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Sensors for Observing Ecosystem Status Ocean Sci., 5, 523–535, 2009 www.ocean-sci.net/5/523/2009/ Ocean Science © Author(s) 2009. This work is distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. Sensors for observing ecosystem status S. Kroger,¨ E. R. Parker, J. D. Metcalfe, N. Greenwood, R. M. Forster, D. B. Sivyer, and D. J. Pearce Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Rd, Lowestoft, Suffolk NR33 0HT, UK Received: 12 March 2009 – Published in Ocean Sci. Discuss.: 23 April 2009 Revised: 9 September 2009 – Accepted: 2 October 2009 – Published: 4 November 2009 Abstract. This paper aims to review the availability and is both reflected in, and a reflection of the legislative drivers application of sensors for observing marine ecosystem sta- (European Directives) as summarised in Table 1. The most tus. It gives a broad overview of important ecosystem vari- recent wide-reaching directive is the European Marine Strat- ables to be investigated, such as biogeochemical cycles, pri- egy Framework Directive (which came into force on the 15 mary and secondary production, species distribution, animal July 2008), a thematic strategy for the protection and con- movements, habitats and pollutants. Some relevant legisla- servation of the marine environment. The individual Marine tive drivers are listed, as they provide one context in which Strategies required under this directive will contain a detailed ecosystem studies are undertaken. In addition to literature assessment of the state of the environment, a definition of cited within the text the paper contains some useful web links “good environmental status” (GES) at regional level and the to assist the reader in making an informed instrument choice, establishment of clear environmental targets and monitoring as the authors feel that the topic is so broad, it is impossible to programmes. Seabed integrity and habitats are key themes discuss all relevant systems or to provide appropriate detail of GES supported by the development of indicators (Rees, for those discussed. It is therefore an introduction to how and 2003); (Hiscock et al., 2004; Rogers and Greenaway, 2005). why ecosystem status is currently observed, what variables It is envisaged that each Member State will draw up a pro- are quantified, from what platforms, using remote sensing or gramme of measures, where impact assessments, including in-situ measurements, and gives examples of useful sensor a detailed cost-benefit analysis will be required prior to in- based tools. Starting with those presently available, to those troduction. (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/marine/ under development and also highlighting sensors not yet re- index en.htm). alised but desirable for future studies. To assess the impacts of different activities, such as fish- ing, disposal of waste, nutrient inputs, and aggregate extrac- tion, it is not sufficient to look at them individually, without 1 Introduction also trying to understand where effects might be cumulative. In addition one has to include other pressures such as climate Over recent years a shift in emphasis has occurred in marine change and how they will modulate the ecosystem response monitoring and management away from looking at isolated to any other anthropogenic impact. A schematic overview individual components and towards assessments of ecosys- of the marine ecosystem is given in Fig. 1. Processes such tem health and elucidating connections between different as nutrient and carbon cycling, energy transfer from prey to ecosystem components. This has involved the development predator, and transfer of excreted or dead material link the in- of the “ecosystem approach to the management of human dividual components in a complex interconnected network. activities” (see for example records of the joint meeting of Quantification of these processes and controlling factors is the Helsinki & OSPAR Commissions, 2003) and a call for therefore crucial to understanding and managing ecosystem more cross-boundary, multi-disciplinary approaches to un- function. derstanding the impact that humans have on the seas. This When discussing sensors that are relevant to the obser- vation of ecosystem status, a useful starting point is the other white papers published following the international Correspondence to: S. Kroger¨ OceanSensors workshop in 2008 and published in the spe- ([email protected]) cial issue Ocean sensors (Editors: T. Dickey, R. Prien, and Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. 524 S. Kroger¨ et al.: Sensors for observing ecosystem status Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the marine ecosystem (from Kroger¨ and Law, 2005a). Figure 1 Schematic representation of the marine ecosystem (from Kröger and Law, 2005a) Table 1. Legislative drivers for marine observations. The key to making any particular sensor a tool for observ- ing, ecosystem status, is the way in which the sensor out- put is used in the context of other measurements, to build up Directive Reference the bigger picture. A range of international programmes ex- Bathing Waters Directive 76/160/EEC ists to integrate activities. For example, the Global Ocean Birds Directive 79/409/EEC Observing System (GOOS) is an international programme Environmental Impacts 85/337 as preparing the permanent global framework of observations, Assessment Directive amended by 97/11 modelling and analysis of ocean variables needed to sup- Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive 91/271/EEC port operational ocean services wherever they are undertaken Nitrates Directive 91/676/EEC around the world. EuroGOOS (http://www.eurogoos.org/) is Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC an Association of Agencies, founded in 1994, to further the Integrated Pollution Prevention 96/61/EEC goals of GOOS, and in particular the development of Opera- and Control Directive tional Oceanography in the European Sea areas and adjacent Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC oceans. Marine Strategy Framework Directive 2008/56/EC Many different methodologies exist by which to group or classify sensors, for example by target group (i.e. physical, chemical or biological sensor), by transduction mechanism (optical, acoustical, electrochemical etc.) or sample ma- G. Griffiths), as manydifferent types and classes of sen- trix (air, water, sediment), and each of these30 classifications sors will yield relevant information – be it sensors looking have merit. When selecting specific examples of sensors for at nutrients or hazards, sensors using molecular biology or ecosystem status, it was considered a good start to look at detecting ocean carbon, sensors used in-situ on autonomous measurement methods that inform us about biogeochemical platforms or those making remote measurements from space. cycles and primary productivity, as the carbon assimilation The relevant time scales range from seconds to years and by bacteria, plankton and seaweeds form the basis of the the space scales from nanometers to thousands of kilome- foodchain and as such determine overall marine productivity. tres, as illustrated by T. Dickey (Dickey, 1990). Therefore Ideally one would like to know not only how much produc- many different observational strategies have to be used to tion occurs, but also by whom – i.e. identify the species of address them and Fig. 2 gives an overview of such marine primary producers and what diversity is present. The next observational strategies. Each of the described observational steps are measurements that look into secondary production, platforms can be equipped with a range of sensors, and in- such as grazing of plankton by copepods or other inverte- creasingly “ships of opportunity” add valuable spatial cov- brates, and transfer of nutrients throughout all trophic lev- erage to that obtained with dedicated RVs (Harashima et al., els. While various sensors exist to look at phytoplankton, the 2006; Urban et al., 2008). higher trophic levels are less easy to quantify with sensors. Ocean Sci., 5, 523–535, 2009 www.ocean-sci.net/5/523/2009/ S. Kroger¨ et al.: Sensors for observing ecosystem status 525 Fig. 2. Schematic overviewFigure of marine 2. Schematic observational overview strategies of (frommarine Kr observationaloger¨ and Law, strate 2005a).gies AUV:(from automonous Kröger and underwater Law, vehicle; ROV: remotely-operated vehicle. 2005a). AUV: automonous underwater vehicle; ROV: remotely-operated vehicle. Still, some devices can be useful in assessing these ecosys- 2 Review of state-of-technology tem components and their interactions, such as those dis- cussed under speciation, animal movements or habitat clas- The wide-ranging nature of this chapter will make it impos- sification. sible to be exhaustive in describing sensors in use or poten- The big issue for most monitoring programmes is the an- tially useful. The reader is also referred to additional mate- thropogenic impact on ecosystem status. Information rele- rial listed in tables, in the bibliography and under useful web vant to this is obtained from sensors that measure a human links, even if no further description of the corresponding de- activity or pressure directly, for example sensors for quanti- vice is made in the text. fying chemical pollution or nutrient inputs. Next, the corre- lation of the impact with a change in the ecosystem “state” 2.1 Remote sensing has to be evaluated – for example by measuring increased primary production, shifts in species composition, decreases To start with some general definitions regarding remote sens- in oxygenation, or occurrence of disease
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