Gems and Gomology

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Gems and Gomology ''li f r :& ..tk' l:.](D, ]4 ir> t..,E.] t:ii \.i;/.t i ;+*r.t'i'.,...'.ri..lri. I r:r:i:t-i.tit. l rlr:i III r*' 'i.'.. t' ..di .!; ,z: H F 'iLll.,,i r1?:] v) E ^ F o rl (! *(t |Ilh *{ g.> at :'(n ti xro ) icqai[g s € >; hx'FE F 6- rd'--3"' nl > e. H o T *'c8"6- dhdl.l;O Fl: .Fl : o FTl hh4 a <'\_/ 9,i .HG ^st; 3;F f;: 5; lg.g=i o;i $$$Ei$i$$EitEt$E"Fas ^-5- qo )i'ci -i 7 F{s*6;: = i.tfros:i 63 it Dd N f _. n V1 ' - -c tr i rD :'d O 6 ^ts I ra 6+ s-.X F s.,I :rF 3 0 a f i:€i a j R-a- ,E_.9.930 EiPF- 5 h 6 s-. b' !'€ sFHt <; I - h$4 * 6'E g o :H Bnn J T'A ": i{ bi'f ' ** F' S.H {i \"{ x* ! \ a W Flr1{;g IY r,lY '{y- :. } ! @ = 3.:i- o ^. E. 9s. PsQ x *" Fg E oE tl z : F "$; 'u /\ h ".1 --6oTi.tr: 'Y -,its -. S--' !4 \ !1., 5 i ; Q '!: :.- ^ a |-i o o *c a .\: il i's .\+ rn R! -!N\ - )- ar 6 QT*P E:( x < s.i *5 ^:A 'i)": !! q X o r- ::laN NF -. 3p t.sE- HP A. A - ; a\A -vdo^ o €if;[r s:o 6' F- 6' 6 1Pt,3 aO =HP \'-i-.6 '.:ei= {; H ntr voa \, i + \. = ! 3 ?=.2.= va'.tr .,a s\ .o -;.- 5 = = = F = dl 2> Ti4 . P; :t > ::: - rtS F= rh :. - 6 0 i za o- n s t"1 r- q si 'o ,"[g; : :!=-. ::: -3.:, 7 - R i \v E'Ei <\P c i Rx S'PG qp r q--=I.jtr ::: Ffl 4 sq! j.\J'L=>C- 6-q : r: ic.tS' ::: >r ; s:1 h--o a - d:i.o A.o '*AO- -Y i: : st.: A fr i a : H. n Iarclq 'ts:ez-* F i' o-oy OO uo P { ,t o- :-i 5 q -93iEIl.t sf o z ?i.98;'i' ;: v;al o = r =R6 P o '," n lv l! NJ I- : -!O\VUJI! ir i5; 3 q3\ \ F 6 P f;T E B P.d.-3.E ? - ^,r'i s@ xz*: n - 6 .! - q; i L.Y=:ao E ! sG- - iE?a:: aE 58: H 6 I b.. U E c-o: E - : -1 iE ;i*E'j taE;€=snF;i* do; E a;-"i e EI( i{ fi : o )i > et.- = E -..-: iiii*iilff 5 q dF jii,iiii E H-T E I 3 = - H.9r--.=oc-tr49"ots=E s 3d: ^. bo rF19*i69T o ^.s v HH ^ - r-{ F i il;ui;r* ;ssi li33 Fi, l-.t s -o6! E! * .: -s ) _- .45 =! 6 - F* a o5I av FEE*46!;P,o -sF,i boq > EH= E.$*uEi-q "a : tr? vs i E3 p'? I g& frR i.g 6 <i:E y E::5:_.EH: r*;0E i* x I :r 2,'; CE.:-U df- u -s>:{i .qu!" irx -N si:- V z=.iE={FEFvEXE ^ i' > ei ; 6 - t u€ P9=; liS o EEEEi - F H - ?ts p3,, k ]J EE f f : t E J:.d: E J.\ ldx€ fv i-AI elg#i* E= U d U.o.:.'j. I H 6s fE * \ c t U).\ :" r*: 3 E- E.E- - " " <* *1,i.c:'r.24 X 3 -1 = \.) i F'-.t'l c--" f .n5 E -.;iE g g-o A+ EiE =isE H -q 3 Y &u';: : n i-'; e 9 \t Ell F > s, -= E F i:- g co v >-'" h d P E I - ! c -: Y O :1= uX go a1 F; h,! u*i_ *. 9i e3 &;;f HbF *'Er.ts43F;F*pu F r"t r ;,- F d Y'i.'_:=: € z F-t-EEia?-=!=sf Ii iii iii iiiii iii fiiiifil iega+H B^$FEF$ I.xsi'6 a ilil IrFli $giili iI F fiii{ iEfi t I rE3a i3l3ri FilgE** ilei iiFE'i; iF'giigg1 firxEgt $ I,irI 3! *E-5 i516:s ii;iisilglitlliiii ri$Fr FFpe;g trg;rg iri+sI g Ir[ +s: n':-fi aF is ili {l[ il ri ffi;l* [*'lnan- d - ei +;' riri;Ero.! frI ? tFsifiFlliigFilgiiiFi - ao ^ (). a F ;; $3 I FiF*i:in;E iiiifEe- e;rtiii gEIt: ? 3 B H.-j' p.E'P i?:' t- E'5 B fi ;' o a:] li,irgrl$$E;ir$li ;ilf;rF o FE lsE 9O Fotu 9?!!5 €ifiilffiiiiiiiiii? iiiix eE *->i koo. OP Er;;P€ 6 b< I ;fiifiit;ite€;:gii!e.o" tr c -9'; 9 H ar Si.9 T;.-:;,X ii 5EErr;i pE:: lg;i{€ijiii I ; E'=b: n€J;eff? gil(d I o0'i i'6= 9€ g€6ust :lrHa€ ;g;ridH H:;il3-6-F c G u d :-'k5 94 ; e;.= E 6lI. O 5leE u_! I *is:-cdj qu:o -rd- Ei E9 dd!!, r 3'$i t s --t iii I I E'* liiiiii iii;iiiiiiiiI, P- "i E BEE { 3 F.E iii{iffiii iii i: i! iil;; ii 14 c U) R" 6riF[;r F5 *itci11i:*: +;B:i; ixiE 6O ++i] 5o *1}iiiilgii' i ii*+l1$lliiii!iii oB ot Eo- t' ili*llliiilliiiil is'-ii*i:is i +i11lE1ia;ii:ix1e+l;e;ii1r:;i W*' op 9r po l;liii ilrli iii'+il'ii* Eo [iiilgiiii iliilliriiiiiiiiiilill ililiiil I P =i il: igil ;:;,1HE st s E P:E E-id :i+E* ll= fFii:i ;;;;:;E::!iJ?ii!;st,;€- il ;gi! ;;t;:gE;s€*ro=€;;sE!es€p;tl iiif ;*li;=E€5i:si;*'s:;::*t:;;il r?r:r€s :s:+i;;;i:ij:t;;;H,sg:;:r* i! E:r;; E:E;;;:r:r:i:!=:g€i:!€ i;g ! EF:[s€;t;*€s;r sFjs;g ;tg g tlil il {iEiiiiiitiiiiiiiII iiiliii;i!Ill"l's il; I t.$ ilo\ |*.ll- Itr4 glfiiiIIF nz iiiiii iiiiiI iilii, Iiii llF \ A r$iErr+ i ti lF$ lEF[? 'J Ilial 1llElliH s I - - ir :> I,E$,F L illEIliiiliiiE igiiilFist's rFrls OeFJ d J- n r-l ,< 4 - c - a r- I tl q -+- l-r''l Er lE*€*EE E!:FFcYr.r H:ffE.Hb qrFE;s:G.:rldE F-r A ;E:tooe., .si.rF;e*,9;38,E - -1 It s;:EiifltisT s'-t r'- '_:ssEr€;;ist;: F-{ fr si€BEEEE}S*Z r--,] ar{ t1. k u , F.; i6 e a 3 ",:E 3 eG I E'oe ^ CJ egg,EiiEE:;i: E u Es!€ui"ri*:Hs;J E ; ;s;:bE= ,-!-#;[+g;ii 6 E; Ef3: E*-l'u iiglic d, *n -in -;:$t=f tl El'-ao Es-js:; adEiq::€i!:r t- E:E:=E'l-8..0;-fr r:F9T;€.x.3€o cc :'E_ES6b-tpUEf +) - s-8 is qgi f Eg -jf * a{i if t EE t sE E 5 E g s #5;5 33 E: 3 E ; - te :{ a}iil= e -1 !r-6.:c9;Y: EH'r !iE_!95 -. : 3i;E:n;s::,r ijt E g g E;i: Fj ! ; ; ?* i ad * " E ; ; s ; - I $I e-qH.-e Er3' : $X6-"o ev troaz y- i7- i,a: "-f,€=EJE lscigEt+f;tznfAF";efr# Ei-€?g:F"-r.2g H ixTFFf:j€E: s:E!rFr€t l;l ; l: T sE;E;F Es e t+;r EEg 's riE€:iHe!-r;a*Yc -tr*+ € : ; Ej:; ei j 3: p 3 q a-g = . E € ! gi3 r F E r I =EE;; F.a E : T :ii's ErE *E;*: H:Et- Er E Eg:; I "o Fe+ ! F E;5-s.!gS? _;:: Xi E:;; q€:E:E gE 9:9 E;; - F {h* ;njf ;;6 ! ==[f i= gi I E?' z r-i a Er e r r =; Et F-: gt g Ef +< O$; a( : F. :- I- bo <d Oa .<tr x' N^ x5 < v+< *frfi y 6o 6f,vY H.B r-:;5 xi'+s oa HX o 3 'i H 11 ^- H0a" H e;n .- o Plo o r- E*fl o a:) : r\ r q A A I c,) q a ?;, o!i I >X iHo , FC F-6 q q) .n: Y fri :h o c.! ch >X .EX tvl oo r.-1 cqi ai zF 6 s i > =:'? r iE; ; *s i L:[ ! ; rFi 33 .1 i t s I e rI F *; l*ir;;: ilq i E= u *: #il: i -: ^<: n d o :- ! e-t 5: r; ri I F;i! i1;;i;+sigs;!iE As E,nt iiii; !;{L!s3: s:frn q aFi ar?rs 3-s !o5'* ,1,- xg.- a Fg+++i[;agilliiiii a :^iE' ;;rice;iE 1;i;;*$i$ ill;Ee f E I s ;;iiag,a:*i;Iiiilg E;s EE r.i' ar B; ;eifsiFFti;;rtil$$i$3i q99t6rs €q:;+BsF Ir=tr O Fa '-:"Pd!.cie R-! ;'p . i - G fi lE s -: ='"O 50a -.^ i:.96-Snc iagiifs$ii:fi$ii its_86-is1 6;3 T:.P:i. Q = 3-g.ts I 3 :I s;g i; ; ii *i{J'sEX 5x ap-; p $ii;iI 6_1;fiT; i I [e e Be;' iiiii$ili;,,$Ls: b''Xo65< :q"-l'lf 1+78-?e;*;ri;sti:i$lii;E !^!v:Y 9 s 6;;" H !€:EE+gEUJE;gH!I c E'aIi * -e ! 5E*lE:l;;;€i:EER : E;;* is +ap6 :iSierH j i:sgEsi;:€ciCiEe ijiigrE q ,$''l Ha !C:.-Do43u I €: :5iii;$sE;T.i;?f g 8';X:i F .' v 9l uE i==i't5Essi \v vT ! l EE -q;:?:+ a f :-frE:f I -g * :E:ea,; ?"Eg!; ;ia;s;ir;iseigE: *rhii6 ;tr€E:*E=n-EsHsEei i; j s 9€.E Ei : a.3+;:E;ii;; s: iE;g " EiE.: es!4 s;" Fl €!iF;t:;;slr;Es;u Y 'i.
Recommended publications
  • Crystal Structure-Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Materials
    ASSIGNMENT PRESENTED BY :- SOLOMON JOHN TIRKEY 2020UGCS002 MOHIT RAJ 2020UGCS062 RADHA KUMARI 2020UGCS092 PALLAVI PUSHPAM 2020UGCS122 SUBMITTED TO:- DR. RANJITH PRASAD CRYSTAL STRUCTURE CRYSTALLINE AND NON-CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS . Introduction We see a lot of materials around us on the earth. If we study them , we found few of them having regularity in their structure . These types of materials are crystalline materials or solids. A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are situated in a repeating or periodic array over large atomic distances; that is, long-range order exists, such that upon solidification, the atoms will position themselves in a repetitive three-dimensional pattern, in which each atom is bonded to its nearest-neighbor atoms. X-ray diffraction photograph [or Laue photograph for a single crystal of magnesium. Crystalline solids have well-defined edges and faces, diffract x-rays, and tend to have sharp melting points. What is meant by Crystallography and why to study the structure of crystalline solids? Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in the crystalline solids. The properties of some materials are directly related to their crystal structures. For example, pure and undeformed magnesium and beryllium, having one crystal structure, are much more brittle (i.e., fracture at lower degrees of deformation) than pure and undeformed metals such as gold and silver that have yet another crystal structure. Furthermore, significant property differences exist between crystalline and non-crystalline materials having the same composition. For example, non-crystalline ceramics and polymers normally are optically transparent; the same materials in crystalline (or semi-crystalline) forms tend to be opaque or, at best, translucent.
    [Show full text]
  • Symmetry-Operations, Point Groups, Space Groups and Crystal Structure
    1 Symmetry-operations, point groups, space groups and crystal structure KJ/MV 210 Helmer Fjellvåg, Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo 1994 This compendium replaces chapter 5.3 and 6 in West. Sections not part of the curriculum are enclosed in asterisks (*). It is recommended that the textbooks of West and Jastrzebski are used as supplementary reading material, with special emphasis on illustrative examples. In this compendium illustrative examples (in italics) have been chosen from close packed structures. A few symbols and synonyms are given in Norwegian as information. The compendium contains exercises which will not be explained in the classes. It is recommended to work through the exercises while reading this compendium. Introduction. Condensed phases may be liquids as well as solids. There are fundamental differences between liquids and solids regarding the long-range distribution of atoms. While liquids have long range disorder in a large scale, solids are mainly ordered, i.e. there is regularity in the repetition of structural fragments (atoms and/or groups of atoms) in the 3 dimensional material. Surfaces of solid materials are often somewhat differently organized than the “bulk” (i.e. the inner part of the material). The atomic (structural) arrangement near the surface will often be different from the bulk arrangement due to surface reconstruction in order to minimize the energy loss associated with complete chemical bonding in all actual directions. Liquids are disordered in bulk, but they often have an ordered surface structure. Solids do not need to display systematic long-range order, i.e. to be crystalline. Some phases can be prepared as amorphous materials, e.g.
    [Show full text]
  • Characterization of the Volcanic Rocks of Mount Sinabung, Simacem Village, Karo Regency, Conducted with XRD, SEM-EDX
    Journal of Technomaterial Physics Vol. 1, No. 1, 2019 | 1 – 5 JoTP Journal of Technomaterial Physics Characterization of the Volcanic Rocks of Mount Sinabung, Simacem Village, Karo Regency, Conducted With XRD, SEM-EDX Perdinan Sinuhaji1, Awan Maghfirah2 and Sahat M. Nababan3 1,2,3 Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Universitas Sumatera Utara 20155, Indonesia Abstract. The study of volcanic rocks characterization of Sinabung Volcano erupted on September 15, 2017. The volcanic rocks crystal system was performed with XRD, elemental analysis and microstructure with SEM-EDX. Volcanic rocks contain: Anorthite phase 87,11 (wt%), Triclinic crystal, lattice constant, a = 8.1742 Å, b = 12.844 Å, c = 14.204 Å; Quartz phase 2.26%, Hexagonal crystals, lattice constants, a = 4.799 Å, b = 4.799 Å, c = 5.379 Å; Cristobalite phase 7.72 (wt%), Tetragonal crystals, lattice constants a = 4.970 Å, b = 6.990 Å, c = 6.998 Å; Alunite phase 2.91 (wt%), Hexagonal crystals, lattice constants, a = 6.990 Å, b = 6.990 Å, c = 17.282 Å. Keyword: Volcanic rock, Crystal Structure, Phase, Microstructure Received 1 December 2018 | Revised [3 January 2019] | Accepted [28 February 2019] 1 Introduction Mount Sinabung’s activity aroused after its 400-year slumber. The activity was firstly noticed on August 27th, 2010. Hot clouds, lava, volcanic dust, sand and volcanic rocks were seen bursting out from the bowels of the mountain. Volcanic dust was bursting high and far, reaching tens of kilometers along with sand and volcanic rocks to residential areas. The adverse impacts inflicted to the residents were including the agricultural damage, water pollution, health problems and flight disruption [1].
    [Show full text]
  • Thermophysical Properties of Kaolin–Zeolite Blends up to 1100 C
    crystals Article Thermophysical Properties of Kaolin–Zeolite Blends up to 1100 ◦C Ján Ondruška 1, Tomáš Húlan 1, Ivana Sunitrová 1, Štefan Csáki 2, Grzegorz Łagód 3 , Alena Struhárová 4 and Anton Trník 1,5,* 1 Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku 1, 94974 Nitra, Slovakia; [email protected] (J.O.); [email protected] (T.H.); [email protected] (I.S.) 2 Institute of Plasma Physics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Za Slovankou 3, 18200 Prague, Czech Republic; [email protected] 3 Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka 40B, 20-618 Lublin, Poland; [email protected] 4 Department of Materials Engineering and Physics, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinskeho 11, 81005 Bratislava, Slovakia; [email protected] 5 Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 16629 Prague, Czech Republic * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +421-37-6408-616 Abstract: In this study, the thermophysical properties such as the thermal expansion, thermal diffusivity and conductivity, and specific heat capacity of ceramic samples made from kaolin and natural zeolite are investigated up to 1100 ◦C. The samples were prepared from Sedlec kaolin (Czech Republic) and natural zeolite (Nižný Hrabovec, Slovakia). Kaolin was partially replaced with a natural zeolite in the amounts of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mass%. The measurements were performed on cylindrical samples using thermogravimetric analysis, a horizontal pushrod dilatometer, and laser flash apparatus. The results show that zeolite in the samples decreases the values of all studied Citation: Ondruška, J.; Húlan, T.; Sunitrová, I.; Csáki, Š.; Łagód, G.; properties (except thermal expansion), which is positive for bulk density, porosity, thermal diffusivity, Struhárová, A.; Trník, A.
    [Show full text]
  • Crystal Physics and X Ray Diffraction
    CRYSTAL PHYSICS AND X RAY DIFFRACTION US03CPHY22 UNIT - 3 CRYSTAL PHYSICS AND X – RAY DIFFRACTION INTRODUCTION A crystal is a solid composed of atoms or other microscopic particles arranged in an orderly periodic array in three dimensions. It may not be a complete definition, yet it is a true description. The three general types of solids: amorphous, polycrystalline and single crystal are distinguished by the size of ordered regions within the materials. Order in amorphous solids is limited to a few molecular distances. In polycrystalline materials, the solid is made-up of grains which are highly ordered crystalline regions of irregular size and orientation. Single crystals have long-range order. Many important properties of materials are found to depend on the structure of crystals and on the electron states within the crystals. The study of crystal physics aims to interpret the macroscopic properties in terms of properties of the microscopic particles of which the solid is composed. The study of the geometric form and other physical properties of crystalline solids by using x-rays, electron beams and neutron beams constitute the science of crystallography or crystal physics. LATTICE POINTS AND SPACE LATTICE The atomic arrangement in a crystal is called crystal structure. In perfect crystal, there is a regular arrangement of atoms. This periodicity in the arrangement generally varies in different directions. It is very convenient to imagine points in space about which these atoms are located. Such points in space are called lattice points and the totality of such points forms a crystal lattice or space lattice. If all the atoms at the lattice points are identical, the lattice is called a “Bravais lattice”.
    [Show full text]
  • Powder Diffraction Structure Determination and Refinement from Powder Diffraction Data
    Berichte aus Arbeitskreisen der DGK Nr. 9 VII. Workshop Powder Diffraction Structure Determination and Refinement from Powder Diffraction Data Robert E. Dinnebier (ed.) Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kristallographie 2000 - ii - Acknowledgement The VII international workshop on powder diffraction, October 4. – 8, 2000 at the Laboratory of Crystallography of the University of Bayreuth (Germany) was organized by the Powder Diffraction Group of the German Society of Crystallogra- phy DGK. We are grateful to the Universität Bayreuth for supplying technical assistance, lecture halls and PC pools free of charge. We are further grateful for financial support from - Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kristallographie (DGK) - Deutsche Mineralogische Gesellschaft (DMG) - International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) - International Centre for Diffraxction Data (ICDD) - Clariant GmbH, Frankfurt - Stoe & Cie, Darmstadt - Bruker AXS, Karlsruhe - Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre (CCDC), Cambridge - Molecular Simulation Inc. (MSI), Cambridge - Böhringer Ingelheim, Biberach a.d. Riss - Crystal Impact, Bonn - BASF AG, Ludwigshafen - Philips Analytical, Almelo Due to the generous support, it was possible to keep registration costs for this workshop low and to award 15 travel grants to students to cover all local costs at Bayreuth as well as part of their travel costs. - iii - - iv - Preface The complexity of crystal structures which can be solved and/or refined from powder diffraction data has been increasing steadily throughout the last few years. In particular further developments of “traditional” algorithms for structure determination in reciprocal space as well as the application of global optimiza- tion algorithms in direct space have reached a level which for the first time al- lows powder diffraction to be used as an alternative technique to single crystal diffraction for inorganic and small molecule structures.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 2: Minerals
    503-S1-MSS05_G7NA 8/16/04 2:18 PM Page 28 Minerals Nature’s Beautiful Creation sections Although cut by gemologists to enhance 1 Minerals Lab Crystal Formation their beauty, these gorgeous diamonds formed naturally—deep within Earth. One 2 Mineral Identification requirement for a substance to be a mineral 3 Uses of Minerals is that it must occur in nature. Human- Lab Mineral Identification made diamonds serve their purpose in Virtual Lab How can industry but are not considered minerals. minerals be defined by Science Journal Write two questions you would ask their properties? a gemologist about the minerals that he or she works with. SuperStock 503-S1-MSS05_G7NA 8/16/04 2:18 PM Page 29 Start-Up Activities Minerals Make the following Foldable to help you better understand minerals. Distinguish Rocks from Minerals When examining rocks, you’ll notice that STEP 1 Fold a vertical many of them are made of more than one sheet of note- material. Some rocks are made of many dif- book paper from side to side. ferent crystals of mostly the same mineral. A mineral, however, will appear more like a pure substance and will tend to look the STEP 2 Cut along every third line of only the same throughout. Can you tell a rock from a top layer to form tabs. mineral? 1. Use a magnifying lens to observe a quartz crystal, salt grains, and samples of sandstone, granite, calcite, mica, and schist (SHIHST). STEP 3 Label each tab with a question. 2. Draw a sketch of each sample. 3.
    [Show full text]
  • Orthorhombic Crystal System (S, Base-C, BC, FC) N Tetragonal Crystal System (S, BC) N Trigonal (Rhombohedral) Crystal System (S)
    KATILARIN ELEKTRONİK YAPISININ BENZETİŞİMİ Kristal Fiziği: Temel Kavramlar-2 Doç.Dr. Yeşim Moğulkoç E-posta: [email protected] Tel: 0312 2033550 Miller Indices Miller Indices are a symbolic vector representation for the orientation of an atomic plane in a crystal lattice and are defined as the reciprocals of the fractional intercepts which the plane makes with the crystallographic axes. To determine Miller indices of a plane, take the following steps; 1) Determine the intercepts of the plane along each of the three crystallographic directions 2) Take the reciprocals of the intercepts 3) If fractions result, multiply each by the denominator of the smallest fraction Crystal Structure 2 Example-1 Axis X Y Z Intercept points 1 ∞ ∞ Reciprocals 1/1 1/ ∞ 1/ ∞ Smallest Ratio 1 0 0 Miller İndices (100) (1,0,0) Crystal Structure 3 Example-2 Axis X Y Z Intercept points 1 1 ∞ Reciprocals 1/1 1/ 1 1/ ∞ Smallest Ratio 1 1 0 (0,1,0) Miller İndices (110) (1,0,0) Crystal Structure 4 Example-3 Axis X Y Z (0,0,1) Intercept points 1 1 1 Reciprocals 1/1 1/ 1 1/ 1 Smallest Ratio (0,1,0) 1 1 1 Miller İndices (111) (1,0,0) Crystal Structure 5 Example-4 Axis X Y Z Intercept points 1/2 1 ∞ Reciprocals 1/(½) 1/ 1 1/ ∞ Smallest Ratio 2 1 0 (0,1,0) (1/2, 0, 0) Miller İndices (210) Crystal Structure 6 Example-5 Axis a b c Intercept points 1 ∞ ½ Reciprocals 1/1 1/ ∞ 1/(½) Smallest Ratio 1 0 2 Miller İndices (102) Crystal Structure 7 Example-6 Crystal Structure 8 Miller Indices [2,3,3] Plane intercepts axes at 3a, 2b, 2c 2 1 1 1 Reciprocal numbers are: , , 3 2 2 c b Indices of the plane (Miller): (2,3,3) 2 a Indices of the direction: [2,3,3] 3 (200) (111) (110) (100) (100) Crystal Structure 9 TYPICAL CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 3D – 14 BRAVAIS LATTICES AND THE SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEM n There are only seven different shapes of unit cell which can be stacked together to completely fill all space (in 3 dimensions) without overlapping.
    [Show full text]
  • The Interaction of Feldspar, Mica and Quartz with Different Collectors During Froth Flotation
    THE INTERACTION OF FELDSPAR, MICA AND QUARTZ WITH DIFFERENT COLLECTORS DURING FROTH FLOTATION ISMAIL BIN IBRAHIM UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA 2012 THE INTERACTION OF FELDSPAR, MICA AND QUARTZ WITH DIFFERENT COLLECTORS DURING FROTH FLOTATION by ISMAIL IBRAHIM Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy APRIL 2012 Dedicated to my lovely wife Marina, my daughters and sons Nurul Asyikin, Muhammad Akram, Nurul Athirah, Siti Nur Salwa and Muhammad Salam Imran ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the name of Allah S.W.T, I would like to express my gratefulness to HIM for giving me strength to finish my research project. In preparing this project report, I was in contact with many people who have contributed towards my understanding and thoughts. I would like to express my sincere and deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hashim Hussin for his supervision, helpful guidance, encouragement and valuable discussion throughout the research. I wish to express my sincere appreciations to my co- supervisor Prof Dr. Khairun Azizi Mohd Azizli for her support and helpful suggestion and advices. I would like thank to the Government of Malaysia, especially to Human Resources Division, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) and Public Services Department, for their financial support and scholarship during my research work. My gratitude also goes to Dato’ Hj. Yunus Razak (General Director of Department of Mineral and Geoscience Malaysia), Dato’ Hj. Zulkifly Abu Bakar (Director of Mineral Research Centre Malaysia), Mr Md Muzayin Alimon (Section Head of Mineral Processing Technology) and all my colleagues in the Mineral Research Centre for their help, support and encouragement during the study.
    [Show full text]
  • Crystal System Guide Cubic Tetragonal
    Crystal System Guide A crystal system is defined as one of seven categories of crystals classified according to the possible relations of its crystal axes. These categories include the cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, trigonal, hexagonal, monoclinic, and triclinic crystal systems. Each system is recognized by the geometric parameters of its unit cell, which is the simplest repeating unit in the crystal. Cubic The unit cell of a crystal in the cubic crystal system is shaped like a cube. All sides (a) have the same length. All angles are 90-degree angles. Examples: diamond, fluorite, gold, pyrite. Tetragonal The unit cell of a crystal in the tetragonal crystal system is shaped like a rectangular prism with a square base. Its height (c) is not equal to the sides (a) of the base. Its angles are 90-degree angles. Examples: anatase, chalcopyrite, scapolite, wulfenite, Zircon. Orthorhombic The unit cell of a crystal in the orthorhombic crystal system is shaped like a rectangular prism with a rectangular base. Its height (c) is not equal to any sides (a or b) of the base. Its angles are 90-degree angles. Examples: Alexandrite, Celestite, Tanzanite, Topaz. Trigonal The unit cell of a crystal in the trigonal crystal system is also known as the rhombohedral system. All sides (a) are equal in length. All angles (α) are equal, and not 90-degree angles. Examples: Amethyst, Quartz, Ruby, Tigers Eye. Hexagonal The unit cell of a crystal in the hexagonal crystal system is shaped like a prism with a hexagon base. The base sides (a) are equal in length.
    [Show full text]
  • Unit Cell – Definition
    The Fascination of Crystals and Symmetry Unit 1.8 by Frank Hoffmann & Michael Sartor The 7 Crystal Systems Unit Cell – Definition . The unit cell is the unit, which builds up the whole crystal structure by repeated translations along all three spatial directions. z z y y x x Unit Cell – Attributes z Metric . it is defined by six cell/lattice parameters . the three cell/lattice constants, the lengths of the edges (a, b, and c) c . and three angles between these edges (α, β, and γ) β α b y a γ Symmetry . it contains all present symmetry elements . defines the minimum size of the unit cell x Chemical Composition (Stoichiometry) . the chemical content of an unit cell corresponds to the chemical composition of the considered compound (!) H2O HO HO HO H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O 2H:1O HO HO HO H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O The 7 crystal systems (metric, system of coordinates) z Classification of unit cells Every imaginable crystal of the world belongs to one of altogether 7 possible crystal systems c β α b y a γ restrictions for cell constants cell angles x triclinic none none monoclinic none a = g = 90° orthorhombic none a = b = g = 90° tetragonal a = b a = b = g = 90° trigonal a = b a = b = 90°; g = 120° hexagonal a = b a = b = 90°; g = 120° cubic a = b = c a = b = g = 90° symmetry hexagonal crystal family The 7 crystal systems (metric, system of coordinates) z Classification of unit cells Every imaginable crystal of the world belongs to one of altogether 7 possible crystal systems c β α b y a γ maximum restrictions for cell constants cell angles symmetry x triclinic none none 1 monoclinic none a = g = 90° 2/m orthorhombic none a = b = g = 90° mmm tetragonal a = b a = b = g = 90° 4/mmm trigonal a = b a = b = 90°; g = 120° 3m hexagonal a = b a = b = 90°; g = 120° 6/mmm cubic a = b = c a = b = g = 90° m3m symmetry The 7 crystal systems (metric, system of coordinates) z Warning! You will find such a table in almost every text book of crystallography.
    [Show full text]
  • Classification of Bravais Lattices and Crystal Structures
    Classification of Bravais lattices and crystal structures Daniele Toffoli December 13, 2016 1 / 44 Outline 1 Classification of Bravais lattices 2 The crystallographic point groups and space groups 3 Examples Daniele Toffoli December 13, 2016 2 / 44 Classification of Bravais lattices 1 Classification of Bravais lattices 2 The crystallographic point groups and space groups 3 Examples Daniele Toffoli December 13, 2016 3 / 44 Classification of Bravais lattices Symmetry group of the Bravais lattice The classification of Bravais lattices Symmetry group or space group of a Bravais lattice Bravais lattice: Crystal structure obtained by placing a basis of maximum possible symmetry at each lattice point e.g. a rigid sphere Symmetry group: set of all rigid operations that transform the lattice into itself a translation by any lattice vector R rigid operations that leave a lattice point fixed a combination of both Daniele Toffoli December 13, 2016 4 / 44 Classification of Bravais lattices Symmetry group of the Bravais lattice Space group Any symmetry operation can be obtained as a composition of a translation through a lattice vector R, TR a rigid operation that leaves a lattice point fixed Justification Given an operation S that leaves no lattice point fixed O is taken to R T−R takes R into O T−R S is also a symmetry operation (group property) leaves the origin fixed Therefore S = TR T−R S Daniele Toffoli December 13, 2016 5 / 44 Classification of Bravais lattices Symmetry group of the Bravais lattice Space group Example simple cubic lattice Daniele Toffoli December 13, 2016 6 / 44 Classification of Bravais lattices The seven crystal systems Groups of non-translational symmetry operations Subgroups of the full symmetry groups Any crystal structure belongs to one of seven crystal systems the point group of the underlying Bravais lattice Identical point groups: Groups containing the same set of operations e.g.
    [Show full text]