E L C I plants native to the British Isles include T species from the Solanaceae family R Cultures of chemically (including deadly nightshade, mandrake A and henbane) and the fly agaric mushroom ( Amanita muscaria ). These are probably better described as deliriants induced hallucinations rather than psychedelics, as they cause a marked confusion and clouding of Vaughan Bell considers what we can learn from how other societies approach consciousness due to their effect on the hallucinogenic drugs acetylcholine neurotransmitter system. Although the plants’ medicinal value as a sedative has been known for millennia, Drug-induced hallucinations are raditionally, discussions of culture the hallucinatory effects have generally often discussed as if they can be and mind-altering drugs focus on been seen in negative terms (Müller, entirely understood in terms of Tremote peoples and exotic locations, 1998). In Britain the plants were largely their chemical action in the brain. but it is worth starting by underlining associated with poison, enchantment and But the social role of hallucinogens how unusual our own culture is in terms witchcraft and made up part of witches’ varies greatly between cultures, of its acceptance and use of ‘flying ointment’. This consisted of a mix and, conversely, culture has a large hallucinogenic substances. of nightshade plants, grease and sundry effect on hallucinogenic In the history of Britain, ingredients, which was applied to the experiences and their significance. hallucinogens have had a remarkably genitals and upper thighs using an As a result, hallucination-producing minor role in the social fabric of society. applicator, likely a chair or broomstick. psychoactive substances can only This is despite the fact that The effects included trance and be fully understood by hallucinogenic plants are common and hallucinations of flying and, according understanding their interaction widespread throughout the country. to their accusers, the experience of with social context which has Perhaps the most striking historical ‘cavorting with devils’ (Holzman, 1998). differed throughout history and absence is the seeming unawareness This was possibly the basis for the ‘witch across the world. of the effects of the ‘magic mushroom’ on flying broomstick’ legend. (Psilocybe semilanceata ) until 1799. This It wasn’t until the Victorian era that first report was written by the physician drug-induced hallucinations were treated Everard Brande in an article for The as a general source of curiosity in London Medical and Physical Journal after Britain.The advancement of anaesthesia he was called to treat a family who had led to experiments with substances like been acting strangely after inadvertently ether and laughing gas, while the picking the mushrooms for their breakfast Romantics discussed their opium-induced stew in London’s Green Park. Before then, visions and the glimmerings of early it seemed these common fungi were psychedelic research began as considered as nothing more than investigators in the New World began n o Why are some cultures so much more uninteresting and inedible brown pests. to take interest in the local flora – i t s accepting of the use of hallucinogenic Even more surprising is the fact that first psychologist William James’s e u substances than others? record of our native psilocybin experimentation with the hallucinogenic q mushrooms being intentionally used for peyote cactus perhaps being the most their effects, rather than being detected famous example. Nevertheless, from the as cases of accidental poisonings,was not perspective of many other cultures, s Schultes, R.E. & Raffauf, R.F. (2004). Vine until 1970 (Letcher, 2007). In contrast, Britain, and many of the countries where e c r of the soul: Medicine men, their plants pre-Columbian societies of Central mainstream culture stems from British u o and rituals in the Colombian Amazonia . America used psylocybin mushrooms colonisation, must seem like places with s e Santa Fe, NM: Synergetic Press. as a central part of religious practice and a rather stark history of cultural lack of r Letcher, A. (2007). Shroom: A cultural based significant parts of their culture interest, if not active hostility, to history of the magic mushroom . around them, probably for several hallucinogenic substances. London: Faber & Faber. thousand years (Borhegyi, 1961). In contrast, there are many societies The other grouping of hallucinogenic that have hallucinogenic substances as an s Becker, H.S. (1953). Becoming a Transactions of the Royal Society B: Field, N. (1992). The therapeutic function Atropos, the fate who cut the thread e c marihuana user. American Journal of Biological Sciences, 356 (1407) , of altered states. Journal of Analytical of life. Anesthesiology, 89 (1), 241 –249. n e Sociology, 59 (3) , 235 –242. 299 –330. Psychology, 37 , 211 –234. Kensinger, M.K. (1973). Banisteriopsis r e f Borhegyi, S. (1961). Miniature mushroom Brown, M.F. (1985). Tsewa's gift: Magic Groark, K. (2001). Taxonomic identity of usage among the Peruvian e r stones from Guatemala. American and meaning in an Amazonian society. ‘hallucinogenic’ harvester ant Cashinahua. In M.J. Harner (Ed.) Antiquity, 26 , 498 –504. Washington and London: (Pogonomyrmex californicus) Hallucinogens and shamanism Bressloff, P.C., Cowan, J.D., Golubitsky, Smithsonian Institution Press. confirmed. Journal of Ethnobiology, (pp.9 –14). Oxford: Oxford University M. et al. (2001). Geometric visual de Rios, M.D. & Stachalek, R. (1999). The 21 (2) , 133 –144. Press. hallucinations, Euclidean symmetry Duboisia genus, Australian Hoffman, D.R. (2010). Ant venoms. Allergy Langdon, E.J. (1979). Yagé among the and the functional architecture of aborigines and suggestibility. Journal and Clinical Immunology, 10 , 342 –346. Siona: Cultural patterns in visions. In striate cortex. Philosophical of Psychoactive Drugs, 31 (2) , 155 –161. Holzman, R.S. (1998). The legacy of D. Brownman & R. Schwartz (Eds.) 666 vol 27 no 9 september 2014 hallucinogens integrated part of their culture and where naturally broken down by enzymes in understand it (ameliorating a specific they have a markedly different social the stomach, but when combined with state of bodily distress or disability, albeit significance. The Americas, and Banisteriopsis caapi the active ingredient by tackling one or more ‘predatory particularly the Amazon, are the global passes into the blood stream due to the spiritual beings’ thought to be responsible ground zero for hallucinogen-using high level of monoamine oxidase for the malady: Langdon, 2007), the cultures, not least due to the massive inhibitor in the vine. However, a therapeutic process can extend to and diverse range of hallucinogenic significant quantity needs to be addressing problems of many different substances that can be found within the consumed orally as ayahuasca induces sorts. Among the Aguaruna of Peru, flora and fauna of the region. forceful vomiting, meaning several people take ayahuasca not just to Grouped psychopharmacologically, drinking/vomiting cycles are usually understand the future, but to shape it three of most significant substances alter necessary to obtain the required dose. through conscious control over the ‘vision the serotinergic system and lead to The typical Western account of why of future possibilities’ (Brown, 1985). broadly LSD-like effects: these include ayahuasca is consumed usually focuses on From this worldview, ayahuasca is a tool the ayahuasca brew (principal active ‘getting in contact with the spirit world’, for practical problem solving rather just ingredient: dimethyltryptamine or DMT), but this fails to capture either the cultural a way of gaining ‘philosophical’ insights peyote and related hallucinogenic cacti worldviews in which ayahuasca that one applies in daily life, as spiritual (principal active ingredient: mescaline) consumption is situated or the revelation is often considered in our and a range of hallucinogenic fungi motivations behind the ceremonies. culture. (principal active ingredient: psilocybin). The first thing to note is that Amazonian The implications of this are that any Ayahuasca or yagé is one of the most people can differ greatly in how they suggestion that the drug puts users ‘out well-known to anthropologists and is understand reality in relation to of touch with reality’ would be widely consumed by indigenous peoples themselves. For example, the Cashinahua, rejected by indigenous users who see it throughout the Amazon and northern Siona, and Schuar peoples all use as doing exactly the reverse. Similarly, South America. It is made from a ayahuasca as a tool for revelation but discussing the effects of ayahuasca in differ markedly in how terms of causing you to ‘see things that they understand the are not really there’ with the Schuar experiences it produces. people is only likely to get you looks of The Cashinahua bewilderment, while suggesting that the understand ayahuasca substance is purely ‘recreational’ or even as causing hallucinations ‘damaging to society’ is more likely to that provide guidance cause incredulous offence. (Kensinger, 1973), the Hallucinogenic substances may also Siona believe that it allows be valued for effects that extend beyond access to an alternative perceptual distortion. Indigenous reality (Langdon, 1979), Australians from Central Australia use while the Schuar take all the drug pituri of which a major ingredient normal human experience consists of leaves of the corkwood tree. to be a hallucination