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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-14916-7 - Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires, 1908-1918 Michael A. Reynolds Index More information

Index

Abdulhamid¨ II, Sultan, 22, 54, 61, 64, 83, Armenian massacres of 1894–96, 84, 87, 90, 96, 150, 238 54 and Armenian massacres of 1894–96, Armenian military formations, 117, 144, 54 145, 146 and pan-Islam, 82–83 Russians decide to disband, 156–57 deposed, 30 victories at Karakilise and Sardarabad, indirect rule of Eastern Anatolia, 211 50 Armenian Patriarchate, 48, 54 introduces and suspends constitution, Armenian Question, 16, 48, 73, 78, 151, 49 152–53, 201, 215, 247 Abdulkadir,¨ Sheikh, 65, 66 Russia resurrects, 73 Abdullah Cevdet, 55 Armenian Reform Plan of 1914, 41–42, Abdurrezzak¨ Bedirhan, 58, 64, 65, 77, 73–77, 143, 150 145, 159 Armenians, 2, 46, 86 and Bitlis Uprising, 80 Allies condemn 1915 massacres, efforts to unify Kurds, 60, 67–69 148 Russophilia, 59 and Bitlis Uprising, 79 Abkhaz, 236, 265 and Congress of Berlin, 15–16 Abkhazia, 209, 236 and example of Bulgaria, 16 Agao˘ glu˘ (Agaev), Ahmed, 42, 43, 44, 89, and land question, 50 90, 94, 186, 187 deaths in massacres and deportations, criticizes Ottoman government on 155 Brest-Litovsk, 186 education and ascendance of, 51 Ahmed Izzet˙ Pasha, 164 experience between 1908 and 1918 as Ajaria, 88, 165 cruelest irony, 264 Ajars, 88, 124, 134, 139, 144 land question, 88 Akhaltsikh and Akhalkalaki, 207 numbers deported from Anatolia, 152 Albania, 26, 34, 150 peasantry, 51, 61 Alekseev, Mikhail (chief of General Staff), population counts, 47–48 139 revolutionaries, 70–71, 98–102 urges Russia to make separate peace see also Dashnaktsutiun and with Ottoman empire, 137 Hnchakian Revolutionary Party Ali Fuat (Cebesoy), 257 view of Russian occupation policy, Ali Huseyinzade,¨ 129 159–60 Ali Kemalˆ Bey, 30 Armeno-Tatar War of 1905, 84 Ardahan, 14, 20, 50, 83, 124, 132, 175, Ashirbekov, Isa, 221 176, 184, 185, 189, 199, 200, 203, Asımˆ Bey, 33 232, 245, 247, 257 Assyrians, 2, 16, 46, 47, 48, 69, 79, 115, Soviet Union demands, 262 117, 118, 142, 152, 153, 155, 156, Armenia, 47, 191, 214, 246, 253, 257, 258 258 Armenian National Council declares relations with Kurds, 52 independence, 212 request Russian arms, 115

293

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-14916-7 - Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires, 1908-1918 Michael A. Reynolds Index More information

294 Index

Austria-Hungary, 3, 26, 31, 107, 110, 113, Bitlis, 41, 47, 60, 64, 117, 136, 141, 160, 124, 125, 139, 172, 177, 182 162 and Ukraine, 134, 183 Kurdish uprising of 1914, 78–81 annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, 27 Black Sea Straits, 29, 115, 135, 137, 177, little patience for Ottoman claims at 253, 262, 263 Brest-Litovsk, 172, 185 Ottomans shut in September 1914, Aver’ianov, Petr, 48, 49, 66, 67 112 Azerbaijan, 28, 84, 121, 191, 214, 219, Russian dependence upon, 32, 33 223, 230, 233, 246, 248, 258 Russian plans to seize, 31, 35, 40 Act of Independence, 213 Bolsheviks, 5, 172, 173, 176, 196, 200, and federation with Ottoman empire, 209, 215, 225, 227–29, 231 213–14 conquer Caucasus, 256–57 demand that Ottomans withdraw from Baghdad, 135, 136, 169, 171, 220 Caucasus, 180, 245–46, 247–48 Bahaeddin S¸akir, 30, 84–85, 116, 121, formula of peace without annexations 124, 132 and indemnities, 170, 171, 174 Baku, 93, 126, 192, 204, 209, 217, 227, goal at Brest-Litovsk, 177 228, 231, 252, 256, 257 issue “Declaration of the Rights of and Congress of the Peoples of the East, Peoples”, 192, 253 258 issue decree “On Armenia”, 179 Bolsheviks and Germans codify overthrow Provisional Government, 170 agreement on, 232 sign Brest-Litovsk Treaty, 186 falls to Caucasus Army of Islam, 233–35 spar with Germans over March Events, 200 self-determination, 178 massacre of Armenians, 234 Bosnia and Herzegovina, 27, 29, 75, 107 strategic signiﬁcance to Ottomans, 219 Bosphorus, 31, 35, 36, 242, 252 Baku Commune, 200, 224–26 see also Black Sea Straits Balkan Wars, 34–37, 91 Breslau and Goeben, 109, 111 impact on Ottoman empire, 38–40, 53, Brest-Litovsk, peace talks, 171, 196 63 Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of, 216, 219, 231, impact on Russian thinking, 72–73 232, 243, 245, 246–48 Balkans, 30, 120, 165, 261 Ottoman reaction to, 186–87 and national idea, 12 Bukhara, 60, 65, 88, 240, 242 Muslim refugees from, 17, 25, 150 Bulgaria, 12, 13, 14, 35–36, 172–75, 185, Bammate (Bammatov), Haidar, 201, 248 206–07 warns of Unionist indifference to North Cabir Pasha, 66 Caucasus, 249 Cafer Bey, 85–86 Baratov, General Nikolai, 158 Caucasus Army of Islam, 220–24, 226, Basok-Melenev’skii, Mariian, 133, 134 227, 229, 230, 233–35, 246 Batumi, 14, 20, 50, 184, 185, 189, 199, Transcaucasus and 199, 200, 207, 218 200, 209, 232, 245, 247 Caucasus Committee, 175–76 as obstacle to Georgian–Ottoman Cavid Bey, 10, 112, 113 alliance, 202–03 Cemal Pasha (Bey), Ahmed, 97, 109, 112, peace talks, 206–10 113, 137, 222 Benyamin, Mar Shimun XXI, on pathetic assassinated, 252 state of Ottoman army, 170 favors alliance with France, 108 Berlin, Congress of, 14 leads offensive at Suez, 127–28 and afﬁrmation of national idea, 15 Central Caspian Dictatorship, 229, 233 article 61, 15–16 Cevdet Bey, 83, 162 Bernstorff, Johann Heinrich von, 171, 175, Charykov, Nikolai, 29, 30, 31, 33, 61, 93 227 on pan-Islam, 92 Bessarabia, 14, 258 Chechens, 91, 201 Bicherakhov, Colonel Lazar, 226, Chermoev, Abdulmejid (Tapa), 206, 249, 229 251 Bismarck, Otto von, 16 Chernozubov, General Fedor, 126, 134

Index 295

Chicherin, Georgii (Commissar for addresses Batumi city duma, 204 Foreign Affairs), 209, 232, 247 advises that Russia’s Muslims and blasts Ottomans for violating Georgians will not support Ottomans, Brest-Litovsk, 245 123 Chirkov (consul in Khoy), 67, 68 and Georgian Legion, 133 Chkhenkeli, Akaki, 201, 202, 203 and raid on Sublime Porte, 37 Chrysanthos, Metropolitan of Trabzon, anger over Balkan Wars, 39 163–64 capture of Russian supplies inspires Churchill, Winston, 110, 262 plans of deeper advance, 199 Cilicia, 141, 252 complains about Russian atrocitities, Circassians, 15, 16, 46, 47, 52, 53, 87, 198 121, 123, 149, 256 creates secret force to suppress attempts Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), at “peace coup”, 138 2, 22, 23, 30, 34, 55, 87, 93, 97–98 on importance of Azerbaijan’s see also Unionists independence at war’s end, 249–50 activities in Transcaucasus and Iran, 83 founds Tes¸kilat-ıˆ Mahsusa, 121 and land reform, 62–63 in 1908 Revolution, 1 Congress of Oppressed Peoples, 129 in Tripolitanian War, 32 Cossacks, 46, 104, 105, 120, 140, 144, instructs Vehib Pasha to propose 146, 160, 237 ceasefire, 170 Crimea, 25, 43, 80, 87, 103, 186, 188, issues secret orders to take Baku, 239, 241, 246 227–28 Cyprus, 26 killed, 252 Czernin, Ottokar von, 174, 175, 182, 183 making war plans, 120 on desperate conditions of Ottomans Dagestan, 235, 236, 248, 251 and enemies alike in 1917, 170 Dardanelles, 36, 112, 135, 168, 252, 253 on ill-preparedness of army for war in see also Black Sea Straits 1914, 107 Dashnaktsutiun (Armenian Revolutionary on impossibility of neutrality, 109 Federation), 53, 54, 72, 73, 74, 83, orders formation of Caucasus 115, 116, 117, 157, 200, 209, 212, Committee, 175 225, 228 orders Halil Bey to advance on Tiflis, and land question, 61 208 animosity toward Kurds, 55 orders non-Muslim place names cooperation with Ottomans against changed, 151 Russians, 99–102 orders surprise attack on Russia, fighting Kurds alongside Ottoman 113 forces, 64–66 outlines mission of Caucasus Army of relations with CUP, 54–55 Islam, 222 Derbent, 229, 249 pitches idea of alliance with Russia, Deyr ul-Zor,¨ 148, 152 110 Diyar-ı Bekir, 41, 47, 55, 60, 64, 117, 141, plans for Thunderbolt Army in 1917, 149, 252 169 Dunsterville, Colonel Lionel, 233, 234 prioritizes at Brest-Litovsk Russia’s disengagement from Caucasus and Edirne, 25, 37, 38, 97, 149, 253 Iran, 172 Egypt, 13, 139 recaptures Edirne, 38 as objective of Suez offensive, 128 requests German support for return of Elisavetpol, 84, 132, 213, 221, 223, 229, Kars, Ardahan, and Batumi, 171–72 241 responds to Agao˘ glu’s˘ criticism of Elviye-i Selaseˆ (Kars, Ardahan, and Brest-Litovsk, 186 Batumi), 171, 175, 184, 186, 190, reverses stance on Caucasian 191, 243–45 independence, 195 Enver Pasha (Bey), Ismail,˙ 30, 108, 109, seeks to delay entry into war, 110 113, 134, 163, 175, 179, 203, 211, supports idea of a unified Caucasus, 228, 231, 248, 249, 258 201–02

296 Index

Enver Pasha (cont.) efforts to slow Ottoman advance on takes command of Sarikamish operation, Baku, 226–27 124 policy on self-determination at views on Armenian statehood, 201–02, Brest-Litovsk, 178 210–11, 248 Girs, Nikolai, 45, 75, 76, 114, 118 warns against recognizing an and Bitlis uprising, 79 independent Transcaucasus, 193 at Livadia with Talatˆ and Sazonov, 44 Erzincan Armistice, 171, 193–95 in command of Black Sea Fleet, 35, 36 Erzurum, 41, 47, 68, 76, 83, 86, 87, 104, on ethnic cleansing of Greeks as path to 105, 116, 117, 135, 141, 160, 162, reconciliation, 148 252 on historical moment to subordinate as base for Tes¸kilat-ıˆ Mahsusa, 121 Turkey, 110 as strategic location, 83 on need to liquidate Straits question, captured by Russians in 1916, 136 112 occupied by Russians in 1878, 14, protests seizure of Kavaklı Mustafa, 97 49 quits Istanbul, 114 recaptured by Ottomans, 199 global order, 18, 40, 53, 243, 254, 266 and anarchy, 7–8 France, 26, 36, 74, 159, 253, 254 and population politics, 12–13 and battle of Gallipoli, 135 and proliferation of nationalism, 10–12 as potential Ottoman ally, 108–09 and Turkiﬁcation of Anatolia, 149 concedes Istanbul and Black Sea Straits Gokalp,¨ Ziya, 150 to Russia, 135 Goltz, Colmar Freiherr von der, 108 declares war on Ottoman empire, Gotsinskii, Najmuddin, 238 114 Great Britain, 3, 14, 28, 36, 40–41, 53, 57, divides Armenian lands with Russia, 127, 141, 151, 159 141 ambitions in Middle East, 26 as potential Ottoman ally, 108 Gadzhemukov, Prince, 157–58, 161 concedes Istanbul and Black Sea Straits Galip KemalˆıBey,179, 181, 232 to Russia, 135 cautions that little can be expected from declares war on Ottoman empire, 114 Russia’s Muslims, 181 dismantles Ottoman empire 252–53, on dangers of Ottoman claims for 254 self-determination, 176 forces arrive in Baku, 229 Gallipoli, battle of, 135, 137 military operations against Ottoman Gasprinskii, Ismail, 92 empire, 1914–15, 135 Gegechkori, Evgenii, 202, 208 supports Poland, 254 Geokchai, 224 Greece, 13, 34, 36, 38, 44, 148, 253, 258 Georgia, 64, 139, 191, 246, 257 Greeks, 2, 46, 258 advantages of close ties to Germany, 210 Hakkı Pasha, Ibrahim,˙ 93, 172, 184, 188 declares independence, 212 rebuts Sokol’nikov at Brest-Litovsk, signs treaty of peace and friendship with 185–86 the Ottoman empire, 214–15 Halil (Kut) Pasha, 83, 136, 169, 217 Georgian Legion, 132–33 warns that Azerbaijanis will drop Georgians, 120, 265 Ottomans, 250 rift with Armenians, 202 Halil (Mentes¸e) Bey, 173, 207, 208, 248 Germany, 3, 14, 44, 74, 107, 119, 139, announces signing of Brest-Litovsk 172 Treaty, 186 ambitions in Caucasus, 215–16, 235 on being saved from Muscovite danger, and Armenians, 75–76 189 and Kurds, 70, 75 responds to Agao˘ glu’s˘ criticism of as Ottoman ally, 26, 40, 108, 119–20 Brest-Litovsk, 187–88 collaboration with Bolsheviks, 209, 231, Hamidiye regiments, 50, 58 232 Hayreddin Berazi, 60, 64

Index 297

Hijaz, 171 Kashgar, 93 Hintze, Paul von, 233, 246 Kavaklı Mustafa, 97 Hnchakian Revolutionary Party, 53, Kerimi, Fatikh, 91 116 Kevork V, Armenian Catholicos, submits Hoffmann, General Max, 174, 176, 183, plea for autonomous Armenia under 184 Russia, 143 Huseyin¨ Cahid, 30, 43 Keykurun, Naki, 221, 222, 223 Khatisian, Aleksandr, 200, 208, 215 Ibragimov. Abdurreshid, 89, 90, 93 Khiva, 60 interstate system, Khiyabani, Muhammad, 259 and anarchy, 7 Khoiskii, Fathali Khan, 213 and competition, 6 Kokovtsov, Vladimir, 61 and incentives for adopting nationalist Konya, 135 ideologies, 18 Kor¨ Huseyin,¨ 58, 60 and norms of global society, 8 Kotur, 14, 48, 194 and population politics, 254 Krivoshein, Aleksandr, in early twentieth century, 8, 26 advocates colonization of Eastern Ioffe, Adolf, 174, 245–46, 247 Anatolia, 140, 160 Iran, 28, 65, 70, 83, 99, 126, 128, 134, favors war with Ottomans, 111 136, 139, 173, 259 Kuhlmann,¨ Richard von, 174, 178, 182 and Soviet Union and Azerbaijani and opposed to Ottomans gaining foothold Kurdish Republics, 262 in Caucasus, 184 occupation by Russia and Britain, 57 softens position on return of Elviye-i Ottomans call for withdrawal of Russian Selaseˆ , 175 and Ottoman forces, 172 Kurds, 2, 46, 101, 103, 117, 118, 119, Iraq, 169, 252, 254, 265 122, 126, 180 Irs˙ ¸ad, 60, 64, 67 after 1922, 261, 265 Ismail˙ Hakkı (Berkok) Bey, Major, 237–38 and land question, 61 Italy, 26, 32, 33, 34, 253 and national forces, 256 Izmir, 134, 149, 253 conﬂict with Armenians, 46–47, 52, 53, Izvol’skii, Aleksandr, 28, 29 55, 78, 161–62, 194–95 Izzet˙ Bey (governor of Van), 66 Dersim Kurds turn against Russians and Izzet˙ Pasha, 44 Armenians, 194 levels of health and education, 51–52 Japan, 28, 29, 90 population estimates, 48 Jews, 15, 16, 63, 84, 120, 131, 149, resentment of Unionists, 56, 58 178 Jihandani Society, 67 Lausanne, Treaty of, 258, 260 Laz, 14, 75, 119, 124, 134, 139, Kachaznuni, Hovhannes, 205 144 Kamenev, Lev, 173 Lebanon (Levant), 123, 140, 254 Kamilˆ Pasha, 37 Lenin, Vladimir, 170, 179, 256 Karabekir Pasha, Musa Kazım,ˆ 197, 198, cooperates with Mustafa Kemal, 199, 205, 208 255, 258 declines offer to lead force in Caucasus, Liakhov, General Vladimir, 144 221–22 Liberal Entente (Hurriyet¨ ve Itil˙ afˆ Fırkası), promises Muslims vengeance, 205 37, 96, 98 recaptures Erzurum, 199 Liman von Sanders, Otto Viktor Karl, 40, recaptures Kars, 206 44, 76, 126 Karakhan, Lev, 180 Lossow, Otto von, 175 Kars, 14, 20, 50, 132, 184, 185, 189, 199, quits Batumi peace talks, 210 200, 203, 232, 245, 247, 257 Ludendorff, Erich, 216, 231 Soviet Union demands, 262 approves amendment of Brest-Litovsk Transcaucasians surrender, 205, 206 ultimatum to include Kars, Ardahan, Kars, Treaty of, 257 and Batumi, 185

298 Index

Macedonia, 22, 31, 42, 75, 150, 197 orders hostilities with Ottoman army Machabelli, Prince Giorgii, 133 ceased, 211 threatens Ottomans with Nazımˆ Pasha, 35, 37 self-determination for Laz and Kurds, Neratov, Anatolii, 33 176 Nesimˆı Bey, Ahmed, 173, 174, 201, 246, Mahmud S¸ evket Pasha, 97, 98 247, 248 Mamuret ul-Aziz,¨ 41, 47, 141, 252 announces peace talks with Russia, 171 Mandel’shtam, Andrei, 43, 97 meets with Trotsky, 180 Manukian, Aram, 64, 159, 162 Nicholas II, Tsar, 2, 22, 28, 41, 90 Mehmed Res¸ad V, Sultan, 30 abdicates, 167 Mehmed VI Vahideddin, Sultan, assures Armenians of brilliant future, 244 143 Mıgırdıc˘ ¸yan, Ruben, 100, 117 declares war on Ottoman empire, 114 Millˆı Ibrahim˙ Pasha, 55 planned trip to Istanbul, 30–31 Minorskii, Vladimir, 115, 158 visits Sarikamish, 124 on Abdurrezzak,¨ 68 Nicolas, Archimandrite, 131–32 on opening consulates near non-Turkish Nikolaevich, Grand Duke Nikolai, 163, populations, 73 191 Mirza Kuchuk Han, 259 North Caucasus, 25, 87, 91, 103, 121, Molotov, Viacheslav, 262 201, 206, 214, 221, 233, 247 Montenegro, 14, 34 importance to Ottomans, 219, 248, 250 Moscow, Treaty of, 257 Ottoman military operations in 235–36 Mudros Armistice, 251, 252 see also Union of Allied Mountaineers Muhammedan Union, 30 Nuri Pasha, 128, 222–24, 228, 229, 231, Musavat Party, 122, 200, 204, 205 234 Mustafa Kemal, 32, 135, 256, 257 cooperates with Lenin, 255, 258 Odessa, 80, 90, 97, 113, 118, 120, 123, on desperate condition of Ottoman 134, 163, 255 peoples, 170 Omer¨ Naci, 83, 126 on fate of uncivilized people, 260 Ordzhonikidze, Sergo, 257 Mustafa Suphi, 232, 258 Ottoman army, Myshlaevskii, General Aleksandr, 126 casualties in Balkan Wars, 25 causes of defeat of in Balkan Wars, Nagornyi Karabakh, 207, 221, 249, 253, 34–35 258 clashes with German army in Caucasus, Nakhichevan, 256, 257, 258 216–17 national idea, 5, 8, 13, 17, 47, 53, 67, 149, conscription of non-Muslims, 30, 62, 178, 207, 252 88, 103 and Congress of Berlin, 14 defeat at Sarikamish, 124–26, 128, 139 and global order, 8 failed offensive at Suez, 127–28, 139 as center of gravity at Brest-Litovsk, 189 hunger as spur to advance in 1918, 199 contradiction with empire, 17 incites Kurds to attack behind Russian origins in Europe, 10–11 lines, 195 poor solution for Armenians’ dilemma, initial battles in World War I, 123–24 264 Muslims, 197–98 regretful triumph of in Transcaucasus, on military balance in Eastern Anatolia 214 in 1914, 81 triumph in form, not in content, 266 reports of atrocities against Muslims, nationalism, 9 197–98 and construction of the state, 10 situation in 1915–16, 135–36 as byproduct of interstate competition, takes Tabriz, 126 18 Thunderbolt Army, 169 as organizing theme of historiography, undertakes offensive toward Caucasus in 3–5 February 1918, 196–97 Nazarbekov (Nazarbekian), Tovmas, 205, uses propaganda to exploit February 208 Revolution, 168

Index 299

see also Caucasus Army of Islam; Enver signs treaties of friendship with Pasha; Karabekir Pasha; Vehib Pasha Azerbaijan and North Caucasus, Ottoman empire, 215 alliance with Germany, 109–10, 111, Ukraine and, 183, 238–39 119 wartime ties to Greeks along Black Sea Caliphate and, 43, 82 coast, 163 capitulations and, 24–25, 33, 44, 111, Ozanian, Andranik, 199, 212 177, 258 dilemma of reform and, 23–24 Palestine, 169, 189, 245, 254 Ukraine and, 182, 183 Palitsyn, F. F., 28 Turkistanis and, 88, 240–43 Pallavicini, Johann von, 44 annexes Elviye-i Selaseˆ (Kars, Ardahan, pan-Islam, 17–18, 26, 89–94, 119, and Batumi), 243–45 122–23, 128, 130 backing of Armenians against Russian great power fears of, 89 Empire, 98–102 pan-Turanism, 125–26 comparative strength in 1918, 191 pan-Turkism, 129, 144 constitutional order’s crossborder Parvus (Israel Helphand), 131 appeal, 88, 98, 130, 168 Pastermaciyan, Karekin (Armen Garo), cooperation with Georgian separatists, 117 131–33 Petros, Agha, 158 cooperation with Ukrainians, 133 Pokrovskii, Mikhail, 177 declares jihad in 1914, 122 Poland, 254, 262 desperate conditions at outset of 1917, Poles, 84 167 Polivanov, Aleksei, 61 entry into World War I, 109, 112–13, population politics, 13 114 changes in nineteenth century, evaluation of Brest-Litovsk and Russia’s 148–49 Muslims, 188 returns to Russo-Ottoman borderlands financial difficulties, 24, 56, 113 in 1944, 262 flow of deserters and defectors to and Port Petrovsk, 251 from Russian empire, 103–06 Price, M. Philips, on atrocities, 165 goals in Caucasus in 1918, 201 Przheval’skii, General Mikhail, 193 haunted by prospect of a resurgent Russia, 209 Radek, Karl, 246, 247, 258 initial reaction to Bolsheviks, 170 Rauf (Orbay) Bey, 200–01, 203, 250 initial war plans, 120–21, 139 Resulzade, Mehmed Emin, 122, 233 intelligence activities in Caucasus, Revolution of 1905 (Russian empire), 85 28 Kurdish–Armenian conflict as danger, Revolution of 1908 (Ottoman empire), 1, 61 34, 51, 55, 61 methods to counter Kurdish rebels, Rifat Pasha, 247 64–66 Romania, 13, 14, 16, 38, 111, 169, 186 objectives in Caucasus in 1918, 219–20 Rosenberg, Baron Frederic von, 184 plans for Kurdish school, 70 Rus¸enˆıBey,224, 242 prepares to relocate capital to Konya, Russian army, 105, 112, 116, 125, 128, 135 140 public mood in favor of peace in 1917, Armenian soldiers as weak link in, 98 169 begins disintegrating following tsar’s reaction to German–Bolshevik abdication, 168 agreement on Baku, 232–33 drive into Anatolia, 1915–16, 134–35 reform of Eastern Anatolia undermined hostility toward Kurds, 158–59 by Russia, 63–64 military ethnographers and, 57 Russian Muslims working against, Russian generals “full of fight” at outset 94–96 of 1917, 167 signs peace treaties with Georgia and Russian Caucasus Army, signs armistice at Armenia, 214–15 Erzincan, 171

300 Index

Russian empire, 26 Russian navy, and Balkan Wars, 35–37 expansion of in Black Sea, 36, 41 and Kurland, 137 Naval Ministry covets Trabzon and Armenian massacres of 1894–96 and, Sinop, 140, 141 54, 71–72, 98–102, 140, 157 plans for expansion in Black Sea, 31–32 see also Russian empire: dilemmas of rule Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–78, 17, in Eastern Anatolia 49–50 as potential Ottoman ally, 108 backing for Armenian, Assyrian, Sabahaddin Bey, Prince, 83, 97 and Kurdish revolts in 1914, Said Halim Pasha (grand vizier), 43, 44, 115–16 76, 112, 113 breakdown of imperial authority in extracts better alliance terms from occupied areas precipitates Christian Germany, 111 attacks on Muslims, 194–95 meets with Ukrainians, 134 concerns about pan-Islam, 89–93 signs secret treaty with Germany, 109 covert activities in the Ottoman empire, Said Pasha, 33, 63 63–64, 72, 73, 80, 94–98, 137 S¸ akir Niyazi, 97 deportations of Muslims, 144, Salonica, 30, 157 147 San Stefano peace talks, 14 dilemmas of rule in Eastern Anatolia, Sazonov, Sergei, Plate 2, 29, 33, 35, 36, 142, 156–65 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 61, 69, 73, 86, diplomacy towards Ottoman empire on 108, 141, 142, 148, 160, 253 eve of World War I, 114–15 and Kurdish school in Khoy, 69 see also Girs and Sazonov approves arming Armenians, 117 experience between 1908 and 1918 as assists CUP opponents’ operations, 98 tragic, 263 cautions of retribution against February Revolution, 167–68 Armenians, Assyrians, and Kurds, ﬂow of deserters and defectors to and 142 from Ottoman empire, 103–06 doubts on legal guaranties, 36 initial war plans, 123 indifference to Ottoman hostility, 110 Kurdish policies of, 56–61, 63–70, meeting with Talat,ˆ 43–44 77–78, 115–19, 141–42, 146 on Caucasus as turbulent region, 141 see also Russian empire: dilemmas of rule on dangers of Ottoman disintegration, in Eastern Anatolia 36–37 legal scholars coin phrse “crimes on Kurds as potential force, 77 against humanity and civilization”, on need to unite Kurds, 72 148 on use of Kurds, Armenians, and Muslim emigres, 89–90 Assyrians, 115 Muslim population of, 82 orders more consulates opened in Muslims’ ambivalence toward Eastern Anatolia, 73 Ottomans, 91, 92 rejects peace talks with Ottomans, 137 Muslims rally to support empire in war, seeks Ottoman neutrality, 111–12 123 threatens Ottomans with military occupation of Eastern Anatolia and intervention, 76 Istanbul anticipated, 76 Serbia, 13, 14, 31, 34, 38, 107, 120, 172, overstretched, 253 174 prewar security concerns of, 28, 40–41, Sevres,` Treaty of, 253, 258 57 Seyid Ali, 60 Provisional Government’s pro-Armenian Shahtahtinskii, Ali, 92, 94 stance, 162, 195 Shakhovskoi, Boris, 158 relations with Pontic Greeks, accused of forming anti-Russian front 163–65 with Kurds and Yezidis, 161–62 relative power of, 2–3, 26, 27–28 Shamil, Imam, 130, 236 war with Ottomans as “War of Shaumian, Stepan, 179, 228, 229 Liberation,” 141–42 Shikhlinskii, Ali, 223

Index 301

Shklovskii, Viktor, 158 on Russia’s use of Armenian Question, Simko, Ismail Agha, 60, 65, 66, 118 151 aligns with Ottomans in 1915, on Ukraine’s independence as an 126 achievement, 183–84 favorable view of Russia, 68 orders arrest of Kavaklı Mustafa, 97 Ottoman complaints about, 69 orders special attention to protecting Russians’ mixed evaluations of, 69 Christians, 81 Sivas, 41, 47, 141, 252 reproaches Germans for collaborating Sokol’nikov, Grigorii, 184, 185–86 with Bolsheviks, 233 Soviet Union, 258, 259, 260, 264, tracks deportations and resettlements, 265 151–52 and historiography, 4–5 Ta n i n , 43 ethnic cleansing and deportations, calls for closer ties to Russia, 30 261–62 Tatars, 46, 90, 91, 103, 129, 130, 188, nationalities policies, 178, 261 257, 262 Stalin, Joseph, 179, 228, 260 Tes¸kilat-ıˆ Mahsusa, 119, 121–22, 124, rejoins struggle for Anatolia and 129, 131, 134, 139, 182, 239, 242 Caucasus, 262 analysis of Muslims in Caucasus, 221 Stolypin, Petr, 29, 31, 93 lack of resources in Caucasus, 224 cracks down on subversives, including pessimism on potential of Muslims of Armenians, 71, 98 North Caucasus, 236–37 Suleyman¨ AskerˆıBey,120, 134 Tiflis, Suleyman¨ Izzet˙ (colonel), 249, 251 as administrative capital of Russia’s Sykes, Sir Mark, 141 Caucasus 60, 68, 69, 80, 85, 86, 94, Sykes–Picot–Sazonov agreement, 137, 95, 118, 123 140–41 as capital of Georgia 213, 227 Syria, 26, 148, 169, 252, 254, 258, 265 as capital of Transcaucasus 191–92, 196, 199, 203, 204, 205 Tabriz, 99, 101, 126, 134, 222 center of Armenian cultural, intellectual, Taha, Sheikh, 65, 80 and political life, 213 Talatˆ Pasha (Bey), Mehmed, 110, 113, Topchibashev, Alimardan, 248 114, 151, 175, 246 Trabzon, 40, 77, 79, 84, 104, 116, 119, assassinated, 252 131, 132, 141, 163, 164, 198, 199, at Brest-Litovsk, 178–79, 181 201, 253 considers using Russia’s Muslims to as base for Tes¸kilat-ıˆ Mahsusa, 121 retaliate for Bolshevik support for as critical port captured by Russians in Armenians, 180–81 1916, 136 decides to resign, 250 Ottomans recapture, 198 dread of an Armenian government, peace talks, 199, 200–03 210–11 Transcaucasian Commissariat, 196, 199, endorses idea of an independent 201, 203 Ukraine, 134 proclaimed in exculpatory manner, 193 implores Azerbaijan to resolve Transcaucasian Federation 205, 206, 209, differences with Armenia, 248 210, 212 meeting with Girs, 45 Transcaucasus, meeting with Sazonov, 43–44 political elite’s flaws, 191 meets with Hintze to resolve differences relative strengths and weaknesses of with Germany, 246–47 Armenian and Georgian national on destruction of Armenians and units, 197 definitive solution to Armenian Transcaucasians ignore Bolshevik Question, 152–53 endorsement of self-determination, on how a “free Russia” will not seek 192 destruction of Ottoman empire, 169 Tripoli and Cyrenaica, 128 on how Bolshevik Russia is same Tripolitania, 32, 33, 34, 252 expansionist Russia, 183 Tripolitanian War, 34

302 Index

Trotsky, Leon, 177, 178, 179 unpopularity of government in 1917, argues that arming Armenians will 138 compel Kurds to compromise, 180 Urfa, 55, 60 leaves talks at Brest-Litovsk, 183 publishes secret agreements on partition Van, 60, 117, 141, 160, 162 of Ottoman empire, 170 Armenian revolt, 145–47 spars with Ukrainian Rada Vehib Pasha, Mehmed, 132, 197, 198, representatives at Brest-Litovsk, 183 215, 224 Truman, Harry, 262 advises against annexing Batumi, 203 Turkey, Republic of, 256, 258, 262, 263, favors ceding Akhalkalaki and 265 Akhaltsikh, 208 and parallels to Soviet Union, 259–61 invites Transcaucasians to peace talks at and Turkiﬁcation, 260–61 Brest-Litovsk, 196 Turkish War of Independence, 256–58 names Chrysanthos interim Turkism, 23, 43, 50, 153, 154, 240 administrative head of Trabzon, 164 Turks, 2, 22 on solution to Armenian Question, 215 Ubeydullah, Sheikh, permits Russian, Armenian, and revolt of, 53 Georgian forces to withdraw from Ukraine, 33, 133, 134, 139, 179, 183 Trabzon, 198 question of dominates third round of relieved for clashing with Germans, 217 talks at Brest-Litovsk, 181–84 skeptical of deep advance into Caucasus, Ukrainians, 178 221 Union for the Liberation of Ukraine warns Nazarbekov at Aleksandropol, (ULU), 133, 134, 182 208 Union of Allied Mountaineers (UAM), warns of need to come to terms with 201, 206, 235–37, 249 Armenians and Georgians, 211 Unionists, 2 Vorontsov-Dashkov, Illarion, 61, 115, 116, see also Committee of Union and 117, 160 Progress decorates Simko, 69 achieve independent state, 263 instructs army to treat all in occupied as resolute and desperate men, 149–50 territories equally, 156 attitudes toward Islam and pan-Islam, orders deportations of Muslims from 83, 84–85, 87, 93, 222 border, 144 authoritarian rule, 27 orders Kurds punished, 118 broach idea of a separate peace with urges mobilization of Armenians, Russia, 137 Assyrians, and Kurds, 117 cabinet resigns in 1918, 250 wants Cafer Bey expelled, 86 counterrevolution of 1909 and, 30 creation of Kuva-yı Milliye (national Wangenheim, Hans von, 75, 76, 109, 111 forces) and, 255–56 signs secret treaty with Ottoman empire, demographic policies of homogenization 109 as response to national idea, 149, Wilhelm II, Kaiser, 26 165–66 enthusiasm for pan-Islam, 109 ﬁnal ascent of, 37 Wilson, Woodrow, 253 Muslim middle class and, 131 incite anti-Christian fervor, 62–63, Ye r e va n , 47, 59, 211, 213, 256, 257, 264 117–18 Young Turk Revolution, 22 Muslim resentment of, 56, 62–63 see Revolution of 1908 open to rapprochement with Russia, 30, Young Turks, 2 43–45 Yudenich, Nikolai, 126, 146, 191 policies in Eastern Anatolia, 50–51, 56, blocks Armenians from Bulgaria, 157 58, 80–81, 143 participates in Menshevik-sponsored public and private views, 22–23 army congress, 168 support professional military education, urges barring Armenians from resettling 34–35 on Muslim lands, 160

Index 303

Yusuf Akc¸ura, Yusuf Izzet˙ Pasha, 249, 251 at Third Congress of Oppressed Yusuf Kamilˆ Bedirhan Pas¸azade, Peoples, 129–30 80 founds Society for the Defense of the Rights of Turko-Tatar Muslims Zeki Pasha, 173 Resident in Russia, 129 Zhordaniia, Noi, on unhappy parallel between Ottoman laments break with Russia, 193 empire and Poland, 131 rebukes Khatisian, 212