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'A Sort of Middle of the Road Policy' Forward Defence University of New South Wales Australian Defence Force Academy ‘A Sort of Middle of the Road Policy’ Forward Defence, Alliance Politics and the Australian Nuclear Weapons Option, 1953-1973 Luke Thomas Auton (z3067850) Thesis prepared in requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2008 Copyright Statement I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation. Luke Thomas Auton Canberra, October 2008 Authenticity Statement I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion to digital format. Luke Thomas Auton Canberra, October 2008 Certificate of Originality I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial portions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgment is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research of others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in this thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project’s design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged. Luke Thomas Auton Canberra, October 2008 Abstract This thesis is about the importance of nuclear weapons to Australian defence and strategic policy in Southeast Asia between 1953 and 1973. It argues that Australia’s approach to nuclear issues during this period, and its attitude towards the development and acquisition of nuclear weapons in particular, was aimed exclusively at achieving narrowly defined political objectives. Australia was thus never interested in possessing nuclear weapons, and any moves seemingly taken along these lines were calculated to obtain political concessions – not as part of a ‘bid’ for their acquirement. This viewpoint sits at odds with the consensus position of several focused studies of Australian nuclear policy published in the past decade. Although in general these studies correctly argue that Australia maintained the ‘nuclear weapons option’ until the early 1970s, all have misrepresented the motivation for this by contending that the government viewed such weapons in exclusively military terms. The claim that Australia was interested only in the military aspect of nuclear weapons does not pay due attention to the fact that defence planning was based entirely on the provision of conventional forces to Southeast Asia. Accordingly, the military was interested first and foremost with issues arising from extant conventional planning concepts, and the government was chiefly concerned about obtaining allied assurances of support for established plans. The most pressing requirement for Australia therefore was gaining sway over allied countries. However, the Australian government was never in a position to overtly influence more powerful allies against an undertaking that could escalate into limited war, and was similarly incapable of inducing its allies to retain forces in the region in spite of competing pressures. It was for this reason that Australia would seek to manipulate the nuclear weapons option. Indeed, access to such weapons offered Australia the opportunity to achieve greater integration in formulating allied planning, while the threat to manufacture them provided a means of convincing regional partners to maintain a presence in the area. The thesis therefore concludes that Australia carefully presented its options for procuring nuclear weapons to gain influence over its allies in response to strategic developments in Southeast Asia. Table of Contents Acknowledgements ii Abbreviations vi Introduction 1 (1) Nuclear Weapons and the Concept of Forward Defence (1953-1956) 19 (2) Nuclear Sharing and an Agreement on Medium Bombers (1957-1959) 52 (3) Nuclear Guidelines and Regional Military Planning (1957-1963) 78 (4) Nuclear Doctrine and Defence Coordination in Southeast Asia (1957-1963) 107 (5) Nuclear Disarmament and the Acquisition of the F-111 (1957-1963) 134 (6) Nuclear Collaboration and Proliferation in Asia (1963-1966) 168 (7) Nuclear Breakout and the ‘East of Suez’ Decision (1965-1968) 196 (8) Nuclear Non-Proliferation and the End of ‘Forward Defence’ (1968-1973) 223 Conclusion 258 Bibliography 268 ii Acknowledgements It is only natural for a doctoral student to look upon their work as representing one of the most solitary endeavours that could ever be sanely pursued. I am certain that anyone with a postgraduate research degree in the humanities can only look back at their candidature as representing countless hours of lonesome research and writing in what are sometimes unfamiliar and distant locations. It is for this reason that it is all too easy to overlook the assistance and encouragement that others have provided, which, in fact, has proven essential to the progression of the thesis in question. So with that in mind I would like to acknowledge the support I have had the honour to receive from supervisors, colleagues, friends and family alike. A very special thank you goes to Alan Stephens who acted as supervisor for most of the period since the commencement of my candidature. He provided invaluable assistance in shaping and focusing the thesis, and has been a constant source of encouragement and advice. I initially asked Alan to be my supervisor because his academic interests accorded with what was then one of the central themes of my research. Of course, the thesis went in a different direction before too long, but knowing what I do now I would not have made a different decision. I cannot think of a better supervisor whatever course my research may have taken. Special thanks to Craig Stockings, who took over from Alan in 2006. Craig has proven to be of immense assistance in the latter stages of this project, and has played an important role in bringing out its central argument. He came on board at what was a critical juncture in the progress of the thesis, providing the impetus for its continuance with a zeal unique to a young academic, while ensuring I had a plan to work against that took into account sometimes pressing outside commitments. It is likely that this thesis would not be at the stage it now is without the guidance he has provided over the past year and a half. Thanks to Peter Dennis who acted as associate supervisor for much of my candidature. Peter provided very insightful advice about the travails of academia, and, in a more practical sense, saved me from utter destitution by providing me a position as one of his iii research assistants. I remain entirely unrepentant for not abiding by his strictures on chastity, poverty and obedience while under his supervision, although I must admit that these virtues – either singularly or in combination – were thrust upon me through circumstances outside of my control at various stages in my candidature. I am also grateful for the earlier guidance provided by Wayne Reynolds, who fostered my interest in the history of Australian foreign relations as an undergraduate. Wayne also gave me an appreciation for the importance of the nuclear weapons option to Australian foreign and defence policy. We fundamentally disagree on the way in which that option was played out, but that is in large measure because of the principle he instilled in me while his student: history is above all else contestable. The best tribute I can pay Wayne is therefore contained in the proceeding pages of this thesis. I spent a total of three years as a full-time student in the School of History – and later School of Humanities and Social Sciences (HASS) – at UNSW@ADFA. In that time I received assistance and encouragement from many academics, particularly Robin Prior, Frank Cain, Eleanor Hancock, and Jeff Grey, for which I am indebted. I am also very thankful for the support I received from Bernadette McDermott and the administrative staff in HASS, who saw to it that I had the necessary resources to undertake research and associated tasks. Thanks also to the staff at the very well resourced Australian Defence Force Academy library. I would like to thank John Connor and his partner Karen Costello. John was a source of advice and guidance over much of this project, and both were kind enough to put me up for three weeks in 2003 while researching in the UK. Thanks also to my colleagues Damien Fenton and Chris Roberts, who willingly spent many hours sharing their own experiences with me. In this respect, thanks are also due to my friend and fellow Novocastrian, Justin Wilson, who inspired me during the first year of his doctoral degree, and then encouraged me during the initial stages of my own.
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