Page 1 of 25 Regional Environmental Technical Assistance 5771 Poverty Reduction & Environmental Management in Remote greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) Watersheds Project (Phase I) BIODIVERSITY AND PROTECTED AREAS Thailand By J E Clarke, PhD CONTENTS 1 BACKGROUND 3 1.1 Country profile 3 1.2 Biodiversity 3 2 BIODIVERSITY POLICY 8 3 BIODIVERSITY LEGISLATION 14 3.1 State law 14 3.2 International conventions 15 4 CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREAS 16 5 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS 16 5.1 State management 16 5.2 Management plans 18 5.3 NGO and donor involvement 19 5.4 Private sector involvement 20 6 INVENTORY OF PROTECTED AREAS 20 7 CONSERVATION COVER BY PROTECTED AREAS 25 8 AREAS OF MAJOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE 26 9 TOURISM IN PROTECTED AREAS 28 10 COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION 11 GENDER 31 12 CROSS BOUNDARY ISSUES 31 Page 2 of 25 12.1 Internal boundaries 31 12.2 International borders 31 13 MAJOR PROBLEMS AND ISSUES 33 1. BACKGROUND 1.1. Country profile Thailand lies between latitudes 5 035' and 20 025' N, and longitudes 97 020' and 105 040' E. Most of the country is in the Indochinese Peninsula but the southern extremity extends into the Malay Peninsula. Its area is 514,100 km 2. Thailand’s neighbours are Myanmar to the west and north, Lao PDR to the northeast and east and Cambodia to the southeast. The narrow southern extremity runs between the Andoman Sea to the west and the Gulf of Thailand to the east, and the southernmost tip adjoins Malaysia. The country is divided into 76 provinces. About one third of the country is low-lying plain—the Khorat Plateau—which extends up to the Mekong River. Mountainous terrain dominates northern and western areas. Elevations range from sea level to 2,955 metres on Doi Inthanon on the border with Myanmar. The major river systems are the Chao Phraya, which flows south from between the western and central mountains, reaching the Gulf of Thailand near Bangkok, and the Mekong, which runs along much of the border with Lao PDR. The climate is under the influence of monsoon winds. From April to October, when mean temperatures range between 26 0 and 37 0C, water-laden winds blow from the southwest. From November to March (temperatures 13 0 to 33 0C), the monsoon blows from the northeast. Cooler temperatures prevail in the highlands and along the coasts. The rainy season lasts from June to October. Mean rainfall is about 1,300 mm on the Khorat Plateau, 1,500 mm in the northwest and central areas, and 2,500 mm in the Malay Peninsula. The estimated 1997 human population was 60.8 million, and annual growth rate 1.2 per cent (Anon 1997). The 1999 population is likely to be about 62.3 million, and population density 121.2/km 2. Most estimates for forest cover are in the range of 26 to 28 per cent although Leungaramsri & Rajesh (1992) claim it to be nearer 20 per cent. Whatever the exact figure, all estimates suggest a marked decline from 53 per cent coverage in 1961. Arable land occupies 34.3 per cent. 1.2 Biodiversity Thailand falls within three of Udvardy’s (1975) global biounits, and five sub-units of MacKinnon & MacKinnon (1986). Indochina (10) sub-unit Central Indochina (10a) Most of the north and east sub-unit North Indochina (10b) The extreme north Coastal Indochina (05) sub-unit Cardamom Mountains (05d) Central and southerly areas and northern areas of peninsular Thailand Peninsular Malesia (07) sub-unit Malay Peninsula (07a) The extreme southern tip Page 3 of 25 sub-unit Malay Transition (07b) Most southerly parts of peninsular Thailand Thailand has moderately high levels of biological diversity although levels of endemism are unremarkable. The Biodiversity Index is 9.8 (MacKinnon, 1997), highest of the five Indo-Chinese countries but lower probably than Yunnan. Most of Thailand was once forested: MacKinnon's table of 'habitat details' suggest at least 85 per cent, of which dry dipterocarp (33 per cent), semi -evergreen (23 per cent) and tropical moist deciduous forest (19 per cent) were predominant. Today, dry dipterocarp cover is about 9 per cent, semi-evergreen 6 per cent, and tropical moist deciduous 5 per cent. Other forest types are: Freshwater swamp Forest on limestone Montane deciduous Mangrove forest Sub-montane dry evergreen Tropical montane evergreen Tropical wet evergreen In the Northern Highlands, the mountain ridges and wide valleys extending south from the borders with Myanmar and Lao PDR to about 18 0 N, evergreen montane forest was the original over above 1,000 metres, while mixed deciduous and dry dipterocarp occurred on lower slopes. The valleys have long been cultivated The Khorat Plateau in the Northeast between the Petchabun Range to the west and Dongrak Range along the border with Cambodia, have been largely deforested although some deciduous and evergreen forests persist. The central Plain along the Chao Phraya River was originally freshwater swamp and monsoon forest but is now intensively cultivated. In the Southeast, semi-evergreen rain forest occur on an extension of the Cardamom Mountains from Cambodia. On the Tenasserim Hills along the border with Myanmar, semi-evergreen rain forest occurs at higher elevations. Elsewhere the original deciduous monsoon forest has been cleared or degraded and replaced with bamboo and grassland. The southern peninsula was originally rain forest. Most lowland areas are now cultivated, and the remaining forests are threatened by expansion of agriculture and rubber plantations. Biodiversity in most areas is high but under threat. Although commercial logging was banned in 1989 deforestation remains a constant threat. MacKinnon (1997) estimated that between 20,000 and 25,000 species of vascular plant occur in Thailand, including 10,000 to 15,000 flowering species. More than 500 are trees and 1,000 orchids. Vertebrate animals number at least 3,000: Mammals 265 Birds 891 Reptiles 300 Amphibians 100 Page 4 of 25 Fishes 1,450 Threatened species recorded in Thailand, based upon November 1998 data from the WCMC, comprised 1,592 plants (1,555 excluding synonyms) and 276 animals. Numbers of threatened animals are listed below. Categories of threat follow those of IUCN. Mammals (100) Extinct 1 Extinct in the wild - Critically endangered 3 Endangered 10 Vulnerable 23 Least risk 51 Data deficient 12 Birds (109) Extinct - Extinct in the wild - Critically endangered 5 Endangered 6 Vulnerable 36 Least risk 61 Data deficient 1 Reptiles (30) Extinct - Extinct in the wild - Critically endangered 4 Endangered 6 Vulnerable 6 Least risk 4 Data deficient 10 Amphibians (4) Extinct - Extinct in the wild - Critically endangered - Endangered - Vulnerable - Least risk - Data deficient 4 Fishes (23) Extinct - Extinct in the wild - Critically endangered 1 Endangered 4 Vulnerable - Least risk - Data deficient 2 Invertebrates (10) Extinct - Extinct in the wild - Critically endangered - Page 5 of 25 Endangered - Vulnerable 1 Least risk 5 Data deficient 3 Not evaluated 1 The most highly threatened species (extinct in the wild, critically endangered and endangered), based upon information provided from the WCMC database, are listed below. Where appropriate, comments or corrections have been added based upon local information from relevant specialists. Extinct in the wild Cervus schomburgki Schomburgki's deer (former endemic) Epalzeorhynchos bicolor (fish—family Cyprinidae) Critically endangered Dicerorhinus sumatrensis Sumatran rhinoceros (very small numbers, found only in a few southern localities) Rhinoceros sondaicus Javan rhinoceros (may be locally extirpated) Bos sauveli Kouprey (locally extirpated) Platalea minor Black-faced spoonbill (may be locally extirpated) Pseudibis gigantea Giant ibis Sterna bernsteini Chinese crested tern Pitta gurneyi Gurney's pitta Pseudochelidon sirintarae White-eyed river-martin (endemic) Crocodylus siamensis Siamese crocodile (many in captivity) Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtle Callagur borneoensis Painted batagur Chitra chitra Striped narrow-headed softshell turtle (endemic) Chela caeruleostigmata (fish—family Cyprinidae) Botia sidthimunki (fish—family Cobitidae) Endangered Craseonycteris thonglongyai Kini's hog-nosed bat Hipposideros turpis (bat) Panthera tigris Tiger (an estimated 600 in the wild in Thailand) Cynogale bennettii Otter-civet Balaenoptera borealis Coalfish whale Elephas maximus Asian elephant (large populations in some areas) Bos javanicus Banteng Bubalus bubalis Wild water buffalo Hylopetes alboniger Particoloured flying squirrel Leopoldamys neilli (an endemic mouse) Egretta eulophotes Chinese egret Page 6 of 25 Ciconia sturmi Sturm's stork Leptoptilus dubius Greater adjutant Pseudibis davisoni White-shouldered ibis (probably locally extirpated) Cairina scutulata White-winged duck (critically endangered in Thailand) Tringa guttifer Nordmann's greenshank (a rare winter visitor) Chelonia mydas Green turtle Lepidochelys olivacea Olive ridley Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback Batagur baska Batagur (may be locally extirpated) Pristis microdon Freshwater sawfish Scleropages formosus Asian arowana Tenualosa thibaudeaui (fish—family Clupeidae) Balantiocheilos melanopterus Silver shark Probarbus jullieni Jullien’s golden carp Pangasianodon gigas Giant catfish 2. BIODIVERSITY POLICY The Office of Environmental Policy and Planning (OEPP) draws up policies relating to environmental affairs. Although it may seem self-evident that implementing agencies such as the Royal Forest Department should be involved in defining policies, it is not clear that this is always so. There is no specific policy relating to protected