open Elite? 89.

Part II Writing the Nation State

1. Benhabib, ‘The Personal is not the Political’ V, and see Riley, Words of Selves, esp. 5–7. 2. Helen Rogers, ‘ “What right have women to interfere with politics?”: The Address of the Female Political Union of Birmingham to the Women of England (1838)’, in T.G. Ashplant and Gerry Smyth (eds) Explorations in Cultural History (London: Pluto, 2001) 72. 3. Mouffe, On the Political 9, and see Chantal Mouffe (ed.) The Challenge of Carl Schmitt (London and New York: Verso, 1999). 4. I will use ‘Bulwer Lytton’ for both husband and wife throughout the next two chapters since I am discussing their long-term relations, even though Edward Bulwer inherited the surname only in 1844 (upon which his estranged wife also adopted it, to his great annoyance). Notes 197

5. Quoted in Mabell, Countess of Airlie, Lady Palmerston and Her Times (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1922) 138.

4 Wrongs Make Rebels: Polemical Voices

1. Virginia Blain, ‘Rosina Bulwer Lytton and the Rage of the Unheard’, Huntington Library Quarterly 53 (1990): 213. The ‘major myth’ rests on Robert Lytton, The Life, Letters and Literary Remains of Edward Bulwer, Lord Lytton, 2 vols (London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Co, 1883) and Victor Lytton, The Life of Edward Bulwer, First Lord Lytton, 2 vols (London: Macmillan, 1913), being in effect endorsed by Michael Sadleir, Bulwer: A Panorama – Edward and Rosina 1803–1836 (London: Constable & Co Ltd, 1931). For the ‘minor myth’ see Louisa Devey, Life of Rosina, Lady Lytton (London: Sonnenschein, 1887) and S.M. Ellis, ‘Introduction’, in Unpublished Letters of Lady Bulwer Lytton to A.E. Chalon (London: Eveleigh Nash, 1914) 9–26. 2. Blain, ‘Rosina Bulwer Lytton and the Rage of the Unheard’ 213. 3. Marie Mulvey-Roberts, ‘Introduction’, in Rosina Bulwer Lytton Shells from the Sands of Time (1876; Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1995) viii, xx. 4. Rosina Bulwer Lytton, Lady Bulwer Lytton’s Appeal to the Justice and Charity of the English Public (London, 1857) 34–35. 5. Leslie Mitchell, Bulwer Lytton: The Rise and Fall of a Victorian Man of Letters (London and New York: Hambleton & London, 2003) 38. 6. Devey, Life 80. 7. Devey, Life 372. 8. Marie Mulvey-Roberts, ‘Introduction’, in Rosina Bulwer Lytton A Blighted Life: A True Story (1880; Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1994) xxxi–xxxii. 9. Devey, Life 372. 10. Quoted Devey, Life 378. 11. Carolyn Heilbrun, Writing a Woman’s Life (New York and London: Norton, 1988) 25. 12. Rosina Bulwer Lytton, A Blighted Life 4. Subsequently cited in text. 13. Devey, Life 423–428. 14. Nussbaum, The Autobiographical Subject 137. 15. Peterson, Traditions 29. For a discussion of the unease that theatricality and role-playing have traditionally generated in Western thought, see Jonas Barish, The Anti-Theatrical Prejudice (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1981). 16. Quoted in Graham Storey, Kathleen Tillotson and Nina Burgis (eds) The Letters of Charles Dickens (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998) VI: 380 2n. 17. See Nina Auerbach, Woman and the Demon: The Life of a Victorian Myth (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), and Barish, The Anti- Theatrical Prejudice. 18. Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man (London: Faber & Faber, 1986) 146. 19. For an influential assessment of the cultural conditioning of feminine behaviour, sexuality and madness, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830–1980 (London: Virago, 1987). 20. Showalter, Female Malady 29. See also Mulvey-Roberts, Blighted xxviii. 21. Blain, ‘Rosina Bulwer Lytton and the Rage of the Unheard’ 218. 198 Notes

22. Helen Small, Love’s Madness: Medicine, the Novel, and Female Insanity (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) 139. 23. RBL to Dr Price (15 October 1860), quoted Devey, Life 366. 24. The classic discussion of this literary issue is Gilbert and Gubar, Madwoman in the Attic. 25. Showalter, Female Malady 5. 26. Poovey, Uneven Developments. See esp. chapter two, ‘Scenes of an Indelicate Character: The Medical Treatment of Victorian Women’ 24–50. 27. Rosina Bulwer Lytton, Very Successful! (1856; London: Charles H. Clarke, 1859) 250. 28. Toni Bowers, The Politics of Motherhood: British Writing and Culture 1680–1760 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). 29. Bowers, Politics of Motherhood 226. 30. Bowers, Politics of Motherhood 227–228. 31. Hall, White, Male and Middle Class 167. 32. See Judith Schneid Lewis, In the Family Way: Childbearing in the British Aristocracy 1760–1860 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1986). 33. Gerard, Country House Life 65–89, esp. 67 on expectations of motherhood. 34. This inherited version of events is implicit in Victor Lytton, Life II. 102. 35. For Rosina Bulwer Lytton’s account of her daughter’s death, see Lady Bulwer Lytton’s Appeal 37–39. See also Devey, Life, chapter XVII ‘Illness and Death of Emily Bulwer Lytton’ 238–253. 36. RBL, Lady Bulwer Lytton’s Appeal 21. 37. RBL, Lady Bulwer Lytton’s Appeal 38. 38. Leslie Mitchell, Bulwer Lytton 76. 39. Victor Lytton offers an equitable critique of his grandfather in this respect. Victor Lytton, Life II. 99–101. 40. RBL, Lady Bulwer Lytton’s Appeal 38. 41. Devey, Life 247 and see Blain, ‘Rosina Bulwer Lytton and the Rage of the Unheard’ 217. 42. Sadleir, Bulwer 151, 139. 43. Mulvey-Roberts, Blighted ix–xiii. 44. The Doyle name in Tipperary was ‘synonymous with a tradition of military achievements where women were mentioned only as wives or mothers’. Dolores Dooley, ‘Anna Doyle Wheeler’, in Mary Cullen and Maria Luddy (ed.) Women, Power and Consciousness in Nineteenth Century Ireland (Dublin: Attic Press, 1995) 19. 45. For various accounts of the committal (for once varying more in perspective than in factual detail), see Blighted 29–50; Devey, Life, chapters XX–XXII; and Victor Lytton, Life 266–275. 46. See R.H. Super, Walter Savage Landon: A Biography. New York: New York University, 1954. 47. Daily Telegraph (15 July 1858), reprinted in ‘Supplemental Notes’, Blighted 91–92. 48. ’Our readers only have to bear in mind that at this time Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton was a Cabinet Minister, with all the immense resources of that post; that he was backed up by the Queen, by Lord Derby, and Mr Disraeli’ Daily Telegraph (15 July 1858) repr. Blighted 97. Notes 199

49. Marilyn J. Kurata, ‘Wrongful Confinement: The Betrayal of Women by Men, Medicine and the Law’, in Kristine Ottesen Garrigan (ed.) Victorian Scandals: Representations of Gender and Class, (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1992) 45–46. 50. Kurata, ‘Wrongful Confinement’ 46. 51. Kurata, ‘Wrongful Confinement’ 52–59. 52. Quoted Devey, Life 362. 53. Peter Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination: Balzac, Henry James, Melodrama and the Mode of Excess (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976) 1–64. 54. See Lynn Stiefel Hill, Heroes, Heroines and Villains in English and American Melodrama, 1850–1990 (Ann Arbor: UMI, 1997) 77–164 and 165–244 on heroines and villains respectively. 55. Michael Booth, English Melodrama (London: Herman Jenkins, 1965) 30. 56. Winifred Hughes, The Maniac in the Cellar (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980) 12. 57. See Devey, Life 296–308. 58. Joyce, Democratic Subjects 192–204; Vernon, Politics and the People esp. 80–92, 331. 59. Hadley, Melodramatic Tactics passim. 60. Judith R. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late- Victorian London (London: Virago, 1992) 87, and see Anna Clark, ‘The Politics of Seduction in English Popular Culture, 1748–1848’, in Jean Radford (ed.) The Progress of Romance, (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986) 46–70. 61. Mary Poovey, Uneven Developments 88. 62. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight 93. 63. For Norton, see Poovey, ‘Covered But Not Bound: Caroline Norton and the 1857 Matrimonial Causes Act’, in Uneven Developments 51–88; for Butler’s self-representation as mother-protector, see Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight 92. 64. John Sutherland, Victorian Fiction: Writers, Publishers, Readers (London: Macmillan, 1995) 80. 65. Marie Mulvey-Roberts, ‘Introduction’, Cheveley, in Rosina Bulwer Lytton, Silver Fork Novels 1826–41 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2005) xxiii. 66. Small, Love’s Madness 139. 67. Sir Walter Scott, The Bride of Lammermoor (1819; London: J.M. Dent, 1964) 323. 68. Blessington, letter to Edward Bulwer [Lytton], April/ May 1836, quoted Victor Lytton, Life II. 3. Blessington may mean ‘virtues’, not ‘victims’. 69. Blessington, Conversations 86. 70. Lady Blessington, Grace Cassidy; or, The Repealers, 3 vols (London, Bentley, 1833) I. 230. 71. Blessington, letter to EBL. 72. Sadleir, Bulwer 149–150. 73. RBL, Miriam Sedley II. 269. 74. Ania Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism (London and New York: Routledge, 1998) 136. 75. The Times (6 July 1858): 9. 76. The Times (9 June 1858): 10. 200 Notes

77. The Times (9 June 1858): 10. 78. The Times (9 June 1858): 10. 79. Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy 198. 80. For an anecdotal but vivid depiction of this interconnectedness, see Alethea Hayter, A Sultry Month: Scenes of London Literary Life in 1846 (1965; London: Robin Clark Ltd, 1992). 81. Barbara Taylor, Eve and the New Jerusalem: Socialism and Feminism in the Nineteenth Century (London: Virago, 1983) 20. 82. Poovey, Uneven Developments 62. This is a description of the young Caroline Sheridan, who marries ‘a Tory aristocratic younger son’. Nevertheless, in effect she discusses Norton as a middle-class woman. 83. Poovey, Uneven Developments 67–68, 88. 84. Jane Perkins, The Life of the Honourable Mrs Norton (New York: Henry Holt & Co, 1909) 116. For an astute consideration of the motivating forces behind the criminal conversation action, see Acland, Caroline Norton 78–96. 85. Hartley Coleridge, ‘Modern English Poetesses’, Quarterly Review 66 (September 1840): 376. 86. Helsinger et al., The Woman Question III. 27–28. See [William Maginn], ‘Gallery of Industrious Literary Characters. No.X. Mrs Norton’, Fraser’s Magazine 3 (1831): 222. 87. Caroline Norton, A Letter to the Queen on Lord Chancellor Cransworth’s Marriage and Divorce Bill (London: Longman, 1855) 61. Subsequently cited in text as LQ. 88. Poovey, Uneven Developments 227 (52n). For a critique of Habermas’s model, see Nancy Fraser, ‘Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy’, Calhoun, Habermas 131. 89. Helsinger et al., The Woman Question III. 26–47. 90. Margaret Forster, Significant Sisters: The Grassroots of Active Feminism (London: Sisterwrite, 1986) 35. 91. Poovey, Uneven Developments 83. 92. Hadley, Melodramatic Tactics 133. 93. Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy 38. 94. Barbara Leckie, Culture and Adultery: The Novel, the Newspaper, and the Law, 1857–1914 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) 127. Leckie’s focus is post-1857, but her analysis of dynamics of investigation, proof and uncertainty is also relevant to the earlier criminal conversation actions. 95. Yopie Prins, Victorian Sappho (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999) 223–224. 96. See Hayter, A Sultry Month 176–178. 97. Poovey, Uneven Developments 221 (14n). 98. See Acland, Caroline Norton 59–60. 99. Norton, letter to Mary Shelley, quoted Perkins, Life 142. 100. Caroline Norton, Letters to Edward Bulwer, 2 March 1838 and n.d., D/EK C24/99/3–9, [Knebworth Estate Archive], Hertfordshire Archives. 101. Perkins, Life 145. Charles Pelham Villiers was the brother of Lady Theresa Lewis and of the Earl of Clarendon. 102. Perkins, Life 146 –147; Alan Chedzoy, A Scandalous Woman: The Story of Caroline Norton (London: Allison & Busby, 1992) 177. Notes 201

103. British and Foreign Review; or, European Quarterly Journal 7 (July–October 1838): 376. The authorship of this article is uncertain, but the editor, John Mitchell Kemble, probably wrote it, and he would anyway have had ultimate responsibility for the tone. See John Kilham, ‘John Mitchell Kemble, Caroline Norton and the Idea of a University’, Tennyson and the Princess: Reflections of an Age (London: Athlone Press, 1958) 142–169. This would have stung even more given Norton’s friendship with Kemble’s sister Fanny. 104. Caroline Norton, A Plain Letter to the Lord Chancellor on the Infant Custody Bill, by Pearce Stevenson, Esq. (London: Ridgeway, 1839), printed for distribution among the members of Parliament, 121. Subsequently cited in text as PL. 105. Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy 34–35. 106. J.W. Burrow, A Liberal Descent: Victorian Historians and the English Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981) 23. 107. Herbert Butterfield, The Whig Interpretation of History (London: Bell, 1931). 108. Ian Newbould, Whiggery and Reform, 1830–1841: The Politics of Government (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990) 3. 109. Mandler, Aristocratic Government 35. 110. Deirdre David, Rule Britannia: Women, Writing and Empire (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1995) 17. 111. Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor (1861–1862; New York: Dover, 1968) 4 vols; Alfred Tennyson, ‘Geraint and Enid’, in J.M. Gray (ed.) Idylls of the King (1859–1885; London: Penguin, 1996) II. 940–942. 112. British and Foreign Review 276–277. 113. Caroline Norton, The Separation of Mother and Child by the Law of ‘Custody of Infants’ Considered (London: Roake and Varty, 1838) 12. 114. Norton, Separation 13. 115. Elizabeth Rose Gruner, ‘Plotting the Mother: Caroline Norton, Helen Huntingdon, and Isabel Vane’, Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 16.2 (Fall 1997): 304, 307. 116. Gruner, ‘Plotting the Mother’ 307. 117. See David, Rule Britannia 28. 118. See Anna Davin, ‘Imperialism and Motherhood’, History Workshop 5 (Spring 1978): 9–65. 119. William Thompson [and Anna Wheeler], The Appeal of One Half the Human Race, intro. Michael Foot and Marie Mulvey-Roberts (1825; Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1994) 56. 120. This image of the desolate upper-class mother is a good example of Norton’s skill in universalizing her own maternal sufferings: she herself was certainly not exempt from (literary) toil and had a definite occupation other than her children’s education. 121. Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy 45. 122. Caroline Norton, A Child of the Islands (London: Chapman & Hall, 1845) LXVI 2–4. 123. Caroline Norton, Letters to the Mob, by Libertas (London: Thomas Bosworth, 1848), reprinted from the Morning Chronicle, 1848. 124. Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy 36. For a discussion of the con- structions of ‘proof’ in such trials along levels of class reliability, see Leckie, Culture and Adultery 89. 125. Norton, Letters to the Mob 5, 15. 202 Notes

126. Norton, Letters to the Mob 7. 127. Norton, Letters to the Mob 7–8. 128. Kieran Dolin, ‘The Transfigurations of Caroline Norton’, Victorian Literature and Culture 30 (2002): 521. 129. Chedzoy, A Scandalous Woman 211–219. 130. Chedzoy, A Scandalous Woman 238–239. See, for example, The Times 19–24 August 1853; 8–10 September 1853. 131. See esp. Sarah Stickney Ellis, The Women of England, Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits (London, 1839). 132. Taylor, Eve and the New Jerusalem 276. 133. See Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy, chapter three 65–85 and Helsinger et al., The Woman Question: Volume I – Defining Voices (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) 3–20. 134. Norton, English Laws 141. 135. [J. Waddington], Remarks on the Law of Marriage and Divorce – Suggested by the Hon. Mrs Norton’s Letter to the Queen (London: James Ridgeway, 1856) 3, 12. 136. Chetzoy, A Scandalous Woman 171. 137. Harriet Martineau, Autobiography, 2 vols (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1877) I. 400–401. 138. Acland, Caroline Norton 128. 139. See Holcombe, Wives and Property 73–74. 140. J.W. Kaye, review of Letter to the Queen, by the Hon. Mrs Norton, North British Review 23 (May–August 1855): 536–562, 536. 141. George Eliot, ‘To John Blackwood’, 29 October 1871, in Gordon S. Haight (ed.) George Eliot Letters 7 vols (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1954– 1955) 208. 142. George Eliot, ‘Life and Opinions of Milton’, Leader 6 (4 August 1855) 750, reprinted in Thomas Pinney (ed.) Essays of George Eliot (London: RKP, 1963) 154–157, 156. 143. Eliza Lynn, ‘One of Our Legal Fictions’, Household Words 9 (1854): 257–260. 144. Lynn, ‘One of Our Legal Fictions’ 260. 145. Lynn, ‘One of Our Legal Fictions’ 260. 146. See Helsinger et al., The Woman Question: Volume II – Social Issues (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) 142–144, and Poovey, Uneven Developments chapter six. 147. Norton, Letters to the Mob 8. 148. Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy 36. 149. Poovey, Uneven Developments 73–74. 150. See Pearce, Reform! 87–88. 151. Dorothy M. Stetson, A Woman’s Issue: The Politics of Family Law Reform in England (London and Westport: Greenwood Press, 1982) 32. 152. Holcombe, Wives and Property 85. 153. Holcombe, Wives and Property 70. 154. Chedzoy, A Scandalous Woman 245. 155. See Holcombe, Wives and Property chapters eight and nine. 156. For a discussion of the rhetorical basis of the campaign, see Hadley, Melodramatic Tactics chapter five. Notes 203

5 The Spectacle of Fiction: Self, Society and the Novel

1. Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy 12. 2. Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes 22, and see Michael Curtin, Prosperity and Position: A Study of Victorian Manners (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1987) 29. 3. A. James Hammerton, Cruelty and Companionship: Conflict in Nineteenth- Century Married Life (London and New York: Routledge, 1992) 6–7. See also Curtin, Prosperity and Position 89. 4. Mulvey-Roberts, introduction, Cheveley xxvi. 5. For an account of Cheveley’s success, see Devey, Life 151–157. The number of reviews and anecdotal evidence of a wide readership support Devey’s claims. 6. Lady Cheveley; or, The Woman of Honour (London: Churton, 1839). The authorship remains uncertain: there are grounds for assuming that it was Edward Bulwer Lytton himself. See Devey, Life 151 and Mulvey-Roberts, Blighted xxiii. However, S.M. Ellis’s suggested attribution to his brother Henry Bulwer also fits the case (Unpublished Letters 87). 7. [Sydney Morgan], review of Cheveley, by Lady Lytton Bulwer, Athenæum (30 March 1839): 235. 8. Review of Cheveley, by Lady Lytton Bulwer, Fraser’s Magazine 19 (May 1839): 626, 628. 9. Review of Cheveley, Fraser’s 618, 629. For Fraser’s feud with Edward Bulwer Lytton, and especially the roles of Thackeray and William Maginn, see Sadleir, Bulwer 242–266. 10. Review of Cheveley, by Lady Lytton Bulwer, Monthly Review 157 (May 1839): 15. 11. Elizabeth Barrett (16 May 1839), letter 50 of The Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning to Mary Russell Mitford, 1836–1854, intro. Meredith B. Raymond and Mary Rose Sullivan (eds), vol.1 ([Waco, Tex.]: Armstrong Browning Library of Baylor University, 1983) 50. 12. Jane Welsh Carlyle, letter 177 of Letters and Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle, prepared for publication by Thomas Carlyle; edited by James Anthony Froude (London: Longman, Green, 1883). 13. From Edward Bulwer to John Forster, 6 April 1839, in the Michael Sadleir Papers#11033, General Manuscripts, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, subseries 4.3 folder 395. 14. Ibid. The correspondence between Bulwer and Forster (Cheveley’s ‘Fuzboz’) in this series over the next few months suggests that Forster flung himself all too enthusiastically into monitoring Rosina Bulwer Lytton’s activities and offering his services to suppress her works. 15. The novels before her husband’s 1844 inheritance are by ‘Lady Lytton Bulwer’, but the significance of the name remains the same. 16. Review of Cheveley, Monthly Review 15. 17. See esp. review of Cheveley, Monthly Review 16. 18. Rosina Bulwer Lytton, The Budget of the Bubble Family, 3 vols (London: Edward Bull, 1840) I. 67. The phrase itself is from Lady Cheveley 29. 19. Helsinger et al., The Woman Question III. 16–25. 204 Notes

20. Madeleine House and Graham Storey (eds) The Letters of Charles Dickens (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965): I 579 n. 3. See also Mulvey-Roberts, ‘Introduction’, Cheveley, x–xi. 21. Rosina Bulwer Lytton (25 March 1854) Unpublished Letters of Lady Bulwer Lytton 80. 22. Rosina Bulwer Lytton, Unpublished Letters 81. 23. Rosina Bulwer Lytton, ‘Preface’, The Prince-Duke and the Page (London: Boone, 1841) ii. 24. Rosina Bulwer Lytton, preface, Budget I. ix. 25. Rosina Bulwer Lytton, Memoirs of a Muscovite, 3 vols (London: Newby, 1844) I. 165. 26. See, for example, Margaret Oliphant, The Autobiography of Margaret Oliphant, intro. Elizabeth Jay (ed.) (Oxford: OUP, 1990) 16. 27. Rosina Bulwer Lytton, Miriam Sedley; or The Tares and the Wheat. A Tale of Real Life, 3 vols (London: W. Shoberl, 1851) II. 223; RBL, Very Successful! 49. 28. RBL, Budget I. v–vii. See Pamela Neville-Sington, Fanny Trollope: The Life and Adventures of a Clever Woman (London: Viking Penguin, 1997) 282–285. 29. RBL, Blighted 17–21, 63–65. 30. RBL, Very Successful! 139. 31. RBL, Very Successful! 391. 32. Rosina Bulwer Lytton, The World and his Wife; or, A Person of Consequence: A Photographic Novel, 3 vols (London: Skeet, 1858) III. 324, 318. 33. Morgan, review of Cheveley 235. 34. Rosina Bulwer Lytton, Cheveley; or, The Man of Honour (Paris: Baudry’s European Library, 1839) 65 (First published London: Bull, 1839) 123–126. Subsequently cited in text. 35. RBL, Miriam Sedley I. 50. 36. See Sadleir, Bulwer 72, 79. 37. See Andrew Sanders, The Victorian Historical Novel, 1840–1880 (London: Macmillan, 1978) 47–67. 38. See, for example, RBL, Very Successful! 190–208, and RBL, Cheveley 209–218. 39. RBL, ‘Preface’, Very Successful! v. 40. Cronin, Romantic Victorians 36. 41. See Thomas Moore, Letters and Journals of Lord Byron: with Notices of His Life (London, 1830); Harriet Beecher Stowe, Lady Byron Vindicated: A History of the Byron Controversy (London, 1870); and Malcolm Elwin, Lord Byron’s Wife (London: Macdonald, 1962). 42. For a discussion of this identification in the context of Edward Bulwer Lytton’s own work and homosocial relationships, see Andrew Elfenbein, Byron and the Victorians (Cambridge: CUP, 1995), chapter six 206–246. 43. For the influence of accounts of the Byron separation on Brontë, see F.B. Pinion, A Brontë Companion: Literary Assessment, Background and Reference (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1975) 245. 44. Small, Love’s Madness 153. 45. Devey, Life 80. 46. Sadleir, Bulwer 83. 47. See esp. Devey, Life 29–30. 48. RBL, Miriam Sedley 260; see Lady Cheveley 47 and preface xiii-iv. Notes 205

49. See Mulvey-Roberts, Blighted xxi. 50. Devey, Life 30. 51. Homi Bhabha, ‘Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse’, (28 October, Spring 1984): 125–133. 52. Norton, English Laws 125. 53. The Times (3–10 November 1852). 54. Norton, letters to Edward Bulwer Lytton, D/EK C24/99/16–20, Hertfordshire. 55. Ibid. 19, CN’s emphasis. 56. Hadley, Melodramatic Tactics 142. 57. Norton, English Laws 82, 86. 58. Norton, English Laws 84; Caroline Norton, ‘Books of Gossip: Sheridan and his Biographers’, Macmillan’s Magazine, 3 (January 1861): 176. 59. The items of the 1857 Act which Norton most influenced were Clauses 21, protecting a deserted wife’s earnings; 24, allowing the Court to direct pay- ment of separate maintenance; 25, enabling a wife to inherit and bequeath property; 26, giving a separated wife the power of contract, suing, and being sued, in any civil proceeding. See Acland, Caroline Norton 206. For the unease generated by provisions relating to wives’ financial control, see Poovey, Uneven Developments, chapter three, esp. 74. 60. Norton, English Laws 83. 61. Norton, English Laws 25. 62. See Benhabib, ‘Models of Public Space’ 86. 63. Mary Lyndon Shanley, Feminism, Marriage, and the Law in Victorian England, 1850–1895 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989) 33. 64. Caroline Norton, Lost and Saved, 3 vols (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1863) III. 33–34. 65. Helsinger et al. Social Issues 112–113, 135–140. 66. Collini, Public Moralists 106. 67. Collini, Public Moralists 106. 68. Morgan, Manners 56. 69. The Times (25 October 1871): 6. 70. CN, letter to Alexander Macmillan (2 November 1871), Add MS 54964, Macmillan Archives, British Library, 26 (author’s emphasis). For Norton’s difficulties with her various publishers, see Acland, Caroline Norton 220. 71. Norton, Macmillan Archives, 1871, 28–40. 72. Caroline Norton, Review of Adam Bede and Scenes of Clerical Life by George Eliot, Edinburgh Review 110 (July 1859): 245. 73. See Mermin, Godiva’s Ride 50; Catherine Judd, ‘Male Pseudonyms and Female Authority in Victorian England’, in John Jordan and Robert Patten (eds) Literature in the Marketplace: Nineteenth-Century Reading and Publishing Practices (Cambridge: CUP, 1995) 255; and Alexander Welsh, George Eliot and Blackmail (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985) 123. 74. Norton, Review of Adam Bede 243–244, 246. 75. Norton, Macmillan Archives (April 1866) 12. Norton’s first real publication, The Sorrows of Rosalie, was anonymous, but its ‘Dedication’ made her identity quite clear to her social circle (Adburgham, Silver Fork 195); the rapid identification in The Times review of 26 December 1828 indicates how this knowledge would spread. I discussed the anonymity and pseudonymity of 206 Notes

her first two pamphlets, and the little real attempt at concealment, in the previous chapter. 76. Caroline Norton, Review of Adam Bede 223. 77. Norton, English Laws 90. 78. Hadley, Melodramatic Tactics 148–159. 79. Dolin, ‘The Transfigurations of Caroline Norton’ 504. 80. Norton, Stuart II. 25; Caroline Norton, ‘Woman’s Reward’, The Wife and Woman’s Reward, 3 vols (London: Saunders & Otley, 1835) II. 68, subsequently cited in text. 81. Perkins, Life 71–72. 82. Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy 32. 83. Acland, Caroline Norton 149–150. See also Perkins, Life 276–277. 84. Lost and Saved is very much in the then-popular sensation mode, and her redemption of a seemingly doomed heroine may have been inspired by M.E. Braddon’s Aurora Floyd (1862). 85. Leckie, Culture and Adultery 126. 86. Mary Poovey, Making A Social Body: British Cultural Formation, 1830–1864 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1995) 5–6. 87. Norton, Stuart I. 129. 88. Norton, Stuart I. 261. 89. Norton, ‘The Wife’ 228. 90. Norton, ‘The Wife’ 54–55. 91. Norton, Stuart I. 281. 92. Norton, Lost and Saved III. 308.

6 Affairs of State: Aristocratic Women and the Politics of Influence

1. Thomas Arnold, quoted Brock, The Great Reform Act 331. 2. Reynolds, Aristocratic Women 154–156. 3. Reynolds, Aristocratic Women 168. 4. Richardson, ‘Well-neighboured Houses’ 64. 5. Amanda Vickery, The Gentleman’s Daughter: Women’s Lives in Georgian England (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998) 196–197. 6. Lady Granville, quoted Adburgham, Silver Fork 120. For the salons of Lady Holland, Lady Ashburton and Lady Blessington, see Janet E. Courtney, The Adventurous Thirties: A Chapter in the Women’s Movement (London: OUP, 1933) 233–274. 7. Mandler, Aristocratic Government 84. 8. Justin McCarthy, ‘The Petticoat in the Politics of England’, Lady’s Own Paper (9 July 1870): 20. 9. Elaine Chalus, ‘ “That Epidemical Madness”: Women and Electoral Politics in the Late Eighteenth Century’, in Hannah Barker and Elaine Chalus (eds) Gender in Eighteenth-Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities (London and New York: Longman, 1997) 151–78. 10. Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837 (London: Vintage, 1996) 251–296. 11. Colley, Britons 257–263, and see Foreman, Georgiana 141–159. Notes 207

12. Judith Chalmers, ‘1784 and All That: Aristocratic Women and Electoral Politics’, Vickery, Women, Privilege and Power 89–122. 13. P.J. Jupp, ‘The Roles of Royal and Aristocratic Women in British Politics, c.1782–1832’, in Mary O’Dowd and Sabine Wichert (eds) Chattel, Servant or Citizen – Women’s Status in Church, State and Society (Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies, Queen’s University Belfast, 1995) 113. 14. Gleadle and Richardson, Women in British Politics 12; Matthew Cragoe, ‘ “Jenny Rules the Roost”: Women and Electoral Politics, 1832–1868’, Gleadle and Richardson, Women in British Politics 153–168. 15. See Vickery, ‘Introduction’, in Women, Privilege and Power 19. 16. Gleadle and Richardson, Women in British Politics 11. 17. Mandler, Review of Reynolds 3. See Lewis Namier, The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George III (London: Macmillan, 1929). 18. Perry, Novel Relations; Elizabeth Foyster, ‘Parenting Was for Life, Not Just for Childhood: The Role of Parents in the Married Lives of Their Children in Early Modern England’, History 86 (2001): 313–327. 19. For example, Reynolds notes the social polarisation generated by party identities, but also its gradual relaxation in response to changing circumstances after 1845, and particularly the need for more inclusive entertaining in the period after the Second Reform Bill. Reynolds, Aristocratic Women 162. 20. See Hilary Callan and Shirley Ardener (eds) The Incorporated Wife (London: Croom Helm, 1984). 21. Perry, Novel Relations 36. 22. Guest, Journal 127 (3 February 1842). 23. Alan Sykes, The Rise and Fall of British Liberalism 1776–1988 (London and New York: Longman, 1997) 21, and 19–45, and see Abraham D. Kriegel, ‘Whiggery in the Age of Reform’, Victorian Studies 9 (July 1993): 290–298. 24. Newbould, Whiggery and Reform 2, 1. 25. Sykes, The Rise and Fall of British Liberalism 20. 26. Beckett, The Aristocracy in England 452. 27. See Gleadle and Richardson, Women in British Politics 7. 28. Duke of Bedford (Lord John Russell’s brother), quoted Mandler, Review of Reynolds 5. 29. Mandler, Review of Reynolds 5. 30. John Prest, Lord John Russell (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1972) 334–349. 31. Colley, Britons 179. 32. Mandler, Aristocratic Government 84. 33. McCarthy, ‘The Petticoat in the Politics of England’ 20. 34. Charles Dickens, chapter XXI, Little Dorrit, eds Stephen Wall and Helen Small (1855–1857; London: Penguin, 1998) 243–250. 35. Elizabeth Gaskell, Wives and Daughters (1866; London: Penguin, 1986) 337. 36. Trollope’s Barsetshire novels view middle-class female domination with similar ambiguity; Mrs Proudie certainly seems to corroborate theories of virtual representation. 37. Mary Augusta Ward, Sir George Tressady (1896; London: Nelson’s Library, n.d.) 29. 38. For a discussion of Ward’s representation of upper-class women, see my forthcoming ‘ “An Unfortunate Comparison”: Influence, Ideology and the 208 Notes

Political Hostess in Marcella and Sir George Tressady’, Mary Augusta Ward: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. John Ballam. Amsterdam: Rodolphi. 39. Edward Bulwer [Lytton], Pelham I. 322. 40. Edward Bulwer [Lytton], Pelham III. 99–101. 41. Marie Mulvey-Roberts, ‘Writing for Revenge: The Battle of the Books of Edward and Rosina Bulwer Lytton’, The Subverting Vision of Bulwer Lytton: Bicentennial Reflections, ed. Allen Christensen (Delaware: Delaware University Press, 2004) 159–174. 42. Oakley, ‘The Reform of Honor’ 51. 43. Edward Bulwer [Lytton], Godolphin, ed. Harriet Devine Jump, Silver Fork Novels 1826–41, vol. 3 (1833: London, Pickering & Chatto, 2005) 102. Subsequently cited in text. 44. Benjamin Disraeli, Sybil or The Two Nations (1845; Middlesex: Penguin, 1980) 263–264. 45. See esp. Blake, Disraeli 168–172. 46. Mandler, Review of Reynolds 5. 47. Perkin, Women and Marriage 88. 48. Reynolds, Aristocratic Women 162. 49. Mandler, ‘From Almack’s to Willis’s’ 158–159. 50. Vernon, Politics and the People 80. 51. Emily Eden, The Semi-Attached Couple, 2 vols (London: Bentley, 1860), reprinted The Semi-Attached Couple and The Semi-Detached House, ed. Valerie Myer (London: Virago, 1979) 134. 52. See T.J. Nossitur, Influence, Opinion and Political Idioms in Reformed England: Case-Studies from the North-East, 1832–1874 (Brighton: Harvester, 1975) 5–7, 195. 53. See Malcolm Thomis and Jennifer Grimmett, Women in Protest, 1800–1850 (London and Canberra: Croom Helm, 1982) 131. 54. See Beckett, The Aristocracy in England 438–448, 455–456 and Alan Heesom, ‘ “Legitimate” versus “Illegitimate” Influences: Aristocratic Electioneering in Mid-Victorian Britain’, Parliamentary History 7 (1988): 283–305. 55. The agent presumably means to use ‘atom’ here as a mark of the inferiority of the voter. 56. Morgan, Manners 2. 57. Morgan, Manners 27. 58. For Norton’s enthusiastic support for Emancipation and Reform, see Acland, Caroline Norton 50, 59. 59. Mandler, Aristocratic Government 3, and passim. 60. For the complications of this semi-portrait, see Acland, Caroline Norton 71–72; and Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy 32. 61. Acland, Caroline Norton 59. 62. Copeland, ‘Opera’ 24–28. 63. Bury, The Devoted I. 231. 64. Bury, The Devoted I. 280. 65. See Guest, Journal passim. 66. Catherine Stepney, The Courtier’s Daughter, 3 vols (London, 1838) I. 254. Subsequently cited in text. 67. RBL, The World and His Wife I. 33. 68. Vernon, Politics and the People 173. Notes 209

69. See Edward Bristow, Vice and Vigilance: Purity Movements in Britain Since 1700 (Totawa: Rowman & Littlefield, 1977) and Judith R. Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class and State (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980). 70. Arguments to this effect, though concentrating on the later part of the century, include G.E. Maguire, Conservative Women: A History of Women and the Conservative Party, 1874–1997 (London: Macmillan Press, 1998). For a discussion of ‘aristocratic women under pressure’, see Mandler, ‘From Almack’s to Willis’s’ 156–160. 71. Jalland, Women, Marriage and Politics 221–249. 72. Davidoff, Best Circles, although Reynolds emphasises the wider function of the social rituals Davidoff discusses as tools for party politics (Reynolds, Aristocratic Women 73–74). 73. Combermere and Knollys, Memoirs I. 17. 74. Tamara Wagner, ‘ “A Strange Chronicle of the Olden Time”: Revisions of the Regency in the Construction of Victorian Domestic Fiction’, Modern Language Quarterly: A Journal of Literary History 66.4 (December 2005): 443–475. 75. Frank O’Gorman, ‘Campaign Rituals and Ceremonies: The Social Meanings of Elections in England, 1780–1860’, Past & Present 135 (May 1992): 108, 91–94. 76. Davidoff, Best Circles 38–39. 77. See my ‘The Victorian Suburb as Imperial Stage: Emily Eden and the Theatrics of Empire’, Journeys 7.1 (June 2006): 51–65. 78. Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002). 79. I am indebted to Nicholas Shrimpton for a discussion of this point. 80. Emily Eden, The Semi-Detached House, London: Bentley, 1859, reprinted The Semi-Attached Couple and The Semi-Detached House, ed. Valerie Myer (London: Virago, 1979) 112. Subsequently cited in text. 81. See Margaret Homans and Adrienne Munich (eds) Remaking Queen Victoria (Cambridge: CUP, 1997); Margaret Homans, Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture 1837–1876 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998); Adrienne Munich, Queen Victoria’s Secrets (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996); and Helsinger et al., The Woman Question I. 63–76. 82. Reynolds, Aristocratic Women 195–196. 83. RBL, Lady Bulwer Lytton’s Appeal 4. 84. Munich, Queen Victoria’s Secrets 5. 85. Thomas Laqueur, ‘The Queen Caroline Affair: Politics as Art in the Reign of George IV’, Journal of Modern History 54 (1982): 442. 86. Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes 150; Wahrman, ‘ “Middle-Class” Domesticity’ 404, and see 399–409. 87. Sharon Aronofsky Weltman, ‘ “Be No More Housewives, But Queens”: Queen Victoria and Ruskin’s Domestic Mythology’, Homans and Munich, Remaking Queen Victoria 105. 88. See Dorothy Thompson, Queen Victoria: Gender and Power (London: Virago, 1990) 31–35; Chase and Levenson, chapter two, 46–62 and Reynolds 191–212. 210 Notes

89. Chedzoy, A Scandalous Woman 165–166, and see the correspondence between Norton and Alexander Macmillan regarding insults to Victoria in Old Sir Douglas: April 1866, Macmillan Archives 5–16. 90. See Elizabeth Longford, Queen Victoria: Born to Succeed (New York: Harper and Row, 1964) 108–114; Chase and Levenson, Spectacle of Intimacy 46–62; and Reynolds, Aristocratic Women 191–212. 91. Norton, Lost and Saved I. 133–147. 92. Homans, introduction, Royal Representations xxix. 93. A ‘Drawing-room’ at Court was a royal morning reception, the English equivalent of the French levées.

Conclusion: 1867 and Beyond

1. See Hall, McClelland and Rendall, Defining the Victorian Nation and Hall, Civilising Subjects. 2. Keith McClelland, ‘England’s greatness, the working man’, Hall, McClelland and Rendall, Defining the Victorian Nation 71–118, esp. 71–72. 3. Jane Rendall, ‘The citizenship of women and the Reform Act of 1867’, Hall, McClelland and Rendall, Defining the Victorian Nation 161. 4. For an argument to this effect, and a critique of Davidoff, Best Circles see Curtin, Prosperity and Position 256–261. However, Curtin’s focus on the rela- tively small category of political hostesses underestimates the relevance both of the role itself, and of women’s more general politicised activities, in the mid-Victorian period. 5. Margaret Elizabeth Child-Villiers, Countess of Jersey, The Rise of English Liberty: An Address to the Middleton Conservative Association (Oxford, 1887), and see The Speeches of the Countess of Jersey, preface by the Earl of Jersey (Bicester: T.W. Pankhurst, 1885). 6. Constance Lytton [Jane Warton], Prisons and Prisoners, Some Personal Experiences, intro. Midge MacKenzie (1914; London: Virago, 1988) 164–165. For a discussion of the class dynamics of Lytton’s imprisonment and writing, see Marie Mulvey-Roberts, ‘Militancy, Masochism or Martyrdom? The Public and Private Prisons of Constance Lytton’, in June Purvis and Sandra Stanley Holton (ed.) Votes for Women (London: Routledge, 2000) 159–180. 7. Philip Waller, ‘The Aristocratic Round and Salon Circle’, Writers, Readers, and Reputations: Literary Life in Britain 1870–1918 (Oxford: OUP, 2006) 523–559. 8. Hadley, Melodramatic Tactics, esp. 202–214. 9. Sutherland, Stanford Companion 102. Works Cited

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Notes: Individuals are referred to by their names except in such cases where they are better known by their titles. Names or titles in brackets are pseudonyms or ones acquired earlier or later in life. Individual texts (if significant in discussion) are listed under authors’ names.

Almack’s, 51, 75, 161 93, 100, 104, 108–9, 112, Anglo-Irish, see Ireland 114–15, 121, 184 (1n) annuals, 10, 58, 63, 65, 66–70, 79, commercial potential of, 11, 35–9, 133–4, 193 (26n) 46, 52–3, 55, 66–7, 78, 130–3, Arendt, Hannah, 14, 84, 87 141, 147 aristocracy and domestic values, 6, 25, 30–4, adaptability of, 4, 6–7, 10–12, 26, 40, 44–5, 99, 109–28, 130–3, 49, 60–1, 114, 158–72, 179 155, 157, 174–5 and anti-aristocratic discourses, 4, and feminist traditions, 5, 12–13, 6–7, 10–11, 23, 38–9, 51, 58, 94, 117–18, 181–2 60–1, 69, 71–4, 80, 83, 104, as ‘gatekeepers’ of society, 2, 7, 11, 130–3, 146, 153, 158, 163, 180, 28, 51–2, 64–5 184 (9n) and party politics, 11–12, 156–7, and country houses, 5, 25–6, 90, 164, 166, 168 150, 154, 165, 167, 174–5 and philanthropy, 11, 26, 29, 42, and the Court, 175 187 (18n) definitions of, 7–10 political influence of, 12–13, 16, 33, eighteenth-century models of, 64–5, 153–79 10–11 and property, 31, 84–5, 142 maintenance of power, 11–13, 84, public sphere, ambiguous 120, 154, 156, 173–5, 180 relationship to, 14–17, 23–4, and religion, 7, 25–6 26, 39 aristocratic men as receptacles for lineage, 30–3, 100 hostility towards aristocratic and religion as motivating force on, women, 158, 163–4 25–6, 42–5, 75–7 and leisure, 81–2 sense of themselves as, 9, 53, 88, and political allegiances, 157–8 95, 100, 112, 134–5 as targets of moral reform, 25–6 and sexuality, 11, 23, 80, 155, 157, aristocratic women 160 adaptability of, 1–5, 7, 10–11, 16, and socialised interaction, 1–4, 8, 19, 25–6, 33, 51, 70, 77, 93, 115, 11, 14–18, 21, 25–6, 28, 33, 36, 126, 153, 155, 160, 164–72, 183 51–2, 64–9, 78–80, 153–5, 182 attacks upon, 10, 16, 61–2, 63, weakening influence of, 55, 74, 70–86, 99, 153, 158–64, 179, 120, 126, 155, 172–3, 181 183 Arnold, Thomas, 153 and collective relevance, need to Ashburton, Harriet Baring, Baroness obtain, 15–17, 18, 21, 26, 87–8, of, 206 (6n)

231 232 Index

Athenæum, 38, 67–8, 74, 77, 79, 80, financial pressures on, 2–3, 53, 66, 81, 131 68–9 Auckland, George Eden, Earl of, 9, 173 Grace Cassidy; or, The Repealers authorial identity, 3, 6–7, 10, 18, 21, (1833), 3–5, 59, 74, 106 23, 25–30, 31–2, 39, 41, 44–5, 49, Irishness, sense of, 2–5, 36, 106 53–62, 63–86, 110–13, 129, as political hostess, 2–3, 36, 155, 130 –7, 140 –1, 144, 146 –52, 183 160 acceptability of, for aristocrats, 3, and Reform, 2–5, 57 53–4 and the silver fork novel, 47–8, 53, aristocratic models of, 6–7, 10, 21, 56–62 23, 52–62, 74–6, 87–8, 121, and social exclusion, 2–5, 66, 69, 77 140 –1 The Victims of Society (1837), 48, commercial potential of, 11, 31–2, 56–62 35–9, 52–3, 56, 66–7, 78, Bodichon, Barbara Leigh Smith, 127 130–3, 141 Bonner, Hypatia Bradlaugh, 31 and copyright, 3, 84–5, 113, 128, Book of Beauty, 66 144, 146 –7 bourgeois, see middle classes and cultural criteria, 49, 63, 67–8, Braddon, Mary Elizabeth (1835–1915), 70–86, 135 206 (84n) and finance, 53, 68–9, 71, 83–6, British and Foreign Review; or, European 135, 144, 146 –52 Quarterly Journal, 74, 114, 116, gendering of, 39, 52–62, 63, 83–4, 118, 194 (53n), 201 (103n) 140 –1 Brontë, Anne, 139, 204 (43n) and genres, 7, 36, 74, 77–8, 82, Brontë, Charlotte, 135, 139, 110–12, 136–7 204 (43n) professionalisation of, 54, 63–86, Brougham, Henry, 29, 38, 43, 81–2, 144 114–15 and religion, 25–30, 75–77 Bulwer, Henry, 203 (6n) and women’s writing, 39, 54, 63 Bulwer Lytton, Edward (Edward Lytton Bulwer) (1803–1873), 2–4, Barrett Browning, Elizabeth, 110, 132 18, 36, 41, 47–8, 50–1, 54, 65, 77, Bell, John, publisher, 68 88–90, 93–6, 99, 100–8, 113, Bentley, Richard and Son, publishers, 129–41, 142, 161–2, 169, 170–2, 3, 38, 133 184 (3n), 196 (4n), 197 (1n), 198 Bertie, Georgina, 32–3, 79 (48n), 203 (5n) (6n) (9n) (14n), Blackwood, William, and Sons, 204 (42n) publishers, 65, 147 biographical accounts of, 93–4, Blessington, Countess of, Marguerite 197 (1n) Gardiner (1798–1849), 2–5, 8–9, Byron, identification with, 139 18, 35–7, 38, 41, 47–8, 53, 56–62, class identity of, 89, 95, 100–2, 131 64–9, 74–5, 77, 79, 93, 155, 160, and committal for lunacy of Rosina 184 (2n) Bulwer Lytton, 89, 90, 94, 98, and the annuals, 65–9 101–8 and autobiographical writing, 3–4, Godolphin (1833), 2nd edn. (1840), 35–7 140, 161–2 and the Bulwer Lyttons, 2–3, 77, 106 Lamb, Caroline, affair with, 140, Conversations of Lord Byron with the 148 Countess of Blessington (1834), name and title, usage of, 132, 141, 35–7, 53, 61, 93, 106 184 (3n), 196 (4n) Index 233

Bulwer Lytton, Edward (Edward Lamb, Caroline, influence of, 88, Lytton Bulwer) (1803–1873) – 139–41, 148 continued and melodrama, use of, 96, 103–6, Pelham; or, The Adventures of a 111, 135–7, 147 Gentleman (1828), 48, 50, 54–5, and mimicry, 140–1, 131, 169 57, 60, 130, 161–2 name and title, usage of, 95, 132, and politics, 89, 107–8, 161–2, 164, 141, 203 (15n) 170–1 and Norton, Caroline, 90–1, 114, and the silver fork novel, 47–8, 117, 171–2 50–1, 54–5, 130, 161–2 paranoia, or lack thereof, 95, 108–9, see Bulwer Lytton, Rosina 113, 135, 198 (48n), 203 (14n) Bulwer Lytton, Elizabeth, 170 and politics, 109, 170–2 Bulwer Lytton, Emily, 88–90, 98–100, and public voice, nature of, 94–8, 137 108, 139–41 Bulwer Lytton, Robert (Owen and publishers, 99, 133 Meredith), 88, 95, 100, 137–8 and sexuality, 96, 106, 130, 132–3, Bulwer Lytton, Rosina (1802–1882), 9, 136, 172 18, 23, 29, 35, 38, 41, 53, 77, and the silver fork novel, 53, 130–1 88–91, 93–109, 110–14, 117–19, and Wheeler, Anna, 88, 101, 107–8 122, 127, 129–41, 142, 148–9, Burney, Fanny, 48 161–2, 169, 170–2, 176–8, 181–2, Bury, Charlotte Campbell (1775– 196 (4n), 197 (1n), 198 (48n), 203 1861), 9, 35, 37–9, 47–9, 51–4, 57, (14n) (15n) 61, 81, 93, 169, 177 and authorial identity, The Diary of a Lady-in-Waiting development of, 99, 133–5 (1838, from Diary Illustrative of and autobiographical writing, the Times of George the Fourth), ambiguities of, 94–5, 133, 9, 37–9, 61, 81, 93, 177 135–8, 140–1 Butler, Josephine, 31, 105, 172, biographical accounts of, 93–4, 199 (63n) 197 (1n) Byron, Annabella, 36, 106, 139–40 A Blighted Life: A True Story (1880), Byron, Lord, George Gordon (Noel), 94–7, 100–5, 113, 135, 139, 171, Baron Byron (1788–1824), 35–7, 176, 198 (48n) 41–2, 53, 61, 93, 94, 106, 110, and the Brontës, 135, 139 138–40, 148, 204 (42n), Byron, representation of, 94, 204 (43n) 138–40, 148 and Blessington, 35–7, 53, 61, 93, 106 Cheveley; or, The Man of Honour and Lamb, Caroline, 41–2 (1839), 88, 105, 129–33, marriage of, 35–7, 106, 138–40, 136–41, 148, 162, 169, 170–2, 204 (43n) 203 (5n) in the silver fork novel, 61, 138 class identity of, 53, 88, 95, 100, and women, 61, 106, 138–40, 148 112, 134–5 and committal for lunacy, 89–90, Campbell, Lady Colin, Gertrude 94, 97–8, 101–8, 134, 198 (48n) Elizabeth (1861–1911), 182–3 and domestic values, 95–6, 98–102, Campbell, Theophilia Carlile, 31 106–7, 129–31 Carlyle, Jane Welsh, 132 Irishness, sense of, 106–8 Carlyle, Thomas, 30, 55, 132, 188 (30n) Lady Bulwer Lytton’s Appeal (1857), Caroline of Brunswick, Queen, 9, 94, 99–100, 176 37–8, 61, 80–1, 93, 176–7 234 Index

Catholicism, 11, 26–30, 33, 42–4 Dickens, Charles (1812–1870), 65, 96, see also religion 105, 113, 123, 159, 164 character, 24, 42, 60, 67, 93, 96, 103, and aristocratic patronage, 65 106, 145–6, 168 Little Dorrit (1855–1857), 159 concept as part of anti-aristocratic Pickwick Papers (1836–1837), 113, discourses, 146 164 economic value of, 145–6 and professionalisation of performance of, 96 authorship, 65 Charke, Charlotte, 35 treatment of his wife, 105 Charleville, Catherine Maria Bury, disguise, 40–1, 53, 71, 96, 121, 181 Countess of, 4 of authorial identity, 53, 121 Charleville, Charles William Bury, of class status, 53, 181 Earl of, 4 of gender through cross-dressing, 41 Chartism, see working classes see also names, use of Chatterton, Georgiana (1806–1876), Disraeli, Benjamin (1804–1881), 26, 9, 29, 32–3, 75–6, 79 47–8, 54, 61, 110, 114, 130, 162–4, Christian Remembrancer, 79 166, 169–70, 181, 198 (48n) Churchill, Lady Randolph, Jeanette, and the Bulwer Lyttons, 47, 130, 34 198 (48n) Clarke, Mary Ann, 35 Coningsby (1844), 26, 130, 163 Colburn, Henry, 37–8, 41, 47, 52–3, and politics, 114, 130, 162–4, 166, 65, 74, 80–1 198 (48n) Coleridge, Hartley, 110 and the silver fork novel, 47–8, 54, Collins, Wilkie, 102 61, 130, 162 colonialism, see empire and race social status, ambiguity of, 47, 163, Combermere, Mary Cotton, 166 Viscountess (c.1799–1889), 32, 34, Sybil or The Two Nations (1845), 110, 38, 93, 173 130, 162–3, 169–70, 181 Constable, Archibald, publisher, 65 Vivian Grey (1826), 48, 54, 130, Contagious Diseases Acts, campaigns 162–3 against, 127, 172 divorce, 9, 37, 49, 89–90, 102, 109, copyright, see authorial identity 112–13, 121, 123–6, 155, 182, country houses, see aristocracy 200 (84n), 200 (94n) Court Journal, 65 D’Orsay, Alfred, Count, 4, 35, 160 criminal conversation, see divorce duelling, 50 Custody of Infants Act, 1839, 18, 89, Dufferin, Lady, Helen Blackwood, 90 91, 113–16 Durham, John Lambton, Earl of, 3

Daily News, 65 economy, 2, 11, 13–16, 18, 24, 30–1, dandy, the, 48, 55, 56–7, 35, 38–9, 40, 49–52, 68, 70, 59–60, 182 89–90, 101, 108–10, 119, 126–8, Dering, Edward Heneage, 29 138, 141–52, 156, 167, 174, Devey, Louisa, 94–6, 141 196 (97n), 205 (59n) Devonshire, Georgiana Cavendish, aristocratic models of, 108–9, Duchess of (1757–1806), 9, 25, 141–52, 196 (97n) 39–42, 44, 155, 157, 182 and books as commodities, 52, 66, Devonshire, William Cavendish, 68, 70 Sixth Duke of, 25, 65 as corrupting to middle-class Dickens, Catherine, 105 values, 15, 73, 143–5 Index 235 economy – continued Gaskell, Elizabeth (1810–1865), 74, 159 and marriage, 49, 119, 143–4 Gentleman’s Magazine, 65 and property, 2, 11, 14, 24, 31, George IV (1762–1830) (Prince 49–50, 52, 83–6, 101, 126–7, Regent, 1811–20), 9, 34, 37–9, 61, 141–3, 196 (97n) 80 see also authorial identity; women Gladstone, William Ewart, 42, 79, 180 Eden, Emily (1797–1869), 9, 164–6, Gore, Catherine (1799–1861), 47–9, 167, 171–5, 178 51, 53, 55, 56–7, 59–62 Edinburgh Review, 38, 81, 147 Cecil (1841), 48, 56–7, 59–62 Eliot, George (1819–1880), 9, 63, 71–3, Gorham decision (1850), 29 75–8, 81–2, 123, 134, 147, Greg, W.R., 73, 194 (48n) 194 (37n) Greville, Charles, 37–8, 43 Adam Bede (1859), 147 Guest, Charlotte (1812–95), 80, 157–8, and anti-aristocratic values, 63, 169 71–3, 76, 78, 81–2 Guild of Literature and Art, 65, 96, and leisure, artistically damaging 193 (10n) effects of, 72–3, 81–2, 134 ‘Life and Opinions of Milton’ Habermas, Jürgen, 15, 87, 111, 123 (1855), 123 Harvey, Daniel, 114 ‘Lord Brougham’s Literature’ (1855), Hayward, Abraham, 71, 113 81–2 Hazlitt, William, 47 and Norton, Caroline, 123, 147 Heath, Charles, 69, 193 (26n) on personal motivations for Herbert, Mary Elizabeth, Baroness politics, 123 Herbert of Lea (1822–1911), 29, ‘Silly Novels by Lady Novelists’ 121 (1856), 9, 63, 71–3, 75–8, 123, Herbert, Sidney, 29, 90, 121, 124 194 (37n) historical fiction, 43, 77, 133, 138, 169 Ellis, Sarah Stickney, 121–2 Holland, Elizabeth Fox, Baroness, 26, Ellis, S.M., 203 (6n) 36, 80, 154–5 empire and race, 3–4, 19, 27–8, 29, Holland, Henry Fox, Baron, 26 35–6, 41, 57, 88–90, 106–8, Holland House, 26, 65, 154–5 117–18, 126, 141, 150–2, 173–4, Hook, Theodore, 47, 191 (19n) 181–2 etiquette guides, 51, 54 India, 9, 107–8, 152, 173–4 Evangelicalism, see religion influence, see aristocratic women; political influence, socialised finance, see economy interaction Forster, John, 101–2, 203 (14n) Ireland, 3–4, 9, 27–8, 29, 35–6, 41, 42, Foxe, John, 32 88–90, 106–8, 152, 182 Fraser, James, publisher, 105 Fraser’s Magazine for Town and Jersey, Margaret Child-Villiers, Country, 38, 68–9, 131, 193 (28n), Countess of, 34, 181 203 (9n) Jersey, Sarah Villiers, Countess of, 51, Froude, James Anthony, 30, 188 (30n) 163, 181 Fullerton, Georgiana (1812–1885), 9, 29, 39, 42–5, 79 Kaye, J.W., 123 Keepsake, 65, 67–9 Gambier, Admiral Lord, James, 32–3 Kemble, Fanny, 201 (103n) gambling, 40, 50 Kemble, John Mitchell, 201 (103n) 236 Index

Kerr, Amabel, 29 Longman, publishers, 53, 81 Knollys, W.W., 32, 34, 38, 173 Lothian, Marchioness of, Cecil Kerr, 29 Lamb, Caroline (1785–1828), 9, Lyndhurst, Lord, John Copley, 113–14 39–42, 43, 88, 139–40, 148, 167 Lynn, Eliza (Eliza Lynn Linton), Glenarvon (1816), 39–42, 43, 88, 123–4 139–40 Lytton, see Bulwer Lytton Landon, Letitia (L.E.L.), 47, 67–8 Lytton, Constance (Jane Warton) leisure, 3, 4, 6–7, 26, 47, 58–62, 67, 69, (1869–1923), 101, 181–2 71–4, 78–9, 81–6 in anti-aristocratic discourses, 4, Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Lord 6–7, 58–9, 60–1, 69, 71–4, 83 Macaulay, 80 aristocratic associations of, 3, 7, 58, Macmillan, Alexander, publisher, 60, 67, 71–4, 81–3, 134–5 146, 193 (28n), 210 (89n) and authorial identity, 6, 47, 54, 58, madness, 43, 96–108 60–2, 66–7, 69, 71–4, 78–9, Maginn, William, 193 (28n), 203 (9n) 81–6, 134–5 Manning, Cardinal, Henry Edward, middle-class views of, 26, 60–1, 67, 29 71–4, 83 Married Women’s Property Bill and men, 81–2 (1857), 110, 126, 145 and women, 61–2, 69, 71–4, 78–9, Martineau, Harriet, 43, 123 81–2 Matrimonial Causes Act (1857), 18, Lewis, Theresa, 32, 79, 174, 89, 91, 109, 126, 144, 205 (59n) 200 (101n) Mayhew, Henry, 115 Liberal party, 12, 49, 121, 158, 174–5, Maynard, Julia, 127 180 McCarthy, Justin, 155, 159 life-writing, 21, 23–45, 55, 59, 75, 88, Melbourne, Lady, Elizabeth Lamb, 40 93–6, 129–41, 148–9, 187 (7n) Melbourne, Lord, William Lamb, 18, aristocratic origins of, 31 89, 90, 110, 113–14, 121, 124, 139, and autobiographical fiction, 21, 143, 148, 150, 167–8, 177 23, 39–45, 55, 88, 129–41, 148–9 melodrama, 96, 103–5, 111–12, 129, and the domestic memoir, 24, 135–7, 144, 147–8 30–4, 35, 75, 93, 95 Meredith, George, 89, 121, 182 generic traditions of, 23–4 middle classes, 1, 5–6, 10–12, 15, and the spiritual autobiography, 16–17, 25–6, 29, 30–2, 37, 44, 25–30, 32, 42–5, 93, 95, 187 (7n) 46–7, 51–5, 57–8, 60–2, 63–5, 66, and the scandalous memoir, 23–4, 67, 68, 70–80, 83, 97–100, 109, 34–9, 41–2, 44, 93, 96 114–15, 120–8, 129–33, 134, Lisle, Ambrose Phillips de, 26 142–3, 146, 148, 153, 156, 160, Lister, T.H., 48, 174 170–1, 174–5, 177–9, 180–1 Literary Gazette, 65 and anti-aristocratic critiques, 4, literary marketplace, see authorial 6–7, 10, 99, 123–4, 130–1, identity; economy 142–3, 153, 158, 163, 180, literary nation, 5, 10, 13–14, 19, 160, 184 (9n) 170, 174, 183 and cross-class unity, 10–12, 120, definitions of, 13–14 126, 177, 180–1 inclusion in and exclusion from, domestic values of, 44, 54–5, 74, 13, 174, 183 98–100, 114, 127–8, 130–3, Long, Catharine (1797–1867), 76–7 142–3, 170, 174–5, 177 Index 237 middle classes – continued and authorial identity, as readers, 37–9, 51–3, 73, 130–3, development of, 53, 66–8, 160 74–5, 121, 141–2, 144, 146 –7, religion as formative force for, 205–6 (75n) 25–6, 76 and the Bulwer Lyttons, 90–1, see also leisure; private and public 113–14, 117, 135, 142, 148–9, spheres; women 171–2 mimicry, see parody and satire and Byron, attitude towards, 110, 148 Monthly Review, 131–2 class identity of, 16–17, 74–5, 88–9, Moore, Thomas, 68 90, 93, 109, 118–20, 122, 126, Morgan, Sydney (Sydney Owenson) 144, 148, 176–7, 200 (82n) (c.1783–1859), 4, 8, 27–8, 47, 53, domestic values, appeal to, 16–17, 65, 131, 137 89–91, 93, 105, 109, 111–12, motherhood, 18, 32, 60, 95–6, 114–20, 121–2, 124–6, 143–4, 98–101, 109, 115–22, 124–7, 146, 178 143–4, 148, 161, 175, 178, and economy, 53, 68, 86, 119, 198 (44n), 201 (120n) 127–8, 141–7, 205 (59n) Mudie’s Circulating Library, 77 English Laws for Women (1854), 120, Murray, John, publishers, 65, 82 122, 125, 143–4, 147 and genre, choice of, 110–13, 121, names, use of, 3, 11, 38, 39, 40–1, 44, 149–52 47, 53–4, 69, 71, 73, 75, 85, 112, and the law, 18, 29, 89–91, 109, 111, 131, 133–4, 141, 147, 174, 203 (6n), 121, 205 (59n) 205–6 (75n) Letters to the Mob (1848), 120, 124, Namier, Lewis, 157 126 national identity, 3–5, 10, 13, 27–8, A Letter to the Queen (1855), 111–12, 43–5, 106–7, 116–18, 160–1, 120, 123, 125–8, 144, 169, 176 180–1 Lost and Saved (1863), 75, 142, 145, Nevill, Dorothy, 32, 34 149, 151–2, 177–8, 206 (84n) Newman, Cardinal John Henry, 9, 26, and melodrama, use of, 105, 29, 42, 75, 79 111–12, 144, 148 New Monthly Magazine, 36, 74 name and title, usage of, 53, 111, Nightingale, Florence, 124 120–1, 141–2, 205–6 (75n) Normanby, Marquis of, Constantine A Plain Letter to the Lord Chancellor Phipps, 47, 65 (1839), 111, 114–19, 125 Norton, Caroline (1808–1877), 9, and politics, 57, 88, 109–4, 113–15, 16–18, 18, 29, 53, 57, 65–8, 74–5, 120–3, 125–6, 167–8 86, 88–91, 93, 105, 109–28, 135, public voice, nature of, 89–91, 93, 141–52, 167–8, 169, 171–2, 176–8, 111, 123, 126, 177 182, 200 (82n), 201 (103n), and publishers, 68, 144, 146, 201 (120n), 205 (59n), 205 (70n), 205 (70n), 205–6 (75n) 205–6 (75n), 206 (84n), and Reform, 113, 168, 208 (58n) 208 (58n), 210 (81) and scandal, effects of, 75, 93, 127, and aristocratic leadership, models 141–3 of, 109, 114–15, 120–2, 124–5, and sexuality, 114, 135, 143 127, 146 and social interaction, use of, 65, 68, and aristocratic women’s 109, 112–13, 122–3, 126–7, 177 political influence, 122–3, 127, ‘The Wife’ and ‘Woman’s Reward’ 167–8 (1835), 148–9, 150–1, 167–8 238 Index

Norton, George, 16, 89, 114–15, Patmore, Coventry, 111 120–2, 124, 128, 141–5, 147–50, Pennington, Sarah, 98–9 168 philanthropy, 11, 26, 29, 42, 187 (18n) Oliphant, Margaret, 134, 204 (26n) poetry, 7, 9, 16, 36, 47, 66–8, 78, 89, Owenism, 88, 108 90, 91, 110–12, 116, 119–20, 138 Oxford Movement, 28, 29, 43, 55, political hostesses, 1–4, 8, 9, 32, 36, 76–7, 187 (12n) 54, 64–5, 75, 154–5, 159–60, 161–4, 169–70, 173, 210 (4n) Palmerston, Emily Temple, politics Viscountess, 80, 90, 155 definitions of, 1–2, 21, 87–8 Palmerston, Henry Temple, Viscount, socialised modes of, 1–5, 13, 88, 155, 180 153–7 parliament, 1–2, 11–14, 18, 26, 29, see also aristocratic women; 88–9, 111, 113–16, 117, 119, parliament; party politics; the 124–6, 154–8, 162–4, 166, 168, social 170, 172, 178, 180–1, 190 (10n) Ponsonby, Emily, 9, 25 class bases of, changes in, 12–13, private and public spheres, 1–4, 5–6, 121, 155–6, 181 11–19, 24, 30–4, 40, 44, 51–2, 55, extra-parliamentary pressures, 74, 78, 80, 83–6, 95–100, 104, responses to, 11–13, 113–16, 106–7, 110–12, 116, 119, 121–5, 119, 124–6, 155, 162–4, 166 127, 130–1, 136–7, 141–5, 153–9, and religion, 29 164, 166, 167–8, 170–2, 177–8 social facilities of, 154 aristocratic women’s positioning in, speech constraints within, 111, ambiguity of, 1–4, 13–16, 24, 157–8 83–6, 97–100, 110, 153–9, 166, and men, 26, 113–16, 125–6, 178–9 156–8, 163, 180 definitions of, 15–17, 33, 123 and women, 1, 12, 18, 26, 88–9, and the social, 1–4, 6, 14–17, 19, 78, 113, 117, 119, 125–6, 154–7, 154 162–4, 166, 170, 178, 181 widening range of vocabularies see also party politics; politics concerning, 13 parody and satire, 3–4, 41, 48–50, 56, women’s positioning in, 6, 11–16, 59–61, 88, 95–6, 105, 114, 128, 19, 30–4, 44, 55, 78, 80, 98, 129, 131, 133, 139–41, 155, 161, 104, 107, 111, 121–4, 177–8 163, 169, 170 professional identity, see authorial party politics, 11–12, 55, 110, 113–15, identity 126, 155–8, 164, 166, 168, 171–3, property, see economy 177, 207 (19n), 209 (72n) Protestantism, 26, 27–9, 32, 44 criticism of, 55, 158, 168, 171–2, 177, 181 Quarterly Review, 38 and individuals, importance to, 11–12, 156–7, 164, 166, 168 race, see empire and race and lack of clear definitions, 11–12, radical movements, 2–3, 12, 31, 65, 157–8 87, 104, 114, 118, 130, 161, 169, and organisations, strengthening 170–2, 180 of, 126, 155–6, 172, 181 Reade, Charles, 94, 102 see also Liberal party; parliament; readers, 9–10, 16–17, 21, 46–8, 51–3, politics; Tory party; Whig party 72, 73, 77, 78, 85, 87–8, 141 Index 239 reform, 65, 82, 120–1, 172 leadership of nation, 34 as alternative to rebellion, 57, 116, property qualifications in, 85 120, 129 women, exclusion from, 24, 85, aristocratic responses to, 7, 11, 180–1 56–9, 114 working classes in, 10, 85, 180–1 and fiction as agent of reform, Reform Act of 1884, 181 27–8, 58–62, 74–5, 134–5 Regency, 42, 46, 51, 55, 57, of laws, 89, 105, 110, 113–18, 120–4 59–62, 173 leadership towards, 16, 26–8, 121, see also George IV 123 religion, 25–6, 28, 29, 33, 76–7, 79, and religion, 7, 16, 25, 29–30, 76, 181, 187 (10n), 187 (18n) 165 and the aristocracy, effects upon, and social interaction, 11, 15, 25, 30 25–6 Reform Act of 1832 (The Great Evangelical revival, 25, 29, 76–77 Reform Act), 1–7, 10–13, 18–19, and philanthropy, influence on, 26, 23–4, 27, 38, 46, 49, 51, 57, 58, 29, 42, 187 (18n) 60–1, 64, 114–15, 119–21, 124, as political force, 27–8, 29, 187 153–6, 158–65, 167–73, 179, 180, (10n) 183, 184 (9n), 190 (10n), see also Catholicism; Oxford 191 (18n) Movement; Protestantism and anti-aristocratic discourses, 4, Richardson, Samuel, 50, 58 6–7, 10, 153, 158, 163, 180, roman à clef, 4, 39–45, 46, 90, 129–33, 184 (9n) 136–41, 182 aristocratic responses to, 4, 6–7, rotten boroughs, see Reform Act of 10–12, 49, 60–1, 158–72, 179 1832 and aristocratic women, responses Ruskin, John, 177 to, 7, 16, 51, 153, 160, 164–72, Russell, Lady John, Frances (Countess 183 Russell), 158 and aristocratic women as Russell, Lord John (Earl Russell), 82, repositories of class critiques, 158, 161, 180, 184 (9n) 153, 158–64, 179, 183 extension of the franchise in, 13 salons, 2–3, 28, 65, 154, 161, 175, 182, and leadership, 7, 115, 121, 167–72 206 (6n) maintenance of existing power satire, see parody and satire structures in, 11, 13, 120, 156 scandal, 2, 4, 9, 23–4, 34–9, 41–2, 44, property qualifications in, 2, 49 53, 56, 74–5, 77, 83, 87, 89–90, and religion, 27 93, 94, 96, 102, 107, 110, 124–5, and rotten boroughs, 162, 190 (10n) 127, 129–30, 132, 139–40, 141–3, and the Tories, 114–15 150, 160, 181–2 traditional historiography on, 11 associations with aristocracy, 77, and the Whigs, energising effect 83, 142 upon, 4, 7, 11–12, 49, 60–1, 115, detrimental effects of, 37–9, 74, 85, 119–21, 168 110, 133, 141–2, 182 women, exclusion from, 12–13, 24 market value of, 37–9, 41, 53, 85, Reform Act of 1867, 5, 10, 13, 19, 129–30, 141–2, 182 23–4, 34, 43, 85, 174, 180–1, and the scandalous memoir, 23–4, 207 (19n) 34–9, 41–2, 44, 93, 96 extension of the franchise in, Scott, Caroline (1784–1857), 48, 74, 23–4, 85 76, 78 240 Index

Scott, Walter, 49, 105–6 Talfourd, Thomas Noon, 113–14, 116 sensation novels, 74, 102, 105, 134, Tennyson, Alfred, 115 142, 151–2, 177–8, 206 (84n) Thackeray, William Makepeace separate spheres, see private and (1811–63), 38, 50, 55–6, 58, 105, public spheres 203 (9n) servants, 69, 120, 145, 173 Vanity Fair (1847–8), 50, 55–6, 58 Sewell, Elizabeth Missing, 30 Thompson, William, 118 Shaftesbury, Anthony Cooper, Earl The Times, 38, 53, 79, 107–8, 121, 142, of, 26 146, 205 (75n) Shelley, Mary, 113 Tory party, 27, 55, 89, 114–15, 143, silver fork novels, 3, 10, 18, 21, 38, 155, 158, 162–3, 167–8, 170–2, 46–62, 65, 66, 70, 72, 74, 75–6, 200 (82n) 130–1, 138, 149, 161–2, 182, and reform, 114–15 191 (19n), 191 (32n) and Catholicism, 27 appeal of, 46–8, 51–3 and party politics, critique of, 172 authors, social status of, 47–8, 53, 72 and political hostesses, 155 as commodities, 52, 132–3 Trevelyan, Hannah More, 80 critical views of, 46–7, 55 Trollope, Anthony (1815–82), 8, 81, decline of, 46, 54–5, 62, 191 (32n) 159–60, 207 (36n) definitions of, 46–7 Trollope, Frances (1780–1863), 135 and reform, influence of, 46, 49, 51, 58–62 upper-classes, definitions of, 7–10 spaces in, 51–2, 55, 191 (19n) see also aristocracy slavery, 100, 118, 165 social, the, 1, 5, 14–19, 21, 27–8, 40, Victoria, Queen, 38, 80, 120, 126, 51–2, 64–9, 67–9, 77, 85, 87–8, 175–9, 198 (48n), 210 (89n) 148, 154–5, 166, 178, 179, 183, Villiers, Charles, 114, 200 (101n) 191 (19n) and authorial identity, 64–69 Wallace, Grace Jane Maxwell, 81 changing definitions of, 14–17 Ward, Mary Augusta (Mrs Humphry collective resonance of, need to Ward) (1851–1920), 83, 160 obtain, 16–17, 21, 87–8 Ward, Robert Plummer (Robert gendering of, 15 Plumer Ward), 48 as privacy, 15 Weldon, Georgina, 102 spaces of, 1, 5, 15, 28, 40, 51–2, 64, Westminster, see parliament 67–8, 154, 191 (19n) Westminster Review, 71, 78 Somerset, Duchess of, Georgiana Wheeler, Anna, 88, 101, 107–8, 118, Seymour, 90 161, 198 (44n) Stepney, Catherine (c.1785–1845), 9, Whig party, 4, 7, 11–12, 26–7, 36, 49, 169–70 55, 60–1, 65, 89, 109, 112, 114–15, Strickland, Agnes (1796–1874), 65, 119–21, 131, 154–5, 158–9, 161, 78–81 164, 167–8, 171, 174–5, 177, 180 Strickland, Elizabeth (1794–1875), 65 and aristocratic leadership, 4, 7, Strickland, Jane (1800–88), 65, 78, 11–12, 60–1, 114, 168, 80–1 174, 180 Stuart-Wortley, Emmeline and Catholicism, 11, 26–7, 168 (1806–1855), 9, 67, 69 and the Liberals, mid-century Sutherland, Duchess of, Harriet incorporation into, 12, 49, 121, Leveson Gower, 158 158, 174, 180 Index 241

Whig party – continued gender roles of, 16–17, 25–6, 30–1, and political hostesses, 36, 154–5, 53, 75, 124, 129, 170, 173, 176 159, 164, 177 and genres, 6, 79, 82, 110–13 and reform, energising effect of, 4, and politics, 12–13, 31, 126–7, 156, 7, 11–12, 49, 60–1, 115, 119–21, 180–1 168 and religion, 25–6, 29, 181 and the ‘Whig interpretation of in the working class, 25, 35, 120, 126 history’, 115 see also aristocratic women; private Wilberforce, William, 33 and public spheres; middle Wilson, Harriette, 35 classes Wiseman, Cardinal Nicholas, 27–8, Wood, Ellen (Mrs Henry Wood), 123 131 Woolf, Virginia, 5 women working classes, 5, 10, 25, 70, 74, 85, and authorial identity, 55, 73–4, 97, 104, 120, 126, 180 83–4, 134, 140–1 and Chartism, 55, 74, 120, 126 as [non-]economic entities, 15, 54, in the Reform Act of 1867, 10, 85, 72, 85, 110, 126–7, 134, 142–5, 180–1 205 (59n) Wycliffe, John, 27 and the franchise, exclusion from, Wynford, Lord, William Draper 12–13, 24, 85, 156, 180–1 Best, 115