God and the Problem of Evil: A Reformed Analytic Inquiry by Stephen Mutavdzija A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Knox College and the Theology Department of the Toronto School of Theology In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Theology awarded by Knox College and the University of Toronto © Copyright by Stephen Mutavdzija 2017 God and the Problem of Evil: A Reformed Analytic Inquiry Stephen Mutavdzija Master of Theology Knox College and the University of Toronto 2017 Abstract In this thesis I argue that a Reformed epistemological approach to the problem of evil is more than sufficient in demonstrating the coherence of theism through logical and probable reasoning. I do this by examining various objections and challenges to theism posited by J.L. Mackie and Paul Draper, and contrast them with reasoning found in the works of Alvin Plantinga and likeminded supporters of the Reformed epistemology using analytic philosophical methodology. ii To Jure and Milica Mutavdzija iii Acknowledgements In preparing this thesis I must acknowledge those who supported me throughout its construction, mainly, my advisors Charles Fensham, Peter Slater, and John Vissers. Thanks go out to Knox College for their financial support and resources, as well as St. Andrew’s Presbyterian Church, Hillsburgh, ON. Heather Paton Wright’s encouragement throughout the early stages of this undertaking must be noted. Finally, I owe a great debt of gratitude to Richard Brian Davis who introduced me to analytic philosophy many years ago and taught me the importance of loving God with all my mind. iv CONTENTS Chapter 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 2. Overview ………………………………………………………………………... 6 Preliminary Remarks: From Wittgenstein to Plantinga Ludwig Wittgenstein: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Philosophical Investigations Alvin Plantinga: Reformed Epistemology 3. Methodology ....................................................................................................... 15 The logical problem of evil Concepts pertaining to proper functionalism The evidential problem of evil Defining rational discourse 4. Critical Examination ........................................................................................... 24 The logical challenge Evil and omnipotence God, freedom, and evil The evidential challenge Pleasure and pain (the biological role of good and evil) On being evidentially challenged 5. Analysis and Evaluation ……………………………………………………….. 74 6. Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 88 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 91 v Chapter 1 Introduction Some of the most vexing questions each one of us has to wrestle with are those pertaining to the problem of evil. Evil is something with which we are all familiar. It is constantly lurking in the background of the world in which we live, hurting the innocent and bringing pain to the most vulnerable and gentle of people in society. But what exactly is the problem of evil and for whom? How should we go about seeking some kind of resolution to it? As I see it, the problem of evil is more than simply a problem. It would be more accurate to say that there are various problems surrounding discourse on evil rather than the problem of evil, not only because the amount of evil in the world is so great, but also because there are multiple ways in which people interpret evil and the different perceptions cry out for answers. Some philosophers see the problem of evil as one belonging to God. How can the classically understood omnibenevolent, omnipotent, and omniscient god allow evil to exist in his created universe? This question has been the focus of debate within philosophy of religion for quite some time. Its Western historical written inquiry began with Epicurus sometime in the fourth century B.C.E. and since then has reared its head in the writings of people throughout the modern era such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and David Hume, not to mention authors in the 20th and 21st century, in the works of Antony Flew, J.L. Mackie, and Paul Draper. Within analytic philosophy of religion, Christian philosophers have felt the need to engage the most powerful arguments against the existence of God. Taking seriously the undeniable presence of evil in the world, Christian thinkers have responded to attacks on belief in God’s existence with intellectual rigor and creativity. One of the greatest theist voices to enter contemporary dialogues and debates is Christian Reformed philosopher, Alvin Plantinga, 1 2 who, according to an article in Time magazine, published in April 1980, was said to be the “world’s leading Protestant philosopher of God.”1 Since the 1960s, Plantinga has had several books published in the areas of metaphysics, epistemology, and philosophy of religion.2 The focus of this thesis will seek to defend a Reformed theistic stance against the most pressing challenges posed by contemporary atheists and agnostics within analytic philosophy of religion. When analytic philosophers of religion discuss the problem of evil, they typically engage in discussion about whether or not affirmations of the existence of evil and the existence of God are compatible or plausible. Some philosophers have argued that the obviously warranted belief in the existence of evil and belief in an omnibenevolent, omniscient, and omnipotent god3 is incoherent or nonsensical and ought to be abandoned due to an implicit logical contradiction.4 Such was the case with Antony Flew and his employment of falsification 1 "Modernizing the Case for God", Time, April 5, 1980. 2 Some of his more current books are transcribed debates between the prominent atheist philosophers of our time. See Alvin Plantinga and Michael Tooley, Knowledge of God (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008), Alvin Plantinga and Daniel Dennett, Science and Religion: Are They Compatible? (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011). 3 Some Christian theologians and philosophers oppose this description of God, arguing that the properties mentioned above are formulations of Greek thought rather than Hebrew understandings of the divine. For example, in “The Divine Power and the Creature,” Paul Tillich has us consider thinking about God as Being itself: “With respect to time, omnipotence is eternity; with respect to space, it is omnipresence; and with respect to the subject-object structure of being, it is omniscience. These symbols must now be interpreted. Causality and substance in relation to being-itself were discussed in the symbol of God as the “creative ground” of being, in which the term ‘creative’ contained and transcended causality, while the term “ground” contained and transcended substance.” Linwood Urban and Douglas N. Walton, ed. The Power of God: Readings on Omnipotence and Evil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 48. However, throughout this thesis, the concept of God should be understood to possess, among other things, the classical properties based on reasoning articulated by Thomas Williams. “We cannot know what scripture means unless we use reason to separate and distinguish defensible interpretations from indefensible ones. If scripture is interpreted to make God less than the greatest conceivable being or to imply that God is unjust, reason tells us that scripture does not mean that and gives us tools to discern the true meaning.” Reason and Faith: Philosophy in the Middle Ages, Thomas Williams (The Teaching Company, 2007), DVD. 4 In his chapter entitled “Can God’s Existence be Disproved?” J.N. Findlay states it as such. 3 theory5, and that of J.L. Mackie.6 Although these views held much sway in Western philosophy departments for decades on end in the 19th and 20th centuries, the debate has continued to remain an open case since the late 1960s. This thesis will briefly map out some of the early analytic developments of the 20th century works of those such as Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, and Ludwig Wittgenstein in order to situate ourselves in current Western debates. Hopefully this will prove helpful to understanding the thesis as a whole because the tradition from which Alvin Plantinga, along with his interlocutors engage debate, find their roots in these early thinkers. The primary historical discussion will examine the early and later work of Wittgenstein, mainly because his work is still highly relevant within theological discourse at the Toronto School of Theology, but also because he captures much analytic thought as it progressed during early development. After writing some preliminary remarks about the historical development of the analytic method, I shall then go on to discuss some key concepts that are of utmost importance to understanding Plantinga’s thoughts and refutations. Such concepts include de re/de dicto distinctions, possible worlds, and essentialism, to name a few. This exposition will ensure that the thesis will be clear, concise, and intelligible. In addition, I shall also briefly introduce Bayesian methodology, which concerns itself with probability and rational belief. This seems necessary, not because “For we try to show that the Divine Existence can only be conceived, in a religiously satisfactory manner, if we also conceive it as something inescapable and necessary, whether for thought or reality. From which it follows that our modern denial of necessity