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I plants native to the British Isles include

T species from the Solanaceae family R of chemically (including deadly nightshade, mandrake A and henbane) and the fly agaric mushroom ( ). These are probably better described as induced hallucinations rather than psychedelics, as they cause a marked confusion and clouding of Vaughan Bell considers what we can learn from how other societies approach consciousness due to their effect on the hallucinogenic acetylcholine neurotransmitter system. Although the plants’ medicinal as a sedative has been known for millennia, -induced hallucinations are raditionally, discussions of the hallucinatory effects have generally often discussed as if they can be and mind-altering drugs focus on been seen in negative terms (Müller, entirely understood in terms of Tremote peoples and exotic locations, 1998). In Britain the plants were largely their chemical action in the brain. but it is worth starting by underlining associated with poison, enchantment and But the social role of how unusual our own culture is in terms witchcraft and made up part of witches’ varies greatly between cultures, of its acceptance and use of ‘flying ointment’. This consisted of a mix and, conversely, culture has a large hallucinogenic substances. of nightshade plants, grease and sundry effect on hallucinogenic In the history of Britain, ingredients, which was applied to the experiences and their significance. hallucinogens have had a remarkably genitals and upper thighs using an As a result, hallucination-producing minor role in the social fabric of society. applicator, likely a chair or broomstick. psychoactive substances can only This is despite the fact that The effects included trance and be fully understood by hallucinogenic plants are common and hallucinations of flying and, according understanding their interaction widespread throughout the country. to their accusers, the experience of with social context which has Perhaps the most striking historical ‘cavorting with devils’ (Holzman, 1998). differed throughout history and absence is the seeming unawareness This was possibly the basis for the ‘witch across the world. of the effects of the ‘magic mushroom’ on flying broomstick’ legend. (Psilocybe semilanceata ) until 1799. This It wasn’t until the Victorian era that first report was written by the physician drug-induced hallucinations were treated Everard Brande in an article for The as a general source of curiosity in London Medical and Physical Journal after Britain.The advancement of anaesthesia he was called to treat a family who had led to experiments with substances like been acting strangely after inadvertently ether and laughing gas, while the picking the mushrooms for their breakfast Romantics discussed their -induced stew in London’s Green Park. Before then, visions and the glimmerings of early it seemed these common fungi were psychedelic research began as

considered as nothing more than investigators in the New World began n

o Why are some cultures so much more uninteresting and inedible brown pests. to take interest in the local flora – i t

s accepting of the use of hallucinogenic Even more surprising is the fact that first psychologist William James’s e

u substances than others? record of our native experimentation with the hallucinogenic q mushrooms being intentionally used for cactus perhaps being the most their effects, rather than being detected famous example. Nevertheless, from the as cases of accidental poisonings,was not perspective of many other cultures,

s Schultes, R.E. & Raffauf, R.F. (2004). Vine until 1970 (Letcher, 2007). In contrast, Britain, and many of the countries where e c

r of the soul: Medicine men, their plants pre-Columbian societies of Central mainstream culture stems from British u

o and rituals in the Colombian Amazonia . America used psylocybin mushrooms colonisation, must seem like places with s

e Santa Fe, NM: Synergetic Press. as a central part of religious practice and a rather stark history of cultural lack of r Letcher, A. (2007). Shroom: A cultural based significant parts of their culture interest, if not active hostility, to history of the magic mushroom . around them, probably for several hallucinogenic substances. London: Faber & Faber. thousand years (Borhegyi, 1961). In contrast, there are many societies The other grouping of hallucinogenic that have hallucinogenic substances as an

s Becker, H.S. (1953). Becoming a Transactions of the Royal Society B: Field, N. (1992). The therapeutic function Atropos, the fate who cut the thread e

c marihuana user. American Journal of Biological Sciences, 356 (1407) , of altered states. Journal of Analytical of life. Anesthesiology, 89 (1), 241 –249. n

e Sociology, 59 (3) , 235 –242. 299 –330. Psychology, 37 , 211 –234. Kensinger, M.K. (1973). Banisteriopsis r e

f Borhegyi, S. (1961). Miniature mushroom Brown, M.F. (1985). Tsewa's gift: Magic Groark, K. (2001). Taxonomic identity of usage among the Peruvian e

r stones from Guatemala. American and meaning in an Amazonian society. ‘hallucinogenic’ harvester ant Cashinahua. In M.J. Harner (Ed.) Antiquity, 26 , 498 –504. Washington and London: (Pogonomyrmex californicus) Hallucinogens and shamanism Bressloff, P.C., Cowan, J.D., Golubitsky, Smithsonian Institution Press. confirmed. Journal of Ethnobiology, (pp.9 –14). Oxford: Oxford University M. et al. (2001). Geometric visual de Rios, M.D. & Stachalek, R. (1999). The 21 (2) , 133 –144. Press. hallucinations, Euclidean symmetry Duboisia genus, Australian Hoffman, D.R. (2010). Ant venoms. Allergy Langdon, E.J. (1979). Yagé among the and the functional architecture of aborigines and suggestibility. Journal and Clinical Immunology, 10 , 342 –346. Siona: Cultural patterns in visions. In striate cortex. Philosophical of Psychoactive Drugs, 31 (2) , 155 –161. Holzman, R.S. (1998). The legacy of D. Brownman & R. Schwartz (Eds.)

666 vol 27 no 9 september 2014 hallucinogens

integrated part of their culture and where naturally broken down by enzymes in understand it (ameliorating a specific they have a markedly different social the stomach, but when combined with state of bodily distress or disability, albeit significance. The Americas, and Banisteriopsis caapi the active ingredient by tackling one or more ‘predatory particularly the Amazon, are the global passes into the blood stream due to the spiritual beings’ thought to be responsible ground zero for -using high level of monoamine oxidase for the malady: Langdon, 2007), the cultures, not least due to the massive inhibitor in the vine. However, a therapeutic process can extend to and diverse range of hallucinogenic significant quantity needs to be addressing problems of many different substances that can be found within the consumed orally as induces sorts. Among the Aguaruna of Peru, flora and fauna of the region. forceful vomiting, meaning several people take ayahuasca not just to Grouped psychopharmacologically, drinking/vomiting cycles are usually understand the future, but to shape it three of most significant substances alter necessary to obtain the required dose. through conscious control over the ‘vision the serotinergic system and lead to The typical Western account of why of future possibilities’ (Brown, 1985). broadly LSD-like effects: these include ayahuasca is consumed usually focuses on From this worldview, ayahuasca is a tool the ayahuasca brew (principal active ‘getting in contact with the spirit world’, for practical problem solving rather just ingredient: dimethyltryptamine or DMT), but this fails to capture either the cultural a way of gaining ‘philosophical’ insights peyote and related hallucinogenic cacti worldviews in which ayahuasca that one applies in daily life, as spiritual (principal active ingredient: ) consumption is situated or the revelation is often considered in our and a range of hallucinogenic fungi motivations behind the ceremonies. culture. (principal active ingredient: psilocybin). The first thing to note is that Amazonian The implications of this are that any Ayahuasca or yagé is one of the most people can differ greatly in how they suggestion that the drug puts users ‘out well-known to anthropologists and is understand reality in relation to of touch with reality’ would be widely consumed by indigenous peoples themselves. For example, the Cashinahua, rejected by indigenous users who see it throughout the Amazon and northern Siona, and Schuar peoples all use as doing exactly the reverse. Similarly, South America. It is made from a ayahuasca as a tool for revelation but discussing the effects of ayahuasca in differ markedly in how terms of causing you to ‘see things that they understand the are not really there’ with the Schuar experiences it produces. people is only likely to get you looks of The Cashinahua bewilderment, while suggesting that the understand ayahuasca substance is purely ‘recreational’ or even as causing hallucinations ‘damaging to society’ is more likely to that provide guidance cause incredulous offence. (Kensinger, 1973), the Hallucinogenic substances may also Siona believe that it allows be valued for effects that extend beyond access to an alternative perceptual distortion. Indigenous reality (Langdon, 1979), Australians from Central Australia use while the Schuar take all the drug pituri of which a major ingredient normal human experience consists of leaves of the corkwood tree. to be a hallucination and These contain both and take ayahuasca as a way – the latter also being a of accessing true reality potent anticholinergic drug which is also (Obiols-Llandrich, 2009). common in the Solanaceae (nightshade) These different views of family of plants. As well as having the reality clearly have an capacity to induce hallucinations, pituri impact on how any also acts as an anaesthetic, which is likely Yagé preparation hallucinogenic drug would why it is used during male initiation be understood. ceremonies where adolescent males The perceived causal link are circumcised and subincised – combination of the Banisteriopsis caapi between reality and consciousness also a procedure were the penis is ‘split open’ vine and a locally sourced plant (often plays a part in how the experiences are from below (de Rios & Stachalek, 1999). one of the Psychotria genus) that has high integrated into everyday life. Although Interestingly, the drug is also thought to levels of DMT. Psychotria is ineffective ayahuasca rituals are often considered increase suggestibility, allowing the when eaten on its own because DMT is to facilitate ‘healing’ in a way we would inception of key cultural norms

Spirits, shamans and stars: Dependence, 108 , 138 –140. Toxicology, 36 (6) , 617 –627. stable in a changing Perspectives from South America Letcher, A. (2007). Shroom: A cultural Obiols-Llandrich J. (2009). A Western world. Criminology & Criminal Justice, (pp.63 –80). The Hague: Mouton. history of the magic mushroom . psychiatrist among the Shuar people 13 (1) , s63 –79. Langdon, E.J. (2007). The symbolic London: Faber & Faber. of Ecuador: Exploring the role of Shaara, L. & Strathern, A. (1992) A efficacy of rituals: From ritual to Luhrmann, T. (2011). Hallucinations and healers in mental health. In M. Preliminary analysis of the performance . Coleção Antropologia sensory overrides. Annual Review of Incayawar, R. Wintrob, L. Bouchard & relationship between altered states em Primeira Mão no.95. Anthropology, 40 , 71 –85. G. Bartocci (Eds.) Psychiatrists and of consciousness, healing, and social Florianópolis: PPGAS. Müller, J.L. (1998). Love potions and the traditional healers: Unwitting partners structure. American Anthropologist, Lange, J.E., Daniel, J., Homer, K. et al. ointment of witches: Historical in global mental health (pp.67 –76) . 94 , 145 –160. (2010). : Effects and aspects of the nightshade alkaloids. London : Wiley. Zinberg, N. (1986). Drug, set, and setting. use among YouTube users. Drug and Journal of Toxicology – Clinical Sandberg, S. (2013) culture: A Yale: Yale University Press.

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transmitted during the ceremony T meaning an experience that was D I G I

that presumably might otherwise T usually framed through social A L . get missed due to distraction. C initiation is now much more O , U

In many cultures there is K determined by cultural transmission also a wider association with through mass media (Sandberg, hallucinogenic substances as 2013). It is worth noting that it is not a whole, relating to a common just the ‘established media’ that has connection between altered states a tendency to present drugs in terms of consciousness and healing of the orthodox ‘harms and dangers’ (Field, 1999). Anthropological narrative. A recent study looked at studies have found this some of the many YouTube videos association across a number created to document trips on the of traditional cultures where traditional ceremonial plant of the methods including drugs, indigenous Mazatec of Mexico, Salvia physiological stress (e.g. fasting), divinorum , which is now widely intense sensory experiences and marketed as a ‘legal high’ (Lange group ritual (e.g. chanting and et al., 2010). Viewing the effects dance) can lead to marked on other people is likely to shape alterations in conscious expectations and, therefore, the experience, which are generally experience of the drug, although associated with their curative the fact that these videos are almost function due to the pleasurable entirely by suburban youth wanting and social bonding aspects of the to get ‘messed up’ means that they are experience (Shaara & Strathern, Howard Becker (1953) describes how cannabis likely to be no more narrow in their 1992). initiates have to take on both the practice of representations than mainstream media. This is not always the case, and the psychological framing of the Nevertheless, non-mainstream media however, and here the line between experience to learn how to ‘get high’ websites such as Erowid and Bluelight ‘hallucinogenic’ and ‘non- are specifically designed for users to hallucinogenic’ substances can share both verified scientific and health become blurred – such as with the use cultural shaping is not reserved to information as well as folk knowledge of red harvester ants ( Pogonomyrmex ) by spiritual or religious contexts and it about the taking and effects of drugs the Kitanemuk, the indigenous people of applies as much to our own and do aim for a wider representation California. Red harvester ants have the as to the practices of isolated indigenous of effects. most toxic venom by weight of any groups. It is worth noting that this same recorded insect and are known for their In Howard Becker’s classic study interaction between culturally derived painful sting. The Kitanemuk initiation ‘Becoming a marihuana user’ (Becker, expectations and experiences also ritual ceremony involves swallowing balls 1953) he describes how cannabis initiates happens with hallucinations associated of live harvester ants to the point where have to take on both the practice of with psychosis (Luhrmann, 2011). But the initiate loses signs of consciousness smoking and the psychological framing of while hallucinogenic drugs have long and has intense visions for the purpose the experience to learn how to ‘get high’. been considered for their use as of acquiring a ‘dream helper’ (Groark, This involves learning how to smoke in a pharmacological models of psychosis, 2001). As harvester ant venom is not way that will lead to efficient intoxication their use as a model of how psychosis-like known to have any directly psychoactive (e.g. holding smoke for longer in the experiences are culturally moderated has compounds within it (Hoffman, 2010), lungs than you would with cigarettes), never been explored, and this area may be it is probable that a significant part of the as well as learning to recognise the ready for research. visionary experience comes from its effects, connecting them with drug use, Although there are clear differences effects as a toxin and the ‘sensory and learning to enjoy the perceived with regard to the acceptance and overload’ from pain. sensations. For example, many aspects significance of hallucinogenic drugs Although there are clearly similarities of hallucinogenic drug use are not in between societies, the effects of these between individuals’ experiences themselves enjoyable – like the substances for the individual can only with specific drugs due to the experience of visual trails after perceived be fully understood by placing them psychopharmacology of the substance motion – but can become so when within the cultural context in which (e.g. the experience of geometric patterns incorporated into the concept of a ‘good the individual lives. In this sense, all likely generated by destabilisation of trip’. This is related to Zinberg’s (1986) experiences with hallucinogenic drugs edge-detecting neurons in the primary concept of the importance of getting the emerge from an interaction of visual cortex: Bressloff et al., 2001), there ‘set and setting’ right for successful psychopharmacology, individual is also a huge role for culture in terms of use with ‘set’ referring to psychology and culture. the shaping the hallucinogenic experience the drug-taker’s mental state and ‘setting’ through expectation and interpretation. referring to the environment in which the This may be through shared cultural drug is consumed. Vaughan Bell beliefs or through the intervention of However, since Becker’s study, is at King ’s College London, specific designated people within the hallucinogenic drugs have become more Institute of Psychiatry culture – such as a shaman or medicine mainstream to the point where novice [email protected] man who is often involved in giving users are likely to bring a range of personalised interpretations that go expectations and beliefs about what it beyond lay understanding. However, this means to ‘get stoned’ to their first try –

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