HISTORIC SCOTLAND HISTORIC Power to the People to the Power The built heritage of Scotland’s hydroelectric power heritageThe built of Scotland’s

Power to the People The significant and early development development early The significant and in Scotland power of hydroelectric its combination not least from results But and weather. of topography been not have this potential would without the pioneering realised vision of a handful of architects, engineers and politicians whose personal energy and skills meant that in the Scotland has led the world energy of this green development at various times in its history. source This book traces the development of the industry the ground- through technical achievements breaking Scottish engineers and the by realised important contribution of a number post-war and of distinguished pre- Scottish architects. hydroelectric power Power to the People: Power to the ISBN: 978-1-84917-036-9 The built heritage of Scotland’s heritageThe built of Scotland’s Power to the People

Power to the People: the built heritage of Scotland’s hydroelectric power

Written by David Fleetwood Edited by Dawn McDowell

HISTORIC SCOTLAND iv | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Acknowledgments The text for this book was prepared by David Fleetwood and edited by Dawn McDowell, with further contributions by Malcolm Cooper, Deborah Mays and Dawn McDowell, and Alexander Hayward and Rowan Brown (National Museums Scotland). Original photography was taken by David Henrie, David Fleetwood, and (on behalf of The House) Sam Sills. Copy and style editing was by Abigail Grater. Book design was by George Bowie of The House. We gratefully acknowledge the advice and help received in the production of this book from Scottish Power, Scottish and Southern Energy (with particular thanks to Bob Olivant), Rio Tinto Alcan and Mott MacDonald Ltd.

Illustrations Illustrations unless otherwise stated are supplied by Historic Scotland (www.historicscotlandimages.gov.uk) and are covered by © Crown Copyright.

Glossary A glossary of building and architectural terms is included in Scotland’s Listed Buildings: What Listing Means to Owners and Occupiers (2009). A glossary of hydroelectric power terms are included at the end of this publication. POWER TO THE PEOPLE | v

Contents

Foreword vii Introduction ix

Chapter 1 – The Pioneers 1 Chapter 2 – The Engineers 15 Chapter 3 – The Visionaries 25 Chapter 4 – The Architects 37 Chapter 5 – The Campaigners 53 Chapter 6 – The Innovators 65 Chapter 7 – The Managers 77

Notes 89 Gazetteer 91 Glossary 110 Bibliography 112

Foreword

Power to the People celebrates the massive achievements made by Scots to generate electricity from a renewable source. The result was conceived and built before the idea of global warming had gained recognition. The utility is now at the forefront of national and international government initiatives for green energy and makes a key contribution to sustainable growth in Scotland.

he sector combines a number of Scotland’s The great achievement of the sector is strengths. It not only shows considerable enhanced by the drama and beauty of the Ttechnological and architectural innovation, landscape given a helping hand by our famous but also an appreciation of its unique landscape. weather. HEP in Scotland demonstrates excellence The many power stations and dams were carefully in architecture, engineering, technology and a designed to make a positive contribution to the responsible vision. It is a truly Scottish success story rural scenery. The provision of HEP showed a which is celebrated not only in this publication but far-sighted political vision optimising technology to each and every time you switch on a light. make Scotland a better, more competitive, wealthier and environmentally attractive place. We can now appreciate the significance of these endeavours. Fiona Hyslop MSP Hydro is a key contributor to our status as a net Minister for Culture and External Affairs exporter of energy and allows Scotland to play a key role in developing projects such as a North Sea Supergrid.

Introduction

The significant and early development of hydroelectric power in Scotland results not least from its combination of topography and weather. But this potential would not have been realised without the pioneering vision of a handful of architects, engineers and politicians whose personal energy and skills meant that Scotland has led the world in the development of this green energy source at various times in its history.

he vision and skill of these This is a spectacular Scottish architects and engineers was success story. The hydroelectric Tbacked up by a productive and power movement has led to the resilient workforce capable of achieving creation of many internationally world records during the frenzied important buildings and structures, construction of schemes across Highland demonstrating architectural as well as earlier chapters, giving a comprehensive Scotland. This massive potential began to engineering achievement. overview of the existing infrastructure in be realised over 100 years ago. Initially This book traces the Scotland. It underlines the contribution in private developments and later under development of the industry through made by this most intriguing cast of state control, Scotland had developed an some of these key figures, from its characters and provides a clear view internationally significant hydroelectric roots in the aluminium industry of the schemes which are so crucial in power sector by the late 1960s. through to hollow mountains with providing power to homes and business The legacy of this pioneering the capability to provide emergency across Britain. development is a vibrant hydro sector power for whole of the UK. In which contributes to Scotland’s status as addition to the numerous pioneering Malcolm Cooper a net exporter of power to the rest of technical achievements realised by Chief Inspector the UK. Scottish hydroelectric schemes Scottish engineers the contribution Historic Scotland’s Inspectorate are of national significance to the UK of a number of distinguished pre- and energy sector, generating around 12% of post-war architects are discussed. the gross power consumed in the UK in The gazetteer section explores OPPOSITE: Laggan Dam, 1934, Lochaber smelter 2008. the vision outlined in the book’s and hydroelectric power scheme. x | POWER TO THE PEOPLE The Pioneers

‘Suddenly Kinlochleven was transformed, from a remote crofting settlement, to a centre of industry with people from all walks of life and many nationalities in the village,’ explains Avril Watt, a local historian in Kinlochleven, with a passion for its people and landscape. The powerful transformative force was the development of the pioneering Kinlochleven hydroelectric power system and aluminium smelter, completed in 1909 by the British Aluminium Company and at the time one of the largest and most sophisticated smelters in the world.

‘What people don’t appreciate,’ fallen on hard times, and a surprising continues Avril, ‘is that although the number of women acting as matrons, scheme was technically pioneering it cooks and cleaners to some of the was built by hand – hard, dangerous huts where men would pay pennies for work in which a number of men washing and a meal in the evening.’ died and are buried in a graveyard The extensive hydro scheme is overlooking the dam. A whole still in operation by Rio Tinto Alcan, community of people sprang up at the although part of the site has diversified dam, some living in bunk houses and as the community has matured, with others in small huts they constructed mixed-use development and an ice- for themselves, cooking on an open climbing centre in the former carbon fire sometimes over the back of a silos. The legacy of the smelter remains shovel. There were many types of men at the heart of this remote Highland up there, not just travelling labourers, community. but lawyers and doctors who had 2 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Chapter 1

The Pioneers

Two pioneers, with a large cast of supporting characters, revolutionised hydropower in Scotland from the eccentric folly of a retired colonel to a dynamic modern industry with the potential to power the country sustainably and regenerate the Highlands. The success, or otherwise, of such a commanding utopian vision would rest on the shoulders of others – engineers, architects, politicians and landowners. It all began, though, with ambitious developments in industrial generation for aluminium smelting, which through the work of William Murray Morrison (1873–1948) and later Sir John Snell (1869–1938) opened up the possibility of using hydropower for mass electrical consumption.

ydroelectric power is now a in Munich, an experiment on the large worldwide industry: it transmission of power along high-voltage Halready supplies around 19%1 cables used energy generated from an of world power, and is set to expand as experimental hydroelectric station. The the need to develop renewable energy pattern of development in the Alpine sources in response to climate change and Nordic nations was continued as PREVIOUS PAGE Avril Watt at grows ever more pressing. The roots they exploited the steep topography Blackwater dam, 1905- of the industry lie remarkably close to as a source of power in the absence of 1909, Kinlochleven smelter and home, with Scotland a pioneering force the rich coal reserves found in Britain. hydroelectric scheme. in the development of the technology Hydropower first came to Britain soon and of hydropower resources for public after the Munich exhibition with the Kinlochleven power house, interior and supply. In an international context, one development of a scheme to power the exterior,1905-1909, of the earliest uses for hydroelectric Northumberland home of Sir William Kinlochleven smelter and hydroelectric power generation was in 1882 when, Armstrong (1810–1900) at Cragside. scheme. at the electrical technology exhibition Armstrong, who was a friend of the THE PIONEERS | 3

inventor of the light bulb, Joseph Swan, showcased his technical achievement in his house, which in contrast to the ubiquitous smoky paraffin lamps was lit by bright, clean hydroelectric-powered light bulbs. [1.1] The earliest developments in hydropower in Scotland were small scale and privately funded, mirroring Armstrong’s work at Cragside and providing power to a small local community or even a single building. An early triumph by Colonel Blunt, the husband of the Countess of Cromarty, near Dingwall in 1903 was used to light the front of the Raven’s Rock Hotel in Strathpeffer, much to the amazement of visiting tourists to the small spa town. In nearby Fort Augustus the monks of the abbey developed a small 18-kilowatt scheme in 1891 to power the available returns limited the scale 1.1 Cragside House, of future development. For example, 1863 (hydroelectric their electric organ and the local village, power scheme in legend suggesting poetically that when Colonel Blunt’s development at Raven’s operation from 1878). the monks played the organ the lights Rock was to be dogged by financial © NTPL/Simon Fraser in the village went dim. Whilst these difficulties, and even went bankrupt, developments and others like them before eventually being incorporated proved that the technology worked, into a larger scheme in the 1920s. [1.2] they were restricted by the fact that For hydropower to be economically power could not be transmitted to a viable and developed on a nationally sufficiently wide area. Added to this, significant scale, sufficient demand was the market for power was so small that required to allow the financing of a 4 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

1.2 Fort Augustus Monastery, 1729-42. large scheme along with the essential provision of cheap electricity combined © St Andrews University Library. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk development of civil and technical with easy access for the transport of engineering. Without a national grid and bulk products, such as aluminium oxide, a large energy market, this was unlikely to supply the plant. Hydroelectric to come from domestic or small-scale power was the obvious source for commercial supply in the late 19th generating the required DC current at century. The breakthrough came with the lowest possible cost, and aluminium the development of the Hall-Heroult smelting quickly emerged as the smelting process for aluminium. [1.3] economic spark necessary for the large- Using an electrical furnace, the process scale development of hydroelectric lowered the cost of production of the power. metal by some 75%. However, the lower The British and Colonial rights to production costs relied heavily on the the smelting process were purchased THE PIONEERS | 5

by a newly formed company in 1894. The British Aluminium Company (BAC) considered a number of locations across Britain for sites to establish production facilities, but they finally settled on the Highlands of Scotland because of the great potential for the production of cheap electricity from abundant water power, which was so crucial to the success of the infant technology. Having recognised the potential of the Highlands, BAC went about pioneering the development of large- scale hydroelectric power generation in Scotland with the construction of three large industrial generating schemes at Falls of Foyers, Kinlochleven and Lochaber over the course of the next 1.3 Aluminium smelting using the Hall-Heroult process, Lochaber smelter and hydroelectric scheme, 40 years. In the development of the first c.1935. © Glasgow University Archives scheme at Foyers, BAC purchased the complete water catchment required, Technical College in Glasgow. [1.4] transport from the Caledonian Canal. obviating the requirement for a Morrison, who later went on to become Morrison was reunited with his former parliamentary bill and allowing the rapid BAC vice-chairman, was present at the tutor, Lord Kelvin, for the design of the development of the scheme. birth of the hydropower industry in scheme, which was amongst the earliest Just a year after the company Scotland with designs for the first plant in Europe to combine hydropower was founded it was joined by a newly at Foyers underway when he joined and aluminium production. Similar qualified engineer, William Murray the company. It had acquired Foyers ventures in Norway, although on a Morrison (1873-1948), who had estate and water rights over a large very large scale, were not developed taken his degree at the University area of land on the south-east shores until the beginning of the 20th century, of Edinburgh and then subsequently of Loch Ness, with the ideal topography in particular with the Rjukan waterfall trained under Lord Kelvin at the Royal for hydropower and access for bulk scheme from 1902 onwards. 6 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

the Highlands of manufacturing or other industries calculated to develop local resources and to provide employment and increase a resident population is deserving of warmest encouragement and support’.3 Although effusive in its praise, the report was justified as the development at Foyers grew from merely a factory into a settlement with a church and school, and as the number of employees expanded from 70 to 250. The Foyers scheme was undoubtedly pioneering and innovative, 1.4 Sir William the first industrial-scale use of the Murray Morrison Hall-Heroult process and the first use (1873–1948). © Glasgow University of hydroelectric power on this scale in Archives the UK. It was also highly influential, as the five Girard turbines and Oerlikon The development at Foyers set generators proved the viability of the precedent for later schemes by producing electricity from water- attracting opposition from those who powered turbines, something which had believed it would have a detrimental consequences well beyond industrial effect on what was considered generation for the aluminium industry. Scotland’s premier waterfall and a They also showed that hydro power regular stop-off during the MacBrayne’s could be successfully applied to industrial steamboat excursions on Loch Ness.2 processes. By 1900 the scheme was [1.5] The company responded by producing over 5% of the worldwide outlining the employment which the production of aluminium. The proven development would bring to the area. success of the technology, together An article in the Northern Chronicle of with an aggressively expanding market 1895 suggested that ‘the founding in with a range of domestic and industrial THE PIONEERS | 7

products utilising the new lightweight was mirrored by the growing skill and 1.5 The Falls of metal, provided the impetus for further leadership of William Morrison, and such Foyers Waterfall (oil on canvas) by development. A bill for the development was his influence over the design and Alfred de Breanski of the Loch Leven catchment was engineering of the scheme that he was (1852–1928). © The Drambuie Collection, presented to Parliament and approved in promoted to general manager in 1908, Edinburgh, Scotland / 1904, paving the way for an engineering just a year before it was completed. The Bridgeman Art achievement of international significance The damming of the river Blackwater Library in what had previously been a rural created a 13-kilometre-long reservoir backwater in Argyll. with a catchment area of some 150 Whilst the Foyers scheme was square kilometres. The project was a pioneering but understandably cautious large undertaking, and took four years in scale, the BAC development at to complete. Kinlochleven was a step into the The Blackwater dam for the unknown. The increased confidence Kinlochleven scheme was a gravity dam, 8 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

six Pelton turbines and three auxiliary sets in the powerhouse. Initially the production capacity at Kinlochleven outweighed demand for the product, nearly causing the collapse of BAC. However, the First World War hugely increased demand for aluminium, which was found to be perfectly adapted to a range of military requirements. Initially extensions were made at Kinlochleven with an aqueduct bringing in additional water from Loch Eilde Mor, and plans (eventually abandoned) were considered for a second powerhouse. The abortive scheme for a second powerhouse would have used water from Lochs Laggan and Treig, and this idea provided the basis for BAC’s most audacious undertaking in developing a third smelter at Lochaber in Fort William. 1.6 Blackwater dam, Kinlochleven smelter and 26 metres high and over 800 metres in The Kinlochleven scheme was a hydroelectric scheme. Luftwaffe vertical air length with a breadth of 19 metres at significant advance in scale over the first photograph of reservoir and dam with sketch section drawing of dam, 1943. The smelter was a the base, and the largest in Scotland in development at Foyers and represented key military asset with World War 2 significantly terms of cubic metres of concrete until a highly important civil engineering increasing demand for aluminium. Crown 1950. [1.6] Water was conveyed from Copyright: RCAHMS. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk achievement, recognised internationally, the outlet over five and a half kilometres on its completion in 1909. The smelter in a sealed reinforced concrete was one of the largest in the world at aqueduct, before entering six parallel this time, and its capacity, combined with steel pipes (which were imported from Foyers, meant that the west Highlands Germany) dropping 285 metres to the produced nearly one third of the THE PIONEERS | 9

worldwide total for aluminium.4 [1.7] BAC’s Highland aluminium smelters Having been witness to the were a significant component of successful early development of the worldwide production of aluminium. The technology for hydropower at Foyers long-term investment and innovation of and an integral part of the expansion the company had transformed the use of the technology for the development of hydroelectric power in Scotland, from at Kinlochleven, Morrison, in his role as small-scale local operations into a sector general manager for BAC, went on to capable of generating power on an put his knowledge and skill as a pioneer industrial scale. The investment in design of the industry into the most audacious experimentation for civil and mechanical and large-scale developments to date components of the scheme, such as the by BAC – those at Lochaber, begun pioneering use of rockfill technology in in 1929. The development utilised a Treig Dam, was only possible because of massive catchment, including three major the profits available from the association reservoirs, with run off including parts of of power generation with aluminium Ben Nevis. Lochs Laggan and Treig were production and the constant emphasis joined by a three-and-a-half-kilometre on larger and more efficient schemes. tunnel. Water from these two lochs was The development of the technology to later supplemented by the damming such a degree had an important impact of the River Spey and its diversion into on the design of schemes for public Loch Laggan to satisfy increased demand supply, which began to develop on a during the Second World War. Perhaps large scale from 1928 onwards with the most significant part of the scheme, the Grampian hydropower scheme. The however, was the 24-kilometre pressure environmental benefits of generating tunnel bored through solid rock under energy through hydropower, which are a Ben Nevis to connect Treig Dam with key concern of the modern-day industry, a steel pipeline dropping 180 metres were perhaps perceived at this time but to the powerhouse just outside Fort were not central to the development of William. [1.8] the industry during this period. By the completion of the expanded The development of schemes for stage of the Lochaber scheme in 1943, public supply was dogged throughout 10 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

1.7 Kinlochleven power house and penstocks, 1905-1909, Kinlochleven smelter and hydroelectric power scheme. THE PIONEERS | 11

by difficulties in funding and by local schemes. The committee was chaired opposition in ways which had not by Sir John Snell, a civil engineer by affected the BAC schemes. One training who also had experience of the largest problems was raising of government service. He saw in capital to finance the massive civil hydropower an opportunity to begin to engineering elements. This was one of shape a modern and forward-looking the primary reasons why the public power sector which would revolutionise supply developments were reliant upon the way people lived in Britain. Snell’s importing the technology pioneered by report was suitably expansive on the BAC schemes with their reliable returns. potential for hydropower to make a Local and national power transmission significant contribution to UK resources. systems were still in their infancy, and The perceived acknowledgement by the most early schemes for public supply government of the value of hydropower also faced problems in reconciling the began to make the sector more fact that the power was produced in appealing to financiers and opened up large sparsely populated areas, whilst revenue streams for the funding of new demand was located far away in the schemes. densely populated central belt. Snell was not only convinced of the Despite the gap between the general potential of hydropower, but laid areas most suited to production and out a far-reaching and highly influential the most viable markets and concerns personal vision of how the sector should over scenic amenity (the visual impact be developed – something which went of the schemes on the landscape), on to have a significant impact not only another pioneer with similar vision on the schemes developed immediately to Morrison was convinced of the afterwards, but also on nationalised viability of hydropower for public developments by the North of Scotland supply as early as 1920. In 1918 the Hydro Electric Board (NoSHEB) from Board of Trade established a committee 1943 onwards. Snell’s vision was for the to investigate Britain’s water power development of individual catchments resources, no doubt partially in response with dams and power stations rather to the success of the two existing BAC than the mass movement of water 12 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE THE PIONEERS | 13

between catchments to single large which followed the report, it was in the power stations. This proved very post-1943 NoSHEB schemes that this influential, with the vast majority of almost socialist vision was perhaps most schemes in Scotland consisting of a evident. number of smaller stations using water In a period characterised by an resources from their own catchment increasing focus on policy-led social and grouped together into a wider agendas and coinciding with the advent scheme. This also had a practical impact, of mass social housing, a commitment providing flexibility in the generation to social welfare was an ongoing pattern which could be achieved by theme throughout the development of putting individual stations in or out of hydropower. In general, a vision for a production and thus regulating capacity better life resulted in strategic planning more effectively. Snell also had a social amongst policy makers, architects and vision for the use of hydropower which engineers, with a number of large chimed with that of the early rhetoric projects throughout Scotland. The two surrounding the BAC development pioneers, Morrison and Snell, perhaps at Foyers. He saw the additional both had a vision for the development opportunity for the development of of a vibrant and modern industry on Scottish hydroelectric resources to an unprecedented scale. Despite being regenerate the Highlands, as long as they a pioneer of the technology behind were accompanied by the stipulation hydropower, it was the common good that developments should benefit the that Morrison was most proud of, noting catchment in which they were located. sentimentally in a letter, to Dr Lachlan Consequently later schemes developed Grant on 1 January 1935: ‘It is a most at the Falls of Clyde, Tummel and in pleasing recollection in my career that I Galloway all paid particular attention have been able to do some practical and to the scenic amenity of the areas in lasting good to my beloved Highlands.’5 which they were located, in addition to providing power to local communities. 1.8 Treig dam, 1921- Although this thinking would have had a 1929. Crown Copyright: considerable impact over the schemes RCAHMS

The Engineers

‘I’ll always remember looking around me [when working on a project in Lesotho] and seeing all the different nationalities, and knowing that we were developing a scheme to provide power where it had not been available before.’ This reflects the great satisfaction James Arthur found in his international career as a civil engineer and former partner with James Williamson & Partners (latterly global multi- disciplinary consultancy Mott MacDonald), who were responsible for some of the defining engineering for hydro schemes in Scotland and worldwide.

James recalls that when he joined the social conscience which he could practice in 1974 the original vision of see demonstrated in so many of its founder, James Williamson (who the projects across Scotland. This died in 1953), remained a central philosophy has been espoused by him philosophy of the company. Hydro and a small group of his colleagues schemes were not just pieces of and disseminated across the world in engineering, but were part of the their later work, helping to develop social fabric of a place. Interpreting successful projects in countries as the landscape and requirements of a far-flung as Iceland and Pakistan. local community was the only way to James reflects that ‘although Scotland produce the highest-quality designs for does not necessarily have the largest hydro schemes in a diverse range of hydro sector in the world, the role of locations. engineers bred in Scotland, who learnt James not only developed his from Williamsons much more than just civil engineering skills working at how to engineer a hydro scheme, has ‘Williamsons’; he also embraced the been very significant indeed.’ 16 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Chapter 2 The Engineers

In responding to the challenge laid down by Sir John Snell for further development during the course of a number of interwar projects at Tummel, Clyde and in Galloway, a breed of specialist engineers emerged whose work not only overcame the technical problems associated with using hydropower for public supply, but went on to shape the post-war development of hydro under the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board (NoSHEB).

nell’s pioneering vision instigated the development of hydroelectric Spower schemes for public supply. The perception amongst financiers and other officials that the development of such schemes had government Foremost amongst the engineers and public approval opened access involved in shaping the industry in to credit and allowed this area of the this way were Edward (later Sir) hydro sector to begin to catch up MacColl (1882–1951) [2.1] and James with the great strides made by the T Williamson (1881–1953). [2.2] Both British Aluminium Company (BAC) had completed apprenticeships before in the provision of hydropower for the First World War and cut their teeth PREVIOUS PAGE James Arthur at their Highland aluminium smelters. on projects ranging from explosives Ben Lawers dam, Although developments by BAC had and munitions to tramways. MacColl Killin, Breadalbane was appointed Chief Technical Engineer hydroelectric scheme. proved that the technology could work on a very large scale, the technical for the Clyde Valley Electrical Power Ben Lawers dam and challenges associated with public supply Company, following his work on the penstock, Killin, 1951- 1956, Breadalbane were different and demanded equally electrification of the Glasgow tram hydroelectric scheme. innovative solutions. network. The Clyde Valley company THE ENGINEERS | 17

2.1 Sir Edward 2.2 James T Williamson MacColl (1882–1951) (1881–1953). Reproduced pictured centre. © courtesy of Mott MacDonald Ltd. Am Baile. Courtesy of the Ramsay Collection, Skye and Lochalsh Archive. was the largest supplier of electricity had of course been recognised by technical and architectural achievement in Scotland at the time MacColl was David Dale in the late 18th century in than through public relations. Thus appointed. Having abandoned plans in the development at New Lanark, of the far-sighted drive to ensure that 1909 to develop the Falls of Clyde for pioneering of water powered mills and developments made a positive impact hydropower, the company had gone an associated village. The location of on their environment by contributing on to construct a number of thermal the proposed scheme was therefore to their setting, and by good design stations. Their attention returned to the not only at one of central Scotland’s and engineering, was a theme MacColl potential of the Falls of Clyde following most renowned sites for water power, had picked up from Snell’s report and MacColl’s appointment and the financial but also at one of the region’s most that would prove influential over all backing of the Power and Traction recognised beauty spots, and vociferous of his future work and latterly that of Finance Company. [2.3] opposition was expected in advance NoSHEB. The capacity of the Falls of of the proposal being put forward for One of the key factors in the Clyde to provide water power on parliamentary assent. The critics of the design at the Falls of Clyde was an unprecedented scale in Scotland scheme were appeased more through accordingly to preserve the falls 18 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

as a spot of scenic beauty, and this over the famous falls) through the was achieved by MacColl through use of cleverly designed tilting weirs, an innovative adaptation of the unique at the time when they were technology for hydropower. He chose constructed. The three gates could be astutely to use a ‘run-of-the-river’-type lowered by their lower section pivoting scheme, precluding the requirement on steel bearings. A counterweight for a reservoir and so preserving the acting on the weir gates was set to appearance of the landscape. As well resist the pressure of water when the as removing the need for a reservoir, river was at the optimum height but the design also ensured that sufficient would allow the gates to move down 2.3 Falls of Clyde promotional booklet, 1926. Crown Copyright: RCAHMS. Licensor www.scran. compensation water was provided to if water level (and pressure) rose. The ac.uk the river (ensuring water still flowed mechanism was designed to maintain water level to within 15 centimetres of this optimum, providing water both to the power station and over the falls. The preservation of the landscape was also of wider concern in the design of the scheme, with a group of prominent architectural advisers, including Sir Robert Lorimer (1864-1929), who was on the amenity panel. [2.4] Despite being disparagingly nicknamed ‘MacColl’s Folly’1 by the coal lobby, the scheme managed to site two power stations and associated 2.4 Workers penstocks and weirs in an area of constructing the outstanding natural beauty. The primacy tunnel at Bonnington power station, of the engineer’s role which MacColl 1926, Falls of Clyde achieved on the Clyde project went on hydroelectric scheme. to become the accepted standard for Crown Copyright: RCAHMS. Licensor hydro developments from this point www.scran.ac.uk THE ENGINEERS | 19

onwards and had a major impact on the developing the scheme. vital peak-load capacity for the new work of NoSHEB. Notwithstanding his In a precursor to their later electricity network which was founded success on the Clyde scheme, MacColl partnership for NoSHEB, it was MacColl almost wholly on thermal stations recognised the limitations of the sector who provided an answer to Williamson’s capable of providing only base-load at this time. A major obstacle which problem. He was appointed to the supply. the BAC schemes had not needed Central Electricity Board (CEB) in Despite the advantages offered to overcome was the transmission of 1927 and immediately began to by the development of the grid, large power from generation to end user, a work on solutions to the problem of obstacles still remained for Williamson problem made particularly acute by the long-distance transmission of power to overcome. The topography of the often remote rural location of many – a vital step to allow the accelerated area chosen allowed Williamson to use of the prime sites for hydropower development of the hydro sector in the 60 kilometres from Loch Doon to resources to be developed. Scotland. MacColl’s invention of the Tongland as a cascade system, reusing The lack of national infrastructure ‘MacColl Protective System’ was the the water for generation multiple times for the transmission of power had crucial technological breakthrough that as it passed through the power stations already had an impact on the early provided the basis internationally for and also, most notably, the nine separate work in the hydro sector of another long-distance power transmission. By dams that were constructed. The total key figure, James Williamson. Williamson 1933 the Scottish national grid had been fall over the 60 kilometres was a mere was working as chief engineer to created. 210 metres, but Williamson’s cascade Alexander Gibb & Partners of Glasgow The work of MacColl on the design proved a highly innovative in 1923 when he was approached development of the national grid had a solution to the technical problems which by two Kirkcudbrightshire residents, direct impact on Williamson’s prospects this relatively low head of water created. Wellwood Maxwell and Scott Elliott, for the Galloway scheme. With the Having overcome the immediate to investigate the potential of the area problem of transmitting the power technical difficulties, parliamentary assent for hydropower. Williamson found resolved, it could now be exported to was required to allow construction that the potential far exceeded his the central belt and north-west England, of the scheme to go ahead. It was expectations. However, all developments providing vital access to larger urban carefully piloted through Parliament, were rendered uneconomic because of markets which made the development but successful adoption by the House the sparse and predominantly agrarian financially viable. The scheme, which of Commons required the insertion character of the area’s population, which spanned from Loch Doon in Ayrshire of a number of clauses, one of which would not provide a sufficient income to to Tongland on the Kirkcudbrightshire in particular proved highly influential outweigh the significant costs involved in coast, was also amended to provide not only over the work of Williamson 20 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

on the Galloway scheme but also on all innovation of the engineer of paramount subsequent developments in the sector: importance to the success of the In the construction of the works all Galloway scheme – not only would all reasonable regard shall be paid to the the technical considerations need to be preservation, as well for the public as satisfied, but the appearance and impact for private owners, of the beauty of of each intervention would be closely the scenery of the districts in which monitored. the said works are situated. For the Williamson rose to the challenge purpose of securing the observance of in his first major hydro commission, the foregoing provisions and of aiding designing nine dams and developing the Company it shall be lawful for the a pioneering approach to their design Secretary of State, after consultation which went on to characterise all of with the Company, to appoint a his later work. Williamson retained a Committee. The Committee may make constant focus not only on the visual to the Company such recommendations appearance of the dams, but also on as they may think reasonable and the opportunities to save on expensive proper for the preservation of the materials and contract time. A number of beauty of the scenery.2 the dams he designed were of composite type with central arched sections abutted The existence of this ‘amenity’ clause by concrete gravity wings. The use of the influenced the quality of engineering and arched central section saved a significant design on this and all other schemes. amount of concrete in comparison to a It necessitated a carefully developed conventional gravity section, whilst the approach to the engineering of the mass gravity wings compensated for the of linked pools. However, it is perhaps schemes to ensure that they represented fact that the natural abutments were Clatteringshaws, the largest dam on the minimum possible intervention insufficiently strong or steep.3 the scheme, which best illustrates the necessary, thus preserving the integrity A number of the dams on the central role of the engineer in this phase of the landscape, and that each feature Galloway scheme incorporated of design. [2.5] The dam provides water made a positive contribution to its innovative fish passes, including an storage capacity for Glenlee Power setting. The legal obligation to be mindful octagonal tower at Loch Doon dam Station through a tunnel. Its unadorned of natural setting made the skill and containing a continuous spiral cascade modern appearance clearly ties it THE ENGINEERS | 21

stylistically and functionally to Glenlee, dam, Clatteringshaws skilfully combines 2.5 Clatteringshaws with the use of a striking Modernist engineering excellence with the use of dam, 1932-1934, Galloway hydroelectric design a key theme in both dams arch and gravity sections, all on a curved scheme. and power stations throughout the profile with a heightened awareness of Galloway scheme. Constructed from the natural setting. Taking into account the upstream face using a series of both functional and aesthetic concerns, it steam cranes on a track, with concrete is placed in a large valley, the steep sides mixed on site at the east end of the of which flank the dam and screen it 22 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

2.6 Tongland power station, 1934, Galloway from view. The curved profile also adds of the scheme, with long open vistas hydroelectric scheme. a sinuous form in the landscape when ensuring that any large civil engineering viewed from a distance, melding the interventions could potentially have industrial structure into the curving hills. a significant impact on the character The detailing of Tongland Power of the area. Williamson pioneered a Station, with its stark roofline and dual solution to the design of power rhythmic articulation of the façade, stations on the Galloway scheme which characterises the modern, dynamic came from his engineering background, attitude with which hydroelectricity was where he was accustomed to combining viewed in this period and the positive alternate systems into a single cohesive impact it could have. [2.6] The open device, similar to his use of both gravity rolling landscape of the Galloway Hills and arch elements in his dam designs. where the scheme was located provided Whilst a clear focus is retained on the a particular challenge for the design integration of the buildings and dams THE ENGINEERS | 23

with their landscape when viewed from a distance (as at Clatteringshaws), this is coupled with a high-quality design for all features on the scheme. This recognises the fact that, when viewed from close by, such large features cannot be hidden in the landscape (although this became a theme that NoSHEB would later develop through the use of local stone cladding and underground stations), but conversely they could make a striking and positive impact with an outstanding Classical Modernist design and the use of high-quality materials, all while maintaining the necessary engineering requirements of a large commercial power station. [2.7] The zeal with which both MacColl and Williamson approached work on hydropower projects during this period in satisfying peak demand for power 2.7 Earlstoun power station, 1936, Galloway is characteristic of the drive and ambition in the new national supply network hydroelectric scheme. of a young industry given boundless for Scotland made it increasingly hard new horizons by the development of for central government to ignore the a national grid. The desire to innovate potential of the sector on a national scale. constantly and use high-quality design Williamson and MacColl’s successes laid was a central principle for both men, the foundations for the nationalisation whose commitment to applying these of the industry. They had transformed principles shaped the future development the use of hydropower for public supply of the hydro sector in Scotland. The from the eccentric brainchild of Highland heights which the Galloway scheme estate owners to a modern and dynamic reached in terms of design and the industry confident to make a strategic essential strategic role which it played and aesthetic contribution to Scotland.

The Visionaries

David Wake (inset) came to North Harris from Lancashire on holiday in 2004, and when he finally decided to give up the ‘rat race’ a year later he moved to the island permanently. Before too long, he was able to turn his business experience to working as the Energy Development Officer with the newly founded North Harris Trust (NHT).

A non-commercial body whose principle objectives are to enable this Hebridean island community to grow and prosper sustainably, mainly by providing housing and creating jobs, the Trust acquired the North Harris some 80 men working and living on Estate in a right-to-buy agreement in site for over a year. The advent of the 2003. Since then, they have been eager relatively small schemes at Chilostair to capitalise on the great potential that and the other at Gisla, built shortly renewable energy provide in terms of after in 1960, brought not only clean direct economic benefit. electricity to remote Hebridean Kenny MacKay (right) and Calum townships (removing the reliance MacLennan (left), natives of North on diesel generators), but also new Harris, were both involved in the opportunities for the reinvigoration construction of the first large scheme of the community. Similar themes on the island located at Chilostair in are at the heart of NHT’s plans for 1960. Calum provided his vans and development on North Harris with trucks on loan to the Hydro Board the helpful involvement of Community and Kenny worked on building the Energy Scotland, and with Kenny still pipeline for the scheme. They recall playing a key role as a trustee. 26 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Chapter 3 The Visionaries

The pioneering developments of the British Aluminium Company schemes and the technical and aesthetic issues addressed by Edward MacColl and James Williamson had clearly illustrated the viability and strategic importance of hydro technology to Scotland’s future energy needs. However, the continued development of the sector was not to prove so easy. Despite the success of the Clyde and Galloway schemes, there was increasing opposition from powerful landowners and a large coal lobby who supported the development of thermal stations which represented a significant market for coal. Consequently the industry needed a new champion to secure its future development against opposition.

ix major hydro schemes were of ‘wooded shores, heather-clad hillsides, put before Parliament before rocky gorges, tumbling waterfalls’ to S1940, all of which were defeated be replaced by ‘huge white dams … PREVIOUS PAGE despite sound planning, economic and wide stretches of rotting vegetation INSET: David Wake, technical rationale. A well-organised and and slimy mud … . And here and there Energy Development influential coal lobby was developed, the blackened skeletons of trees … Officer, North Harris 1 Trust and this effectively suppressed further projecting above the ooze’! advancement in hydropower. The The outbreak of World War in MAIN: Calum situation reached an impasse, with no 1939 further limited consideration of MacLennan and Kenny MacKay, new schemes able to pass Parliament. the hydro question until Churchill re- residents of North At this point, prior to the Second formed his cabinet in February 1941, Harris who worked on the Chilostair World War, something had to change to making Tom Johnston (1882–1965) hydroelectric scheme. allow for further hydro schemes to be Secretary of State for Scotland. Johnston developed, or else suspicious viewpoints was a keen proponent of hydropower, Chilostair dam and surrounding landscape, from some elected officials would and saw its potential role in the North Harris. continue to disparage the potential loss reconstruction of post-war Scotland THEVISIONARIES | 27

3.1 Tom Johnston, Chairman of the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board (1947-59) and Secretary of State for Scotland (1941-45). Licensor www.scran.ac.uk from early on. It would be his drive, Johnston asked them to do was set up thorough investigation of the sector, ambition and political acumen which inquiries to look at Scotland’s post-war taking evidence from a wide variety of would see the transition of the industry problems. One of the earliest of these, sources including those opposed to from one in political gridlock and unable under Lord Cooper, was established to the development of Highland hydro to realise the potential of the available look at the issue of Scotland’s resources resources, and in addition reviewed a resources to a nationalised industry for water power. However, it seemed number of third-party reports on the with a development plan encompassing that the Cooper Committee did not subject. nearly 100 proposed schemes. [3.1] share Johnston’s utopian vision for the The Cooper Report was published Johnston quickly recognised the future development of hydropower. The on 15th December 1942 and it was important role that the nationalised Committee members felt there was soon easy to see that the Committee development of Scotland’s resources little which they could add to the Snell members had been converted to for water power could play. Having report of 1921 and found that all of the Johnston’s vision for hydropower in established – as a subject of his potential schemes identified by Snell Scotland. The opening statements were appointment to the post – a council of had already been developed by private a damning indictment of the stagnation state composed of former Secretaries of interests.2 Despite the initial concerns suffered by the industry since the State for Scotland, one of the first things of the Committee, they mounted a completion of the Galloway schemes. 28 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

of the Hydro-Electric Development (Scotland) Act. [3.2] This act effectively nationalised the further development of Highland water resources, the task of which was to be managed by a newly founded body, the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board (NoSHEB). It took all of Johnston’s political skill and influence to ensure that the bill progressed through Parliament. Both the coal lobby and the coalition of landowning and sporting interests were 3.2 North of Scotland still highly opposed to it. The battle Hydro Electric Board coat of arms. was particularly savage in the press, © Glasgow University with a letter to the New Statesman Archives suggesting a member of the Cooper Committee should be taken to the It began ‘all major issues of policy, Ross areas and noted that the provision shores of Loch Laggan ‘where his nose both national and local have tended of power to these developments, could be held beneath the slime’ until to become completely submerged in although essential to their success, was he reconsidered.4 A surprising strand the conflict of contending sectional prohibitively expensive via conventional of opposition was also developed interests.’3 The report clearly shared thermal stations. Thus came the official against a background of surging Scottish the frustrations of Johnston, Williamson, sanctioning of Johnston’s sweeping vision Nationalism, encouraged by the Scottish MacColl and others that the great that the power of Highland water would National Party (SNP) which had potential for development had been be turned to generation. been founded in 1934. The nationalist so effectively thwarted by other Such was Johnston’s political interests objected to the sale of power interests, leading (in their view) to the influence, coupled with that of the generated in the Highlands to south economic decline of the Highlands. prominent political figures who made up of the border, despite the promise of The Committee’s report made much the Cooper Committee, that by 1943 profits as a result. However, Johnston of the perceived signs of economic their recommendations had become continued to exercise his political will recovery in the Inverness and Easter law with the passage through Parliament and by the time the bill came to the THEVISIONARIES | 29

house he was confident that he had ‘placed the bill outside partisan politics’.5 In fact, such were the efforts of Johnston that the bill to found NoSHEB was supported by no less than eight cabinet ministers, including the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The newly founded board provided Johnston with the perfect vehicle to move forwards with his vision for hydro in Scotland, initially in a behind-the-scenes role supporting the first chairman, Lord Airlie, and latterly 3.3 M Joughin, Chairman of NoSHEB with school children from North Ronaldsay at the 1983 as the chairman himself from 1947 to inauguration of the local hydro scheme. © North Ronaldsay Heritage Trust. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk 1959. Social concerns dominated the agenda and rhetoric of NoSHEB and assurance that provisions for workers conservative politicians, to be carried formed a major component of its and villagers would be made regardless into law. Subsection 3 of section 2 of founding principles, completely in line of their economic viability, ensuring that the act stated that profits which were with Johnston’s vision. The themes even the remotest settlement would gained from the exportation of bulk of economic regeneration and social benefit from electricity. Crofters were supplies of power were to be used for invigoration were the main driving even to be encouraged to dry hay ‘the economic development and social forces behind the creation of new and grain electrically, while the fishing improvement of the North of Scotland’.7 hydropower schemes in the Highlands. industry could benefit from electrically The focus by Johnston on social The supply of cheap and reliable power, powered refrigeration.6 This social welfare was a result of his own as had been proven by the British vision was to be financed through the deeply held conviction, but is also Aluminium Company, was to stimulate export of power to the bulk markets an important early example of the industrial development, with private of south and central Scotland. [3.3] The burgeoning movement for social and connections to the grid provided for the Hydro Act was at the core of Johnston’s class equality which followed the end of homes of the workers who would be idealism and it was his strength of the Second World War, and was later required for each new industrial venture. conviction that allowed a clause in the to manifest itself in the foundation of A key plank of this social policy was the Act, which was branded as socialist by the National Health Service in 1948. 30 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Johnston’s concerns mirrored closely the country. From 1945 onwards the the contemporary issues in housing, Norwegian state put in place a policy and his plan to provide power to the to reconstruct the internal economy Highlands went hand in hand with the and also to assist exports. Central to recommendations of the Barlow Report this policy was the provision of cheap of 1940 which advocated population power from hydroelectricity. This was dispersal and talked of the importance coupled with mineral extraction to allow of relationships between landscape, for massive growth in the chemical, population and employment. Johnston’s refinery and aluminium industries.8 vision, as set out in the Act, of new The core role which hydropower Highland communities centred on played in the Norwegian post-war small industrial ventures, powered by economic and social reconstruction cheap supplies of electricity and with was exactly the vision that Johnston jobs on hand was exactly the type of shared for the Highlands. The economic development that the Barlow Report stagnation which left those employed had advocated. in the low-waged agrarian sector, and Johnston was directly involved in persuaded others to emigrate, could commissioning Alan Reiach and Robert be transformed with a similar shift Hurd’s publication of 1941 entitled of labour and capital to a modern Building Scotland. This polemical report prosperous industrialised society along recommended a modern Scottish the Norwegian model, and hydropower vernacular injected with Scandinavian was to be the spark. [3.4] brightness and colour, and discussed In order to move forward with wider social and political issues which plans for hydro and to deliver on went beyond the design of new promises, Johnston had not given housing, ultimately influencing Johnston’s any more thought to the need for whole outlook, especially in his plans design quality in hydro schemes as for hydro. Johnston took his cue from these considerations had led to much Norway, where hydropower was used fruitless debate and stagnation before as a tool for economic regeneration of the Second World War. NoSHEB predominantly rural areas throughout initially sidestepped the issue of THEVISIONARIES | 31

3.4 Example of a section of the NoSHEB development plan showing a proposed scheme centred around Killin, c.1947. © University of Dundee- Archive Services. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk 32 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

scenic amenity by purchasing land as required from landowners according to a set scale of compensation. At the same time the Cooper Committee noted that ‘it was sure the complaints which have been made and the fears which are entertained on the score of injury to amenity have been seriously exaggerated’.9 This dismissive attitude to the question of scenic amenity, which had so concerned Williamson and MacColl, was a surprising stance on the part of NoSHEB and naively misjudged the serious impact that this issue was still to have. The Board justified their stance in two ways. The Committee cited the remoteness of the planned developments as a major contributory factor, noting that only ‘a handful of deer-stalkers, salmon anglers, ghillies and gamekeepers and the adventurous spirits who have traversed these mountain districts on foot’ would see anything.10 What the Board failed to take into account was the influence that these deer stalkers, salmon anglers and adventurous spirits could bring to bear on their plans. The second point of justification by the Board was that the great benefits the developments would bring to the Highlands would effectively 3.5 Construction work at Sloy dam, 1943-50, Sloy hydroelectric scheme. © Scottish and Southern Energy THEVISIONARIES | 33

outweigh any of the negative impacts his work on the Falls of Clyde where on scenic amenity. Just like Johnston, scenic amenity issues had been very the Board felt that its social justification skilfully sidestepped, ironically through would conquer all and was sufficiently high-quality design and engineering. [3.5 strong to give them the power to and 3.6] overcome previous difficulties. MacColl had been frustrated by Johnston certainly saw problems the slow pace of development following coming in the early years of the Board his early work in the sector prior to and attempted to use his political the Second World War and shared skill and clout to effectively limit the Johnston’s vision for the development potential difficulties. His influence was of the Highlands. MacColl intended at its height in the appointment of Lord to drive ahead at full speed with the Airlie as the first chairman of NoSHEB. first duty of the Board to produce Airlie was a major Scottish landowner, a development scheme, which in an Governor of the British Linen Bank and illustration of MacColl’s energy was Director of Barclays Bank. Despite his produced within three months. Every status as a major Scottish landowner he possible site for development was had professed support for Johnston’s listed and fully assessed, with MacColl plan, criticising the bill in Parliament ensuring that all possible schemes were because it did not go far enough.11 The considered, to prevent any problems choice of Lord Airlie was an attempt later on. The plan consisted of a list by Johnston to neutralise the possible and some basic maps with explanatory backlash from landowners against the notes. It was a skeletal document, but it powers of the Board to move forward provided the basis for the future work with developments which they had of the Board and was the first true previously been able to effectively glimpse of the ambition of NoSHEB for oppose. Edward MacColl was also development. The plan was approved by appointed as chief technical director, the electricity commissioners on 15th both for his skills as an engineer and March 1944 and by the Secretary of also his experience in the promotion of State a week later.12 controversial developments following It seemed that Johnston had 34 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

achieved his vision. NoSHEB had been created and had the power to enact a plan for development which would see hydropower rolled out across the Highlands as a precursor to major economic regeneration and social renewal. However, his vision was to stand a major test in the immediate aftermath of the euphoria following the completion of the development plan. Following various parliamentary considerations, proposals were advanced for a major overhaul of the national grid. Johnston argued against Lloyd George’s ambition to see NoSHEB absorbed into a broader organisation incorporating the national grid, stressing the importance of its continued independence. He was ‘quite satisfied that a central generating board of the kind suggested by your committee would not be able to command the confidence which the new Board has secured and that if it were to replace that Board on the generating side all the old controversies and difficulties would come to the surface once more.’13 The creation of the Board and the social vision which it had encapsulated 3.6 Construction work on the tunnel at Sloy, 1943-50, Sloy hydroelectric scheme. © Scottish were among Johnston’s proudest and Southern Energy achievements, and the prospect of its THEVISIONARIES | 35

3.7 Pitlochry power station, 1947-1951, Tummel Valley hydroelectric scheme. Crown Copyright: RCAHMS. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk loss of independence before work machinations by beginning to construct encapsulated by Lord Airlie in 1943: ‘We had even begun would have been a his great vision. Once the dams were had a great expectation of power all devastating blow. Without the strength underway the momentum of the great over the countryside … there are many of his vision it may have been enough plan for the Highlands would become things beside the production of electric to fatally wound the board and end unstoppable, such was his conviction in power for industry. There is power the fight for its independent status. the social and economic validity of his for agriculture, forestry, fishery, tourist However, Johnston was dogged and not plan. Despite the threats, Johnston and traffic, cheap transport and many other prepared to give up so easily. He saw those around him were still convinced things. These are all bound up with the an opportunity to sidestep the political of their all-encompassing initiative, neatly prosperity of our country.’14 [3.7]

The Architects

‘He used to light up a fresh pipe before taking a walk around the drawing office, peering over our shoulders whilst the sparks burnt little holes in our drawings,’ recall architects Jim Armstrong and Marcus Johnston of their former boss James Shearer. The practice of Shearer & Annand was responsible for many iconic modern power station designs from the 1940s through to the 1960s.

Shearer’s place on the amenity Club’. Thus the large bas-relief Celtic committee of the North of Scotland panels came to characterise the power Hydro Electric Board ensured regular stations designed by the practice, patronage by the Board. Both Jim including fine examples carved by Armstrong (left) and Marcus Johnston Thomas Whalen for Fasnakyle, near (right) later became partners in the Inverness. Dunfermline-based firm, and both The architects recall that were instrumental in the design designs came to the office from the of seminal hydroelectric schemes engineers as little brick boxes, but Mr throughout Scotland. Shearer was convinced that for local Early designs for Fasnakyle and communities to accept the hydro Grudie Bridge, which both Jim and buildings they would have to build Marcus remember working on, were in stone to link them to their local in the International Style. However, area. Undoubtedly their efforts were the designs quickly evolved, based on a successful, the architects proudly reinterpretation of Scottish Pictish and noting that when the International Celtic sources that the two men recall Congress of Large Dams visited were taken from ‘great green bound Kilmorack power station they broke volumes published by the Spalding into spontaneous applause. 38 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Chapter 4 The Architects

Statements to the effect that remote hydro schemes would only be seen by ghillies and hillwalkers indicated that the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board held an attitude of indifference to the architectural design of the buildings, contrasting clearly with their concern for the technical and civil engineering of the schemes. However, the threat to the independence of the Board itself, represented by its potential absorption into a UK-wide body through the reorganisation of the national grid, proved useful in renewing interest in the design aspect. Focusing on the schemes’ designs – technical, vernacular or even nationalistic – became an effective method of combating potential takeover, although the Board was keen to stress that this was not purely defensive but was intended to make a positive contribution to the Highland landscape. Their aims would be achieved through the use of visionary and thoughtful architects. PREVIOUS PAGE Marcus Johnston and he threat of a loss of corporate with a Scottish rather than UK focus. Jim Armstrong, former partners with Shearer autonomy was thwarted by An independent North of Scotland and Annand Architects. TJohnston’s plan to begin building Hydro Electric Board (NoSHEB) was Errochty power the first of the schemes outlined in key to growing Scottish nationalism, with station, 1955, Tummel the development plan. This audacious the Board a vital tool in developing a Valley hydroelectric plan tapped into a national feeling of uniquely Scottish asset in hydropower. scheme. hope and euphoria which characterised The public perception surrounding Beastie design for the immediate post-war years. It the start of work at Sloy, where the Grudie Bridge power station c.1950, Conon was with an excitement and faith in first sod was cut by dignitaries in a Valley hydroelectric technology that post-war reconstruction large bulldozer, contrasted strongly scheme. Crown commenced, and the first project of the with the relatively perilous political Copyright: RCAHMS. Licensor www.scran. board at Sloy was in the forefront of this position of the Board. Catapulted into ac.uk wave of national pride, although perhaps this heady mix were the architects, THE ARCHITECTS | 39

who had the vital role of turning large focus on the technical groups formed 4.1 Sloy power station under construction, 1943, Sloy hydroelectric scheme © Scottish and boxes containing turbines and pipes into from the ranks of prominent engineers Southern Energy buildings which could make a positive (including MacColl and Williamson). In contribution to the landscape both addition to this, two other groups, one physically and psychologically. [4.1] The concerned with fisheries and the other story of the architects is moulded by with design, were established. Both of these pervading issues, which in turn these panels shared the same rationale resulted in a range of high-quality and and were an attempt to engage any innovative designs, drawing on a shifting opposition by bringing them inside the palette of design influences, but each Board. Whilst this was wholly the case time making a definite statement about with the fisheries advisory panel, there the vision of the Board. was a feeling that the architectural NoSHEB established a number of panel would also serve a valuable role advisory panels at its inception, with the in ensuring that the buildings made a 40 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

appointed in 1943. Initially their role was to adjudicate on competition entries for designs, but by 1947 they themselves had become the designers, with the competition model abandoned as time consuming and costly. There was a clear hierarchy of the various advisory panels, with the technical panel pre-eminent to the design panel. Although the Amenity and Fisheries committees could not make judgements on technical issues, they proved to be a powerful group and in a number of cases vetoed the use of above-ground power stations, forcing the technical panel to come up 4.2 Deanie power station, 1963, tunnel access positive contribution to the Highland with innovative underground stations on portal, Affric hydroelectric scheme. landscape. This formed part of the various schemes. This was particularly Board’s offensive strategy in attempting the case on the Affric-Cannich to retain its independence. The role scheme where there are a number of of the Amenity Committee and the underground stations such as Deanie. Fisheries Committee provided a higher This left the design panel with limited level of protection for the natural control over the functional form of the landscape than had yet been seen in buildings, which was to be expected, but Europe and proved to the Board’s they did influence the appearance and opponents that their role in managing the style of the designs. [4.2] the Scottish landscape was a serious The first development by the concern. Board was to be at Sloy on the The panel of architectural advisers banks of Loch Lomond. Perhaps not consisted of Reginald Fairlie (1883– surprisingly given the location, there was 1952), James Shearer (1881–1962) and vociferous opposition from both Local Harold Ogle Tarbolton (1869–1947), all Authorities and private individuals, the THE ARCHITECTS | 41

4.3 Sloy power station, 1943-50, Sloy hydroelectric scheme. result of which was a public enquiry disfigurement of the landscape. It is months and years. between Christmas 1943 and New not as though Loch Lomond and its Set against this uncertain backdrop Year 1944. The inquiry was chaired by banks were untouched by the hand it would have been easy for the John Cameron KC,1 who after six days of man: indeed in this very area the Board to take refuge in designs based of deliberation approved the plan, but blank and undistinguished visage of on predictable and uncontroversial reminded the Board that it would have the Inversnaid Hotel is a constant vernacular themes. This was not to to be more prepared to argue its case reminder of the needs of man and be the case. Johnston and the design in future. The inquiry dismissed concerns the means he has adopted to satisfy panel saw the opportunity to make about the impact of the power station, them.2 an authoritative mark. A completely but underlined the importance of the The role of the architect was new design vocabulary would not only architectural design. [4.3] Cameron did consequently to come more to the fore emphasise the responsible approach not feel the existence of a powerhouse in shaping the appearance of stations, of the Board as custodians of Highland would be a problem: to fully satisfy the more stringent tests scenery, but would also express [I] see no reason why a of the Board’s plans which, Cameron its confidence as an independent powerhouse per se should be a warned, would come in the ensuing organisation. The opportunity was ripe 42 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

to develop a new architectural idiom was important, it was vital that this also for industrial buildings – not only to interpreted the history and culture of provide good architecture, but to create the landscape which surrounded it. an impressive face for the Board in local The Board turned first to Harold landscapes and reinforce its position Ogle Tarbolton to undertake the task as a dynamic and modernising force in of reconciling the desire for a modern the Highlands. However, the concern architectural design with the necessity to with landscape also required, as had integrate buildings with their landscape. been hinted at by John Cameron, that Tarbolton became involved in the solutions were inspired by their setting, design of hydroelectric infrastructure and whilst high-quality modern design for NoSHEB late in his career, but he

4.4 Glenlee, power station, 1934, Galloway hydroelectric scheme. THE ARCHITECTS | 43

4.5 Pitlochry power station under construction, 1950, Tummel Valley hydroelectric scheme. Crown Copyright: RCAHMS. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk 44 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

had been a member of the Amenity Tarbolton’s design for Sloy was difficulties in the promotion of the Committee which considered the work forthright and confident and was a next two schemes, one of which at carried out under the Galloway Water conscious effort not only to assure the Duntelchaig (near Loch Ness) had to Power Act of 1929, acting as advisory strength of the Board, but to shape be abandoned because of the level architect for the Galloway schemes, the wider agenda. If the Board could of opposition, with similar serious and designing the associated housing crystallise their plan to bring prosperity resistance to the Tummel scheme schemes. He was the ideal candidate for to the Highlands and make a positive (which will be explored in more detail NoSHEB to select, to produce a design architectural contribution, they could in the next chapter). This culminated which would emphasise the confidence prove critics wrong and emphasise in chairman Lord Airlie’s resignation of the Board (even if only demonstrated to all the importance and success of in 1946 and his replacement with outwardly) and which would make a their vision. The built expression of Tom Johnston. The pressure on the positive contribution to the setting of the industry in Modernist language Board at this point was extreme, and the proposed power station. Tarbolton’s also allowed the buildings to tap into Johnston saw his role undoubtedly work on the Galloway schemes had a pervading enthusiasm for modern as that of a lightening conductor: his been characterised by a confident fusion design as a facet of economic and social political skill and acumen were to be of Modernist and plain classical forms, renewal. By adopting a number of the used to take the pressure away from which had fulfilled the aims. [4.4] elements of the new language of design, the engineers and architects and allow Tarbolton’s design for Sloy power namely Modernist design forms and the work to continue. Just as had been his station, which is set prominently on bold use of concrete as a decorative plan when the Board faced the threat rising ground and at an angle to the and constructional material, Tarbolton of amalgamation with the national grid, main A82 trunk road which passes was clearly placing hydropower at the Johnston felt that to keep building would directly in front of it, draws on similar forefront of the post-war vision for be the best way to secure the Board’s themes to his work in Galloway. The reconstruction. Tarbolton sought to future. design makes bold use of modern move the industry above the political There was very serious opposition materials, particularly pre-cast concrete machinations and wrangling over scenic to the Tummel scheme because of fascia panels with stone aggregate amenity, to a modern monument of concerns regarding the impact the finishes. The general massing of the wonder to which the public would pay development would have on the station also expressed the dynamism of pilgrimage. The success, or otherwise, landscape, with large stations at the industry, with large primary volumes was potentially significant to the future Clunie and Pitlochry (that at Pitlochry and stark rooflines set against the of the Board. integrated with a dam), and their ability backdrop of crags and trees. NoSHEB was to suffer further to integrate with the local community THE ARCHITECTS | 45

4.6 Pitlochry power station, 1947-1951, Tummel Valley hydroelectric scheme. became of paramount importance. [4.5] an exemplary model of the fusion of of NoSHEB. Under the chairmanship of Tarbolton was again the lead architect necessary engineering requirements of Tom Johnston the troubles of the Board and in the design for Pitlochry produced a large commercial power station and began to ease because of his canny arguably the best example of the a striking architectural response to the ability to defer controversy. With less bold Modernist phase of designs for brief. The stark roofline and rhythmic outward pressure on the Board there NoSHEB. His design echoed that of Sloy articulation of the façade characterise was a perceptible change of emphasis (and his work at Clunie), with simple the modern, dynamic attitude with in the design of the schemes, and plain Modernist massing and abstracted which hydroelectricity was viewed in consequently a change in the location classical detail such as the use of giant- this period, all while representing the of major developments. The use of order pilasters to articulate the bays of vision of NoSHEB, especially set against local sandstone aggregate for the fascia the turbine hall, with large multi-pane a backdrop of severe criticism. [4.6] panels at Pitlochry indicated a desire to windows set between. This organisation But even at Pitlochry and Clunie integrate the buildings in a more direct of the main elevation was a signature there had been hints of an evolving way with the landscape in which they device and one he had used in Galloway theoretical approach to how building were set, and this ‘vernacular’ theme and at Sloy; the design itself became design might communicate the ideals would become increasingly dominant 46 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

architectural idiom under Shearer was to reflect these growing trends. [4.7] Shearer was the youngest member of the architectural panel and did not have the background in the sector of Tarbolton, nor had he inherited associations for the design ethos of hydro stations as bold Modernist boxes which previously characterised Tarbolton’s work. Although the massive primary volumes 4.7 James Shearer (1881-1962). Crown Copyright: RCAHMS (Shearer and Annand Collection). were retained, as prescribed by the engineers, Shearer brought a new set of design ideals. He had a long-standing regard for landscape and was interested in marrying his designs to their location. Shearer was also interested in helping in future developments. Tarbolton and to facilitate access to the countryside, as Fairlie both died (in 1947 and 1952 seen in his work designing youth hostels respectively) relatively early on in the in rural areas throughout Scotland. making a direct connection between the work of the Board, leaving James Shearer His design for a youth hostel at David building and its setting. to exert more control over the designs. Marshall Lodge, Aberfoyle (1958–60, now These are themes which Shearer had In conjunction with this the Board the Queen Elizabeth Forest Park Visitor begun to develop almost a decade earlier entered a more settled period with Centre) illustrates the degree to which in one of his most archetypal power fewer major threats to the development Shearer felt buildings could be integrated station designs at Fasnakyle (1950), in plan. As a result there was less of a into a rural setting and picks up many of addition to his work for the Scottish desire to evoke the dynamism of the the themes which he applied to power Youth Hostel Association from 1940. The new industry through bold architectural station architecture. David Marshall design of this Highland power station statements. This positional shift coincided Lodge is built from drystone rubble slate is a fusion of the Modernist functional with a growing public perception of rural with large wings, pinned by a central model, with the single large volume issues and an emerging democratisation tower, incorporating viewing galleries containing the turbine hall, and the of Scotland’s natural heritage. The looking out across the landscape and vernacular and locally informed principals THE ARCHITECTS | 47

of design. In tune with Shearer’s view of landscape, allowing it to merge seamlessly 4.8 Fasnakyle power station, 1952, Affric the landscape as a place of natural forms, into the backdrop when viewed from hydroelectric scheme. the design roots the building deeply in afar. Shearer’s design also tied the building Crown Copyright: RCAHMS (Shearer and its setting and melds the rhetorical form to its setting theoretically and historically Annand Collection). into the landscape when viewed from a through the application of sculptural distance. One of Shearer’s primary design bas-relief panels, carved by sculptor methods in achieving this aim, as seen on Hew Lorimer (1907–1993), depicting his design for David Marshall Lodge, is his Celtic beasts and mythical figures. The use of compatible stone from Burghead combination of these two elements in Moray to match the local bedrock. allowed the building to make both a Shearer felt that using the correct stone physical and a spiritual connection with at Fasnakyle would ensure the building its landscape. [4.8] matched the other colours in the As well as corresponding both 48 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

4.9 Lairg power station, 1960, Shin hydroelectric with Shearer’s own, and with wider a certain dislocation of meaning from scheme. Crown Copyright: RCAHMS (Shearer and public, attitudes to rural areas, the the immediate local environment was Annand Colelction). majority of the schemes for which mirrored in a functionalist architectural Shearer designed were located in the style, Shearer’s stations were designed to North and West Highlands, in contrast provide local supply and consequently to the relatively southerly locations of were ingrained in the vernacular and the schemes with which Tarbolton was embedded within local communities. To engaged. A remarkable and apposite emphasise the direct link in a number approach to the geographic location and of the most remote schemes, Shearer function of each brief can be discerned. also borrowed historical architectural Whilst Tarbolton’s designs had been motifs in addition to the use of local for stations where power was to be stone and whimsical carved panels. This exported to the grid for profit, and so is particularly evident in his design for THE ARCHITECTS | 49

Lairg Power Station, where a Baronial designs stemmed from the technical 4.10 Lussa power station, 1956, Lussa stair tower was later incorporated into committee’s brief, which had specific hydroelectric scheme. the design in which scenic amenity was requirements, the same brief was of paramount importance as the dam interpreted differently by the architects and station directly overlook the village. involved in the design panel. Ian G This contrasts with Tarbolton’s approach Lindsay (1906–1966) interpreted it at at Pitlochry where the architectural style Lussa Power Station and incorporated remained uncompromisingly Modernist, these spaces into a pitched roof in contrast to the local vernacular, but the structure with a more conventional station was integrated physically into the vernacular form. [4.10] Shearer made the community by the inclusion of a public choice to retain the bold outlines and walkway above the dam. [4.9] striking forms as a deliberate intention. Although the success of Shearer’s This approach is likely to have been 50 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

4.11 Hilversum town hall, Willelm Marinus Dudock, 1924 (built 1928-31 Painted by Ben van Rooyen - oil on canvas). © Ben van Rooyen/ fineartamerica.com

influenced by Dutch architect Willem ideals for his NoSHEB works, fusing Marinus Dudok (1884–1974), whom the vernacular and the Modernist. As Shearer visited on behalf of the Royal Kenneth Frampton and Yukio Futagawa Scottish Academy in 1952. Dudok’s later observed, ‘Despite the asymmetric, most famous work, Hilversum Town Hall neoplastically derived composition, the (1928–31), encapsulated a number of main representative elements were both the design ideals Shearer incorporated traditional and monumental.’3 Dudok’s in his approach to the NoSHEB power justification of the monumental form stations. [4.11] The dramatic massing of as ‘the most pure expression of the large single volumes harmonised with human sense of harmony and order’4 local rural and urban landscapes through changed Shearer’s view of the large the use of vernacular brickwork cladding single-volume forms which were dictated was a defining characteristic of Dudok’s to him by the technical panel. Unlike work, and was clearly adapted by Shearer Lindsay, he did not overlay the form with for his work on power stations. Dudok’s a vernacular pitched-roofed shell, but intention for his design of Hilversum viewed the primary forms as themselves Town Hall chimes exactly with Shearer’s in harmony with nature and entirely THE ARCHITECTS | 51

appropriately clad in local stone. The in rural areas, where the use of Classical form and the cladding were integrated, in Modernism was no longer justifiable. He Shearer’s view, as a harmonious spiritual sought to go beyond the architecture response to the purity of the surrounding itself to ensure that the building became landscape, which focused on the essential a part of its environment by a synthesis as an act of integration with nature. of natural forms (as bold primary The evolving architectural design of massing was identified by Dudok) and the power stations over the 1950s and used appropriate stone. The view that 1960s reflected both changing attitudes Shearer’s designs were much more to the development of hydropower in than simply attempts to hide power Scotland’s rural areas and the increasing stations was shared as early as 1944 by confidence of NoSHEB. Early on in the NoSHEB Amenity Committee, who the roll-out of the development plan, noted when considering a scheme in and against a background of political Gairloch: ‘the power station should be uncertainty and repeated attack from so designed as to harmonise generally high-profile opponents, the Board with the West Highland scenery on the reacted by producing bold and confident understanding that good design was designs which encapsulated a wider of the greatest importance, attempts social vision and tapped into a prevailing to hide power stations were to be view of the ‘white heat of technology’. deprecated.’5 It is easy to misinterpret the change in direction under Shearer as a move away from iconic and pure designs, in which the Board sold out to its critics and opted for a compliant policy on design. However, this misses a deeper subtlety in the work of Shearer, who after all was responsible for the vast majority of designs for the Board. Shearer responded to what he perhaps saw as an outmoded approach for architecture

The Campaigners

Alastair Riddell was brought up in Glenlyon, his family’s home for the last 150 years. Alastair remembers as a boy the two small Gilkes turbines in the powerhouse that ran electricity down to the estate buildings and, before the national grid was set up, to the nearby village of Fortingall, in the heart of Perthshire.

Alastair recalls the awesome grid connection. He is now managing switchgear and dials in the director of Green Highland, and is at powerhouse which he used to love to the forefront of organising a network monitor as a pastime. His heart was of micro hydroelectric schemes in the in it at an early age and he was always sincere hope that – with communities, eager to help the estate forester – landowners and regulators all working whose job it was to look after the together – an economically viable, small hydro scheme – even when it environmentally sound, renewable meant being dragged out of bed to resource can assist towards providing clear the intake screens up the hill in a sustainable and long-term benefit to the middle of a blizzard! all those living and working in rural Alastair spent many years away Scotland. from Perthshire in his career in The story of micro hydro has the armed forces and in the mining come full circle for Alastair, whose industry, which took him all over private firm still operates the small the world, but has since returned to scheme at Glenlyon but with new Glenlyon with a firm commitment underground piping and a state-of- to being a responsible steward of the-art Pelton turbine able to provide the land. Since his return 11 years one megawatt of power to the grid, ago, he has worked to integrate a which can provide sufficient energy for network of small schemes locally thousands of local homes. which share the infrastructure costs of 54 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Chapter 5 The Campaigners

The designers of the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board schemes were determined, with the Board’s blessing, that the schemes’ major components would not be hidden in the landscape, but would make a positive contribution towards it. Consequently the visibility of the developments was always likely to be highly controversial. In addition, the creation of new reservoirs involved the drowning of a vast area of estate land. The Board brokered a defined scale of compensation to gain control over land holdings; but this did not avoid significant battles with landowners, especially over the scheme at Tummel in Perthshire. The task of convincing landowners and local communities of the merits of hydropower continued long after the construction traffic left and the turbines began ticking over, but the positive impact of the industry in the long term has gradually led to a revolution in which many of the very same estates which opposed the coming of hydropower sixty years ago have developed in their own right a new wave of micro hydro plants.

he Public Local Inquiry which was built on a pre-existing development had considered the Board’s plans of two power stations at Tummel Bridge Tfor development at Sloy had and Loch Rannoch, both of which warned that future opposition may be dated from before the existence of the stronger and examinations under Local North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board Inquiry much more exhaustive. This (NoSHEB). [5.1 and 5.2] At a capacity of PREVIOUS PAGE was to prove the case on the very next 150,000 kilowatts,1 the scheme formed Alastair Riddell, managing director of scheme which the Board developed, a vital component of the Board’s wider Green Highland Ltd. almost contemporary to Sloy, from 1945 plans to provide power for export

The hydro power onwards at Tummel in the southern to the Central Electricity Board and scheme at Glenlyon. Highlands. [see 4.1 and 4.3] The scheme to the city of Aberdeen. The revenue THE CAMPAIGNERS | 55

which this would bring in to the Board was vital in financing the schemes in the northern Highlands and in fulfilling social aspirations to bring power to the region. The development of the scheme involved a dam in the upper tributaries of the River Garry and on Loch Errochty via a dam at Glen Errochty. This water was then used by a power station (Errochty) at the head of Loch Tummel. A further dam was then placed across the River Tummel to impound the river as well as some small tributaries and Loch Tummel itself, raising the level of the loch by five metres and restricting the flow of water over the falls of Tummel. Downstream of this the 5.1 Tummel Bridge power station, 1931-3, Tummel and Rannoch hydroelectric scheme. River Tummel was dammed at Pitlochry with a power station incorporated into the dam. The reservoir this dam created had a vital role to play as a balancing reservoir to even out the fluctuations in flow downstream of Clunie Power Station. In contrast to Sloy, the proposed developments at Tummel were not in a remote location, but in the heart of the historic Perthshire countryside, with the station at Pitlochry on the fringes of one of the most popular tourist towns in the southern Highlands. The Board was 5.2 Rannoch valve house, 1931-3, Tummel and Rannoch hydroelectric scheme. 56 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

5.3 Postcard from Loch Rannoch Hotel, Kinloch aware from early on that the scheme scheme was led by the Lord Provost of Rannoch, 1905. © Scottish Life Archive. Licensor was likely to generate concerted Perth, G T McGlashan, with the Perth www.scran.ac.uk opposition given its prominent location and Kinross County Council expressing and, in the aftermath of the debate over its unanimous opposition in March 1945. Sloy, discussed whether they should The Council formed a powerful coalition still proceed. However, such was the with a number of high-profile local importance of the revenue which the landowners who were all determined finished scheme would generate that it to oppose the scheme. The group were was decided to push ahead.2 There was highly critical of the Board, and slammed a feeling amongst some members of the what they felt was a lack of transparency, Board, notably MacColl, that success in with Lord Mansfield referring to the a high-profile battle over the Tummel ‘miserable policy of secrecy’.3 The Board scheme would also provide a solid also faced internal opposition from the platform for the Board and reduce any Amenity and Fisheries Committees negative reaction to future schemes. [5.3] within NoSHEB. The Amenity The opposition to the Tummel Committee recommended the omission THE CAMPAIGNERS | 57

of the Pitlochry dam because of the perceived impact on the village, whilst the Fisheries Committee noted that the Board should not divert the headwaters of the River Garry as it would damage salmon fishing interests. The strength of these two committees offered an unprecedented level of protection for the scenic and natural environment, with the power to veto developments, and the Amenity Committee recommended power stations to be moved underground in a number of cases. Following the publication of the scheme, more than 25 formal objections were lodged. Tom Johnston went on to note ‘many newspapers … opened their columns to strings of vituperation from the letters-to-the-editors brigade; fantastic and ridiculous imaginations from beauty lovers, some of whom saw in their visions the Highlands being converted into an amalgam of the Black County, a rubbish heap and a desolation; commercial salmon interest, anglers and hoteliers, whose business they foretold would be ruined, all cried aloud in protest.’4 [5.4] The inevitable conclusion to such vociferous opposition was the 5.4 Watercolour drawing of proposed designs for Clunie and Pitlochry power stations on the appointment by Johnston of a tribunal Tummel Valley scheme. © Perthshire Advertiser 58 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

5.5 Landscape of the to hear the two sides. John Cameron Dean of Faculty sought to deflect some Tummel valley prior to KC was again in the chair (as he had of the criticism in his opening address development, 1949. © National Museums been for Sloy), with assistance from Sir by underlining the importance of the Scotland Robert Bryce Walker and Major G H scheme to the whole of the NoSHEB M Brown Lindsay for the inquiry which plan and emphasising the duty of the began on 25th May 1945 and lasted ten Board to promote schemes which were days.5 The familiar issues of harm to firmly in the public interest. scenic amenity and fishing interests were Despite a strident opening to be at the core of the debate. The statement in defence of the scheme, THE CAMPAIGNERS | 59

major landowner and many of his landed them water, transport, housing and contemporaries viewed him as a traitor. power, I do not think they will.’8 The key line of cross-examination was Airlie was followed into the stand that the Board could just as successfully by technical engineers who stressed develop the Great Glen scheme (a later that the construction of the Tummel phase of the development plan) if it scheme would alleviate an imminent left the glens of Perthshire untouched. shortage of power in Scotland’s central Furthermore, Airlie was portrayed as belt. The secretary of the Board, Tom following the whims of the Central Lawrie, was called in the absence of Electricity Board who wished him MacColl and he addressed head-on to provide power to England at the the criticism that the development expense of Pitlochry.6 Such was Airlie’s would harm tourism in the area. He discomfort that he was persuaded to cited parallels with the Tennessee Valley disclose the statement where he noted Authority in the United States, which that ‘personally I do not like these things drew in some two million tourists a being done any more than you do; I am year,9 and he saw no reason why this a lover of the countryside, but I believe would not also be the case with the this to the advantage of the public as Pitlochry development. a whole and therefore I am bound to Lawrie was followed by one of support it.’7 By the following day Airlie the chief engineers to the scheme, J was more composed when countering Guthrie Brown, who illustrated the questioning, being able to sustain the economics with a mass of statistics. He members of the Board who appeared Board’s argument and describing how was followed in turn by a number of as witnesses were subjected to hostile the scheme would allow for benefits painters, biologists and piscatorialists cross-questioning. The chairman of to be rolled out for people across who all professed that the scheme the Board, Lord Airlie was especially the Highlands and Islands: ‘If you offer would have little impact, and that the unsettled by his cross-examination, them some of the amenities that their Board had designed suitable mitigation which followed months of harsh brothers and sisters have in the towns measures for the landscape interests. criticism. Airlie was particularly exposed you will find that their country instincts The Board’s argument therefore hinged by the controversy over the Tummel will lead them to the desire to stay on the strategic importance of the development, because he was himself a where they are, but if you do not give scheme to contribute to their wider 60 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

social vision and on their assurance information on salmon fisheries, and this and electric cookers to remote West that the plan would not have a negative issue was to shape many subsequent Highland glens and the development impact upon the scenic or natural controversies surrounding developments of Pitlochry in what he described as amenity of the area. elsewhere in the Highlands. Such was the a Prussian manner, with ‘a seat every On the inquiry’s sixth day, the mass of contradictory evidence on this fifty yards and a police notice every views of the opponents to the scheme matter that the final report of the inquiry hundred’.12 He was also not above were considered. The objectors were was forced to conclude: ‘as regards the personal attack, tacking two additional once again marshalled by McGlashan effect upon fisheries, the tribunal found lines onto a verse describing the ‘other’ as they had been prior to the inquiry. that the extent of the damage to be [17]’45 Jacobite rebellion: Rather than focusing on scenic amenity apprehended was the subject of acute Cam’ ye by Atholl, lad with the philabeg, or the damage to the tourist industry, divergence of expert evidence … no Doon by the Tummel and banks of the McGlashan’s argument directly addressed attempt was made in the witness box to Garry, the strategic importance which the quantify any of the apprehended loss. In Saw ye lads with their bonnets and white Board placed on the scheme. He a matter so uncertain as the prospects cockades, argued that the scheme would account of salmon fishing we think it was wise to Leaving their land to follow Prince Cherlie. for only 0.79% of national generating refrain from the attempt.’11 Saw ye lads with their cusecs and kilowatts, capacity,10 and he questioned at length Influential local landowners also Leaving the rivers defaced by Lord Airlie13 if it was worth sacrificing the Perthshire sought to make their opposition known; countryside for such a small gain, given however, their approach was not through With the bruising cross-examination, that the area already contributed to the straightforward representation to the the blackballing of his son from the grid via the Grampian scheme of the inquiry. It was revealed, shortly before the Perthshire hunt and his own exile from 1930s. McGlashan was followed to the conclusion of the inquiry, that a number society, Lord Airlie found the experience stand by a number of environmentalists, of landowners had gifted sections of too much and resigned the chairmanship local hoteliers and artists. All testified to their estates to the National Trust for in 1946 to be replaced by the former the damage which the scheme would Scotland, including the Falls of Tummel. Secretary of State for Scotland, Tom cause to the scenery of the area, known Their intention had been to put the Johnston. as one of the most beautiful in Scotland, land beyond the reach of the Board and Both sides had made extremely and consequently to the tourist trade. prevent development. The opposition closely argued cases and were equally [5.5] of the KC for the National Trust was convinced of their own position. When A significant component of the particularly vicious. He noted his disgust the inquiry closed it was clear that there opposition’s evidence related to with NoSHEB for pedalling power was an extremely difficult decision to THE CAMPAIGNERS | 61

5.6 Article on the inaugauration of the Tummel Garry hydroelectric scheme, 26th April 1947. © Perthsire Advertiser be made. When the report was finally energy into the straths and glens of the stations or overhead cables to clutter published it proved to be a complete Highlands.’15 the appearance of the dam. The desire vindication of the work of the Board. It However, the Board did not rest for clean lines was also carried into found that ‘a case of sufficient urgency upon their laurels, even after the bill’s the design of the dam itself, which has been made to overcome the complicated passage through Parliament incorporates large automatic drum objections which have been maintained for approval. The spotlight was on gates that are free of overhead gear and against the Constructional Scheme and both Clunie and Pitlochry, and so the provide constant regulation to maintain that it is in the public interest … that designs for the schemes came as a the level of the dam. The architectural the scheme should be confirmed.’14 direct response to the now defeated design is also of the highest quality, with The central argument of the Board that opposition, and set the precedent for all a Classical Modernist scheme by Harold the impact on the scenery of the area future developments with high-quality Ogle Tarbolton that, although rhetorical would be outweighed by the social design and materials. Thus both Clunie in form, is a welcome addition to its improvements was wholly endorsed by and Pitlochry were designed with natural setting. The Board were also keen the reporter: ‘losses such as these would utmost attention to their setting and to ensure that the dam was accessible be a small price to pay for a project to local amenity. Pitlochry is designed to the local community. At the insistence which will bring the amenities of life with an underground connection to the of MacColl the dam includes a public where few existed before, and inject new grid so that there are no transformer walkway, and the public viewing gallery 62 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

5.7 Opening ceremony at Pitlochry Power at the fish ladder became a major tourist ‘we as a county council have established Station, 1951, Tummel valley hydroelectric attraction. The public were also invited to a most friendly relationship with the scheme. © The Scotsman Publication Ltd. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk name the loch created by the dam, with Board’.16 [5.6 and 5.7] the community council naming it Loch Opposition of a similar scale was Faskally after the estate on its banks. not seen on any of the subsequent The decision of the inquiry and the developments by the Board over the subsequent conciliatory measures which period until the final scheme was were implemented the Board during the created in 1969 at Ben Cruachan. The Tummel scheme’s construction were to Affric–Cannich scheme, announced in prove highly influential not only on local 1946, was set to be in one of Scotland’s opinion but also on the shape of and most scenic areas, with the remnants approach to future developments. At of Caledonian pine forest making it a the foundation-laying ceremony for the highly sensitive area to choose. Several scheme, McGlashan commented that houses were to be submerged as part of THE CAMPAIGNERS | 63

5.8 Clunie dam, 1950, Tummel Valley hydroelectric scheme. the plan, along with a large area of land, in 200918 found that there were some to the founding of NoSHEB. As Angus yet the scheme met with widespread 2,033 micro hydro systems operating Robertson, the factor at Ardtornish approval. All that the Inverness Courier on estates around Scotland. The coming estate in Argyll, noted in 2009 of their could note was that two thousand men of the technology which was once micro hydro scheme: ‘It has revolutionised would be employed on the scheme perceived as bringing financial ruin to the financing of the estate … it is a good during construction.17 This was a major the tourist trade at Pitlochry is now a thing to be doing. We get a lot of rain turnaround from the situation at Tummel, vital lifeline to many Highland estates, here but it means that when it pours and the pattern of general welcome for including a number of the very same and life is tough and people are getting the new developments was to become estates which had not only objected to depressed, we have this wonderful thing the norm. [5.8] the developments in Tummel but also that is doing well.’19 The turnaround has become even formed the parliamentary coalitions that more complete in recent years. A survey had stifled developments in the run-up

The Innovators

‘You simply never get used to how special this is,’ says Michael Mullen, assistant civil engineer with Scottish Power, surveying a snow-capped panorama across the top of Ben Cruachan Dam. ‘I used to turn up every morning to work and then I’d be out onto the mountain’ – he was known along with his colleague, Murdo MacLean, as one of the ‘hillmen’.

Working at the ground-breaking Michael remembers both his own Cruachan hydroelectric scheme for awe and that of the visitors, who were his entire 39-year career has inspired originally allowed to wander around Michael to be equally innovative and the turbine hall floor. Now visitors are committed in his own work, being led to a viewing platform high above responsible for the maintenance of the the hall where they can view four dam, penstocks and inlets and later turbines which can provide up to serving as coordinator of the works 440 megawatts of power to satisfy projects in the turbine hall, hollowed peak demand on a UK-wide scale. out of the mountain, and known as Cruachan, designed by Shearer & the ‘cavern’. He recalls a particularly Annand (1960-4), was the first major poignant incident out in the hills scheme in the UK to utilise pumped following a fall when clearing an inlet. storage, and remains architecturally After an excruciating overnight stay in ambitious and a key strategic a bothy, Michael was evacuated by the component of power supply to the local mountain rescue team. Such is his national grid. passion that he was soon back out on the hill. 66 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Chapter 6 The Innovators

In the 24 years between the aftermath of the public inquiry into the Tummel scheme and the completion of the final scheme to be built by the Board (1969-1975) at Foyers, some ten major schemes were constructed, with the provision of over fifty dams and a similar number of power stations. Power was supplied to homes throughout the Highlands, with an expanding grid of cables spreading across the map that made Scotland one of the foremost nations in the world for its use, per capita, of hydropower. The creation of a network of power stations which still produce today some 10% of the United Kingdom’s national energy supply required an unprecedented level of technical innovation as – despite all consisting of a dam, pipeline and power station – no two schemes are the same. In certain notable instances, world and British firsts were achieved to make the schemes work successfully.

he advancement which in one of the most significant feats of surrounded the sector is a engineering in the 20th century in the Tstory which begins long before UK, where all the lessons learnt from the founding of the North of Scotland previous developments were drawn Hydro Electric Board (NoSHEB), in upon to create a pioneering type of

PREVIOUS PAGE the development of the technology by power station buried deep in the flanks Michael Mullen, at Ben the British Aluminium Company (BAC) of a mighty ridge of mountains near Cruachan dam. and the work of James Williamson Oban. The power station at Cruachan Ben Cruachan dam and Edward MacColl on pioneering was indeed the culmination of all the and detail of power electrical generation for public supply research and, much like Dounreay station, 1965, Sloy / Awe hydroelectric (see Chapters 1 and 2). A legacy of Nuclear Power Station, would become scheme. knowledge and experience culminated an icon for the industry and for the post-war period in Scotland. One of the three dams on the 6.1 Loch Treig dam, 1929, Lochaber smelter and Innovation on a nationally and scheme is at Loch Treig, where water hydroelectric power scheme. internationally significant scale began is gathered in a large reservoir before on the Lochaber scheme developed entering the pipeline. The dam received by BAC. The scheme itself was one of international attention on its completion the most significant civil engineering as an early example (and the first in achievements of the first half of the 20th Scotland) of a rock-filled dam. [6.1] century and included a tunnel bored This construction method represented through the side of Ben Nevis to carry a significant reduction of cost and time, water from the Spey watershed through saving in materials and labour over a to the powerhouse on the banks of mass concrete dam, and required the Loch Linnhe at Fort William. use of local materials for its construction. 68 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

The construction of this type of dam had not been attempted previously in Scotland as most rocks were unsuitable schists, and there was great scepticism that the construction of Treig would actually work. The dam includes an upstream diaphragm which ensures the structure is watertight, with the embankment to the downstream face also covered with a concrete skin to minimise erosion when the dam spills. Thus in all aspects of its design and 6.2 Downstream face of Sloy dam under construction, 1949, Sloy hydroelectric scheme. construction the dam was a resounding © Scottish and Southern Energy success. The use of this innovative technology was partly down to the site, none of these problems, as once the further developed by James Williamson but cost and time implications were also waterproof membrane was constructed, to produce the first major example major factors in pioneering new ways of work on the embankments could be of a buttress dam in the UK. [6.2] building dams. ongoing even in wet and cold weather. Williamson had toured the United Balfour Beatty’s contract for the Work on Treig proved to the sector States and is likely to have known of civil engineering works at Lochaber that innovation could save both time examples of buttress dams, such as included a number of bonuses if work and money, and it was a discovery that that at Coolidge in Arizona where could be completed to a demanding was to lead to a continued desire for buttress technology was combined with schedule. This was made more difficult innovation throughout both private and a multiple-dome dam constructed in by working with concrete where long state development in the sector. 1930. Williamson went on to adapt the periods of time were required to let Much of the focus of the innovation technology for use in place of a mass each section ‘go off’ before the next in the sector was on dam construction, gravity dam, and his work at Loch Sloy could be poured, an issue compounded given the large expenditure on man- was his first opportunity to put theory by the large number of days lost during hours and materials which was involved into practice. He had outlined his design the winter months when temperatures in erecting these megastructures. At during a lecture in Chicago in 1936 and were too cold to allow the pouring of Loch Sloy dam (from 1946), the influence the design for Sloy was based almost concrete. Rock-fill technology faced of American dam construction was entirely on the one he outlined. The THE INNOVATORS | 69

use of this technology represented a development at Sloy pre-dates the other 6.3 Monar dam, 1963, Glen Affric hydroelectric significant cost saving for the Board, major examples of this type by engineer scheme. with only 20,000 tons of concrete André Coyne (1891–1960) – the dam required for construction, in contrast at Grandval, France (1959) and the to the 50,000 which would have been Daniel-Johnson Dam in Quebec, Canada necessary for a conventional mass (1961–8). Williamson’s groundbreaking concrete dam. Williamson’s work was approach to design a solution specifically pioneering on an international stage and suited to its location was to typify all helped to develop the modern form of of his work for NoSHEB, and that the buttress dam as an alternative to the of his company, James Williamson & use of a mass gravity construction. The Partners (later Mott MacDonald), which 70 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

continued working for the Board after dissipate the thrust of the water against turbines used both for generation and his death in 1953. the sides of the valley: the particular to pump water back up to the top The Williamson practice was also site of the dam with available abutment reservoir. The turbines are contained involved in the pioneering use of a into solid rock on the sides of the gorge within a 3,240-cubic-metre cavern, double-arch dam at Loch Monar on the allowed for a double-arch dam to be hollowed out entirely from the solid Affric–Beauly scheme, begun in 1952. used in this location. The double-arch bedrock of Ben Cruachan ridge and is [6.3] The only example of its type in construction method represented a 9% accessed by a 1-kilometre-long vehicular Britain, it pre-dated its widespread use, saving in materials over a conventional access tunnel. The housing of a power especially in the US, although admittedly gravity dam, with the dam wall a mere station of this scale wholly underground, on a smaller scale. Arch dams require three-and-a-half metres thick in some in addition to secondary features such specific conditions in order to be places. The upstream face of the dam is as transformers and pressure tunnels, successful, necessitating a very solid arched in both horizontal and vertical was unprecedented, and allowed for the abutment to either side (in the form planes asymmetrically to the more development of a facility which plays a of a gorge in this case) to withstand shallow doming of the front of the nationally significant role in energy supply the force of the water behind. Single- dam; the tension this creates is the key in an area renowned for scenic beauty, arch concrete technology was first factor in counterbalancing the thrust with very limited visual impact. [6.4] used in 1911 for the construction of of the water on the upstream face. The During periods of cheap electricity, the Roosevelt Dam in Arizona, and engineering of the stepped concrete the turbines are run in reverse to was also employed for the Hoover abutment to the walls of the gorge on pump water from Loch Awe back up Dam in Colorado in 1931. However, the downstream face at Loch Monar is into the reservoir, a process which experimentation with double-arch to help prevent excessive erosion, which provides 90% of the water used for structures (arched in both planes) did would threaten the structural integrity generation by the station. Prior to the not follow on a large scale in the US of the dam. design of Cruachan, pumped storage until the later 1960s. The culmination of the drive for facilities had required separate pumps The architectural design at Loch groundbreaking technology is perhaps and a separate pipe network to bring Monar is largely functional, with the best expressed by the penultimate water back into reservoirs, making elegant curves of the dam walls scheme developed by the Board at Ben them much more expensive to build expressing their function and contrasting Cruachan near Oban, between 1960 than conventional hydro systems. The with the fractured rock of the gorge and 1965. The scheme included one of use of reversible turbines at Cruachan walls. The dam is composed of two the earliest large-scale uses of pumped was unprecedented and removed continuous concrete arches which storage technology, with reversible the costly requirement for separate THE INNOVATORS | 71

6.4 Ben Cruachan turbine hall floor under construction, 1965, Sloy / Awe hydroelectric scheme. © Scotsman Publications Ltd. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk 72 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

pumping infrastructure. The reversible technology was first developed in the 1930s, but Cruachan was one of the first large-scale applications in Europe, with a capacity of over 440 megawatts. The Lünerseewerk station of 1958 in Austria pre-dates Cruachan, but has a smaller capacity of 232 megawatts. The technology became more widely used, in Britain and worldwide, from the later 1960s onwards with further schemes in Wales at Ffestiniog in 1963 with a 360-megawatt station. At Cruachan the turbine hall houses four turbines capable of a combined capacity of 440 megawatts, with two sets generating at 120 megawatts and the original two at 100 megawatts. Each set uses approximately 110 megawatts of power to pump water back up to the dam. The station can move from standstill to full generating output in under two minutes, compared to a time of several hours for a thermal power station. The station fulfils a key strategic requirement for the UK with the capability to produce enough power to restart essential services nationwide – a so called ‘Black Start’. [6.5] The development of hydroelectric

6.5 100 MW turbine, Ben Cruachan turbine hall floor, 1965, Sloy / Awe hydroelectric scheme. power in Scotland is a story filled THE INNOVATORS | 73

with innovation and achievement on an international scale. That infrastructure largely developed over the course of two decades from 1945 not only remains in active use but is still responsible for 85%1 of the UK’s hydropower resources is a testament to the success of architects, engineers and construction workers at all the sites. Although the available natural resources in Scotland are smaller than elsewhere in Europe, the sector in this country is characterised by a sheer determination to innovate and develop The success of the Board is often 6.6 Ben Cruachan dam, 1959-1965, Sloy / Awe hydroelectric scheme. © Scotsman Publications schemes which use all available water to dominated by the debate about the Ltd. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk the best of its potential. The social aspect difficulties they faced in realising the of the work of NoSHEB is another social vision enshrined in the Act which defining characteristic of their original founded NoSHEB. Whilst their work concept, and although it did not prompt did not prompt the industrialisation and the renaissance of the Highlands in quite re-population of the Highlands on the the way Johnston had outlined in his scale originally envisaged, it did perhaps early utopian visions for the sector, the halt a decline, providing jobs and a provision of a reliable and affordable modern standard of life to people who power supply to what were some of the otherwise may have left the Highlands remotest settlements in Europe was a altogether. A contemporary analysis of major achievement on an international the post-war euphoria which saw the scale. With the perspective of over birth of the Board shows that this may 40 years since the last major work by well have been an unrealistic aim born NoSHEB, it is possible to realise how of an optimistic response to the end significant their achievement was. [6.6 of the Second World War. However, and 6.7] the same perspective provides a new 74 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

6.7 Orrin dam, 1961, Conon Valley hydroelectric scheme. Orrin dam provides the main water storage for Orrin power station and contains an innovative 4-level fish pass in the large central buttress. THE INNOVATORS | 75

version of the argument, put forward to engineering experts from both Russia justify the Board’s demise in 1990, that and the United States.3 Perhaps the most it simply did not achieve its aims. The telling visit of all was from the Director development of the sector in Scotland of the Tennessee Valley Authority, the was still a massive achievement both scheme which had provided so much of in social provision and in architectural the inspiration behind Johnston’s vision and engineering terms. Hydro is unlike for what hydro could do in Scotland. virtually any other contemporary utility, The international focus on hydropower with an infrastructure that is still far from continues to be underlined today, with defunct and where the issue is not one the very same infrastructure which was of developing a strategy of imaginative developed by NoSHEB still significant reuse for a redundant structure, but in a European context. None of the quite simply of imagining any other use. buildings or major pieces of engineering The Board succeeded in developing a infrastructure is redundant, only turbine robust infrastructure to provide power technology continues to develop. to Scotland, and managed to put in place Scotland’s huge potential as a renewable secure foundations for the realisation energy generator, much of which is of the broader social vision, something down to hydro, has again put the sector which has endured beyond their own at the centre of European attention. existence. Plans for a North Sea supergrid, which Although the scale of the sector will allow power generated by Scottish in Scotland is relatively small when hydro schemes to provide light and compared to Norway or Central Europe, heat to homes throughout Europe, there are 34 dams constructed by the underline the legacy of the sector on Board that are significant enough to a truly international scale. Indeed, the feature in the World Register of Large achievement made by the Board was Dams.2 Many of them drew worldwide formally recognised in 2001 by Brian attention from engineering experts on Wilson, the then Scottish Energy Minister, their completion. NoSHEB schemes who noted: ‘The expansion of hydro was were visited not only by numerous heads one of the great acts of the post-war of state on official tours, but also by period.’4

The Managers

Neil Lannen is Senior Civil Engineer with Scottish and Southern Energy, and has been with the company since the late 1990s. He explains that his expertise is very simply related to the ‘use of water’. When he first joined the privatised hydro sector he was responsible for keeping the existing infrastructure maintained and fit for purpose.

Neil’s work at Fasnakyle Power It is only in the last few years Station, near Beauly, completed in that he has turned his focus to the 2003, marked a transition in his career, identifying, planning and building of where he was first charged with completely new schemes, as Hydro providing a substantial extension to a Development Manager – Glendoe category A-listed power station. His being one of the largest new schemes challenge was to adapt the building, since the completion of the Foyers whilst acknowledging its special pumped storage facility of 1969– architectural or historic interest and 1975. Neil’s work can therefore ensuring that it remained at the cutting be considered part of a continuing edge of power generation. This major legacy of great industrial architecture capital project incorporated a new of the 20th and now also the 21st compensation-set turbine, increasing century, and plays an important role the efficiency of the station as a whole. in developing a healthier, wealthier, Neil was acutely aware of the need greener Scotland. for a high-quality design when altering a building which is regarded by the company as one of their finest power stations. 78 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Chapter 7 The Managers

Hydropower in Scotland has brought a distinctive estate to our landscape and, as some other countries such as Norway are finding, it is playing a significant role in the current development of the sector. The sector’s past achievements – which we recognise to have produced important and influential architectural and industrial heritage assets such as dams, powerhouses, plant and equipment – are now being re-evaluated in conjunction with recent European and national government initiatives, including the Renewables Obligation Certificate (ROC), for contemporary power production.

OC came into force on 1st significance of the hydroelectric industry April 2002 and is the key means in Scotland. This chapter will provide Rthrough which the Scottish an overview of the statutory system of Government is pursuing its renewable protection in the form of Listing and PREVIOUS PAGE Neil Lannen, Senior energy objectives, with a commitment Listed Building Consent, and give advice Civil Engineer, Scottish to ensuring that 20% of primary from National Museums Scotland on and Southern Energy. energy demand is met from renewable the collecting and recording of the civil Details of Fasnakyle resources.1 The ROC initiative made it and technical infrastructure. Highlighting power station, 2003, timely for Historic Scotland to assess, Historic Scotland’s and the National Affric hydroelectric scheme. through a comprehensive listing survey, Museum of Scotland’s role will hopefully the cultural, historical and architectural demonstrate how the management THE MANAGERS | 79

of the heritage assets, as well as the historic and technical interest for the 7.1 Bonnington power station, 1925-1927, Falls collecting of the most significant building type, so that decisions on of Clyde hydroelectric scheme. Crown Copyright: RCAHMS. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk components of the industry, are vital in future designation can be made from promoting and celebrating the sector’s an informed standpoint. Furthermore, remarkable heritage. [7.1 and 7.2] the relative importance of component items within the type can be better Historic Scotland understood. Listing of the best The opportunity afforded by a thematic examples celebrates the watersheds, study to consider an industrial subject the technological innovation and design in its entirety ensures that designation within the sector. It is important to accurately reflects the architectural, stress, particularly in the context of 80 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Left to right such an active industry, that Listing is of the pre-eminent architectural 7.2 Tongland power station, 1934, Galloway not intended to preserve buildings in practice of Shearer & Annand. The hydroelectric scheme. aspic. Listing identifies why a building’s building was extended successfully in 7.3 Fasnakyle power station, 1950, Affric character is significant. It allows flexibility 2003 to incorporate an additional bay hydroelectric scheme. © St Andrews University Library. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk to be able to adapt buildings and on the end of James Shearer’s four- other civil infrastructure successfully bay block housing a compensation 7.4 Fasnakyle compensation set turbine hall to ongoing operational demands while set. Early involvement of both Local extension, 2003, Affric hydroelectric scheme. ensuring their special interest continues Authority planning officers and Historic through the change. Scotland’s casework teams allowed A balance between heritage value for the first-rate development of and corporate operational concerns innovative and cost-effective plans for was achieved by Scottish and Southern extension and redevelopment which Energy at Fasnakyle Power Station, enabled the building to remain flexible listed at category A and recognised and responsive to the needs of a as an archetypal example of the work commercial power company. The work THE MANAGERS | 81

at Fasnakyle provides just one example of a successful partnership which has been employed at a number of listed sites. Other examples include the renovation works by Rio Tinto Alcan to the interior of Kinlochleven Smelter, which was also subject to Scheduled Monument Consent. Works to Scottish Power’s Tongland and Earlstoun power stations in Galloway were similarly the result of successful engagement. The clear identification of the interest in an item and the early involvement of all parties in the planning process has assisted these cases in the Listed 82 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Building Consent process, adding value in this area and provides a wealth of to the practice of change management information and support so that the of the sites in question, many of which technical aspect of managing a site or are iconic features in Scotland’s natural preparing a plan for proposed change landscape. [7.3 and 7.4] can be fully informed. In drawing on the detailed research The hydro estate in Scotland and source material from site visits includes important examples of which formed part of the thematic machinery, plant and other equipment Listing survey, this publication celebrates which can also be considered heritage and shares our understanding of the assets – often as part of a listed cultural, architectural and historic building – and require similar effective context of items in this sector. In management to balance their continued addition to developing an awareness use or the acknowledgement of their of the historic importance of a site, value at the point of any proposed unravelling technical information on change or disposal. National Museums building materials and construction types Scotland provide specialist advice in this is also a key part of achieving effective area, helping to develop partnerships future management. This is particularly and guidance for managing these assets the case in post-war buildings where for the future. new materials like pre-cast concrete, glass and steel increasingly form vital National Museums Scotland components of the construction The North of Scotland Hydro Electric method. Significant work has been done Board’s (NoSHEB’s) policy of placing in developing skills and knowledge for orders with Scottish and English post-war conservation in the UK in companies which were prepared to recent years, revealing that the well- create new factories in the Highlands, publicised difficulties and structural or sub-contract to local engineering failings in buildings from this period are workshops,2 led to a frenetic period of often overstated. Historic Scotland’s research, development and production Technical Conservation Group in hydroelectric plant. Expertise in promotes a wide range of research hydroelectric provision and light THE MANAGERS | 83

7.5 Construction work during the building of the Tummel Dam, 1947, Tummel Valley hydroelectric scheme. © National Museums Scotland 84 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

industry production were brought In the stringency of the post- in Cruachan Power Station. In addition north for the first time and a number war environment when contracts to their work at Fasnakyle, Scottish and of partnerships were achieved. The and materials were in short supply, Southern Energy have also submitted American firm S Morgan Smith agreed NoSHEB’s ambitious hydroelectric a planning application to extend the a contract with Harland Engineering scheme sustained a number of hydroelectric power plant at Sloy as part of Alloa to produce water turbines engineering firms and prompted them of a multi-million-pound redevelopment under licence, which constituted their to develop new skills. Glenfield & of their estate. These developments first experience of manufacturing Kennedy Ltd of Kilmarnock, specialists represent a new and exciting chapter hydroelectric plant. The English Electric in water supply and control engineering in the evolution of hydroelectric power. Company subcontracted to Harland & who produced significant volumes It is crucial to record the necessity for Wolff’s factory in Scotstoun, and Boving of plant for schemes throughout the change, the research and development & Co worked with John Brown’s of project, became one of the largest firms that underpins each decision and, Clydebank.3 Factories developed by of its kind in the world, employing 2,400 where possible, to preserve the original Radiation Ltd, Amalgamated Electrical men in 1953. machinery. [7.6 and 7.7] Industries, the British Thomson-Houston When in July 2001 the Scottish In 2001 National Museums Co and Ferranti’s appeared in Inverness, Executive announced that ROC Scotland’s Acquisition and Disposal Buckie, Peterhead and Auchterarder support would be extended to older Policy identified a notable gap, namely supplying lamps, electricity meters, hydroelectric power stations up to ‘equipment and materials representing transformers, cookers and power tools 20 megawatts and include new-build the generation of power from hydro, for hydroelectric schemes.4 [7.5] stations of any size, major refurbishment wave and marine current, solar, wind Significantly, the Board directly programmes were instigated. As almost and nuclear energy’. Work is currently sponsored research into machine fifty years has elapsed since the peak being undertaken to redress this manufacture. They commissioned hydro planning period, technology has balance through a proactive collecting John Brown’s to experiment with fuel moved on with turbines becoming more project designed to illustrate the story supplies including pulverised peat and powerful and new materials developed. of Scotland’s past, present and future install an experimental wind-generator To name just a few examples, a new energy production. In addition, it has at Costa Head in Orkney. Although both turbine has been supplied at Rannoch; formed the basis for a new approach to of these experiments were ultimately the original cross-flow turbine was joint collecting initiatives. It is therefore unsuccessful, lessons were learned with removed from Auchtertyre and replaced an ideal time for National Museums application to the development of future with a Francis machine; and Mott Scotland to work with industrial renewable industries.5 MacDonald uprated all four machines and heritage partners to survey THE MANAGERS | 85

7.6 Interior view of Fasnakyle power station, 1950, Affric hydroelectric scheme. 86 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

hydroelectric holdings and identify bodies, academic partners and industrial involved and this approach has enabled prospective acquisitions. and commercial bodies whose aim all agencies involved to plan for the The current hydroelectric was to record the decommissioning large-scale acquisitions which will result collections inadequately represent the process of the offshore oil and gas from the decommissioning process. significance of the industry. National industry. Numerous outcomes have Based on our experience of Museums Scotland holds a number been achieved, including: the creation working with Dounreay and partner of turbine models, some sectioned, of a panel to assess the heritage merits heritage bodies at the front end and many made in the museum facing disposal; the creation of a website; of the decommissioning process, workshop from blueprints supplied the indexing of commercial archives; we have proven the value of early by manufacturers. However, there is and the formation of a vast oral history communications. National agencies no record of collecting during the resource now deposited with the such as Historic Scotland, the Royal NoSHEB era, nor is there any full-scale University of Aberdeen. The project Commission on the Ancient and plant preserved. The key suppliers of has assisted commercial partners to Historical Monuments of Scotland, hydroelectric plant – such as Glenfield understand the quality of their resource the National Archives and National & Kennedy, Gilbert Gilkes & Gordon, and capitalise on its assets, and it has Museums have complementary remits Bruce Peebles and Boving & Co – enabled heritage and academic partners and work well collaboratively to collect are also poorly represented in the to plan strategically the stewardship of the tangible and intangible parts of collections. this internationally significant collection. Scotland’s industrial heritage.6 More recently, the most successful An innovative project that both museum acquisitions are the National Museums Scotland and The future consequence of evaluation, research Historic Scotland are currently engaged It is clear that the history of the hydro and multiple-stakeholder participation. in is the Dounreay Site Restoration sector in Scotland forms an important This is particularly applicable when Limited Heritage Strategy. Both agencies part of its future. Hydroelectric power recording or collecting a live industry, have collaborated with Dounreay’s has always been an international and there are several case studies which decommissioning staff providing advice industry, with the pioneering are testament to the merits of this from an international perspective to technological breakthroughs made on approach. One of the most successful devise a strategy, which is currently the Scottish schemes exported to Nordic collecting and research partnerships of subject of public consultation. This is and Alpine nations, and German recent years is the Capturing the Energy the first instance of a nuclear site being turbines forming a significant part even Project. This initiative was established by decommissioned in the UK where in early schemes on home soil, such as a steering group composed of heritage heritage bodies have been actively Kinlochleven. However, this international THE MANAGERS | 87

7.7 Detail of the control panel at Tummel Bridge power station, 1933, Tummel and Rannoch hydroelectric scheme.

out of a current total of 1,354 megawatts of installed capacity.7 Whilst this may be small compared to the 25,615-megawatt scheme being developed at the Three Gorges on the Yangtze River in China, it does illustrate that the faith of the pioneers in Scotland was well placed and that the skill and passion with which they oversaw the development of schemes was consummate. This is an extraordinary feat when considering that modern 21st-century technology can only produce just under half as much again legacy is not just a historic one: nations supply for many European nations. as the capacity installed in the late 20th such as Scotland and Norway, which The industry is also building on the century. Working together across public utilise hydro to the extent that they are foundations of the pre-war and NoSHEB and private institutions to understand, exporters of energy, still play a key role developments in Scotland, where current promote and celebrate these awesome in new international projects such as the estimates project that there are 657 achievements in Scotland is in itself a North Sea Grid. This is an activity that megawatts of financially viable schemes worthwhile venture, and one of which all will be crucial to the future security of which could be developed in Scotland can be proud.

NOTES | 89

Notes

Chapter 1 – The Pioneers 9 Wood, p.59. 1. United States Geological Survey (USGS) Hydroelectric 10 ibid. power water use, http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/wuhy.html. 11 Payne, p.50. 2. Emma Wood, The Hydro Boys, 2002, p.39. 12 Payne, p.56. 3. Northern Chronicle, 27th March 1895. Quoted in Andrew 13 Payne, p.58. Perchard, Aluminium in the Highlands, 2007, p.11. 14 Wood, p.62. 4. Perchard, p.13. 5. Letter from William Murray Morrison to Dr Lachlan Chapter 4 – The Designers Grant, 1st January 1935, National Library of Scotland Acc 1 James Miller, The Dam Builders: Power from the Glens, 2002, 1287/7. Quoted in Perchard, p.9. p.30. 2 Payne, p.63. Chapter 2 – The Engineers 3 Kenneth Frampton and Yukio Futagawa, Modern 1 Peter Payne, The Hydro: A Study of the Development of the Architecture 1851–1945, 1983, p.256. Major Hydro-electric Schemes Undertaken by the North 4 Global Architecture, Number 58, 1981, p.3. of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board, 1988, p.25. It should be 5 Siobhan McConnachie, ‘James Shearer and the North acknowledged that Peter Payne’s publication, though over of Scotland Hydro Electric Board’, Architectural Heritage twenty years old, remains one of the most useful sources (Journal of the Architectural Heritage Society of Scotland), for hydroelectric history. Volume XIV, 2003, pp 104–18 (p.108). 2 Payne, p.26. 3 Payne, p.27. Chapter 5 – The Campaigners 1 Miller, p.43. Chapter 3 – The Visionaries 2 Payne, p.64. 1 Payne, p.34. 3 Miller, p.43. 2 Payne, p.39. 4 Payne, p.65. 3 Wood, p.57. 5 ibid. 4 Payne, p.44. 6 Payne, p.67. 5 Payne, p.45. 7 ibid. 6 Wood, p.59. 8 Payne, p.68. 7 ibid. 9 Miller, p.44. 8 Clive Archer, Norway outside the European Union: Norway 10 Payne, p.69. and European integration from 1994 to 2004, 2005. 11 Explanatory Memorandum (command paper 6660), 1945. 90 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

12 Payne, p.70. Chapter 7 – The Managers 13 ibid. 1 Scottish Government website, 14 Payne, p.71. www.scotland.gov.uk 15 ibid. 2 Payne, p.194. 16 Miller, p.45. 3 ibid. 17 Miller, p.47. 4 Payne, p.195. 18 Strutt & Parker, Scottish Estates 5 Payne, p.198. Review 2009, http://www. 6 National Museums Scotland struttandparker.com/uploads/ was established as the Industrial publications/SER_reduced.pdf Museum of Scotland in 1854, and 19 ibid. has maintained an interest in and enthusiasm for the manner in which Chapter 6 – The Innovators things work and the technology 1 RESTATS, the Renewable Energy that underpins the artefact. The STATisticS Database for the United organisation is actively involved in Kingdom, http://www.restats.org.uk/ science communication and, as the (retrieved 6th April 2007). Connect Gallery demonstrates, 2 International Commission on Large is keen to commission innovative Dams website, http://www.icold- digital and manual interactives to cigb.net/ inspire, engage and inform current 3 Miller, p.249. and future audiences on the subject 4 ibid. of technology. 7 Scottish Hydropower Resource Study: Final Report, 26th August 2008, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/ Resource/Doc/917/0064958.pdf This gazetteer outlines the schemes across Scotland which were developed from the roots of the industry in the late nineteenth century through to the state development of the sector from 1943 onwards. After the founding of the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board (NoSHEB) by the Hydro Electric (Scotland) Act of 1943 the development of the sector for public supply in Scotland was undertaken by NoSHEB on behalf of the state, with a number of panels – technical, architectural, and fisheries –, providing the main design and technical input. The technical panel was particularly prominent in providing civil and electrical engineering designs for NoSHEB schemes across Scotland. One of the key members of this panel was the prominent engineer James Williamson and his company, James Williamson and Partners, undertook a range of work throughout the period of development by NoSHEB.

As Williamson was identified as the lead The pattern of using a panel as the lead for member of the technical panel from its early works on each scheme was also replicated with days a number of schemes are attributed to architectural designs for the power stations and his authorship, or that of James Williamson and other structures. The architecture panel was Partners who maintained this role after his initially composed of three architects, Reginald death, throughout the gazetteer for continuity. Fairlie, Harold Ogle Tarbolton and James However, there is a more detailed authorship Shearer. The intention was that they would of a number of the schemes, beyond the judge competition designs for schemes, but this overview of Williamson and the technical panel. model was quickly abandoned as too costly Consequently we would like to acknowledge and they undertook the design of buildings the role of a number of prominent engineering on behalf of NoSHEB. Consequently, after the companies and engineers from across Scotland deaths of Tarbolton and Fairlie early in the life who made key contributions to the design of the Board, the majority of design work was and engineering of schemes on behalf of the completed by James Shearer and his practice technical panel. These companies include, based in Dunfermline. However, particularly in Alexander Gibb and Partners, Halcrow Ltd, the later years of the Board’s work, some of Sir William Arrol and Partners and others. the architectural designs were undertaken by Whilst the technical panel played an important other practices and the contribution of these role in the overview of all the engineering architects is indicated where their involvement requirements of the schemes, design work and is known. detailed site consultations was often carried out on their behalf by other specialists.

110 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Glossary

arch dam – a concrete or masonry dam which is curved in gravity dam – a dam constructed of concrete and/or plan so as to transmit the major part of the water load to masonry which relies on its mass for stability the abutments high-head scheme – a hydro scheme which uses a barrage – a dam-like structure composed of gates which can reservoir at a higher level than the power station, with be raised or lowered depending on the water level; often the fall of water in between generating the required used in areas of flood risk pressure to turn the turbines. The scheme can include multiple dams and power stations operating as a cascade, buttress dam – a dam consisting of a watertight upstream such as at Glen Affric part supported at intervals on the downstream side by a series of buttresses hydro scheme – a set of components, consisting of a dam, penstock and power station containing turbines, which compensation set – a small turbine generating electricity function together to generate electricity from water from the water supplied to the river below a station to power maintain the flow of the river downstream intake – point of diversion of stream flow into a conduit or discharge – the volume of water that passes a given location irrigation system conveyance within a given period of time; usually expressed in cubic feet (or cubic metres) per second NoSHEB – the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board, who were responsible as a government organisation for catchment – the area surrounding a hydro scheme from the promotion and development of a range of schemes which water is gathered via natural flow and commonly a across Scotland following their creation in the 1943 series of aqueducts and pipes feeding into reservoirs Hydro-Electric Development (Scotland) Act fish ladder – a device made up of a series of stepped pools, penstock – a large pipe or conduit to carry the water from similar to a staircase, that enables adult fish to migrate the reservoir or dam to a turbine or water wheel up the river past dams, sometimes incorporated into the structure of a dam or power station powerhouse – the building downstream of the dam which houses the turbines and generating equipment; usually generator – machine for power generation, usually associated with industrial power generation, such as for connected with a turbine. The kinetic energy of the aluminium smelters at Kinlochleven turbine shaft generates electricity in the generator. This is caused by the movement of an electrical conductor in a power station – the building located downstream of a dam magnetic field. or penstock which houses the turbines and other plant and equipment; usually associated with the generation of power for supply to the national grid GLOSSARY | 111

pumped storage – a hydro scheme similar to a high-head watt – a unit of electrical power used to measure the scheme where the turbines can be run in reverse to capacity of generation. A large commercial building will pump water back up to the storage reservoir for reuse at often consume several megawatts in electrical power for a later date, such as at Ben Cruachan light and heat run-of-the-river scheme – a scheme which utilises the weir – a low dam which is designed to provide sufficient natural flow and volume of water in a river to generate upstream depth for a water intake while allowing flow to power, such as the Falls of Clyde; commonly there is no pass over its crest storage or impoundment of the water smelting – an industrial process, often associated with hydropower, to produce a metal such as aluminium through electrolysis spillway – the structure on or at the side of a dam that contains and guides the flow of the excess water within the reservoir surge tank or shaft – a vertical shaft, commonly subterranean, which contains water to maintain the pressure in the tunnel following sudden changes in pressure caused by increases or decreases in water level, thus protecting the turbines from damage tailrace – the discharge channel from a turbine or set of turbines which guides water into the outlet (river or penstock) downstream of the power station turbine – machinery used to convert rotary mechanical energy generated by a flow of water, commonly passing over blades or paddles, into electrical energy via an attached generator valve house – a small building, usually at the top of a penstock, where valves are used to split water between a number of pipes, allowing isolation of the individual pipes 112 | POWER TO THE PEOPLE

Bibliography Dictionary of Scottish Architects, www.scottisharchitects.org.uk Gifford, John. The Buildings of Scotland: Perth and Kinross, 2007. Gifford, John. The Buildings of Scotland: Highland and Islands, 1992. Hill, George. Tunnel and Dam: The Story of the Galloway Hydros, 1984. McConnachie, Siobhan. ‘James Shearer and the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board’, Architectural Heritage (Journal of the Architectural Heritage Society of Scotland), Volume XIV, 2003, pp 104–18. Miers, Mary. The Western Seaboard: an Illustrated Architectural Guide, 2008. Miller, James. The Dam Builders: Power from the Glens, 2002. National Archives of Scotland (NAS) – North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board Collection (Ref: NSE), 1943–90; North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board Minutes (Ref: NSE1), 1943–90; North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board Annual Reports (Ref: NSE2), 1943–90. Norges vassdrags- og energidirektorat, Kulturminner i norsk kraftproduksjon – en evaluering av bevaringsverdige kraftverk (KINK), 2006. Payne, Peter. The Hydro: A Study of the Development of the Major Hydro-electric Schemes Undertaken by the North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board, 1988. Perchard, Andrew. Aluminium in the Highlands, 2007. Perthshire Advertiser – selected excerpts from 1944 to 1955, covering the development of hydroelectric power schemes in Perthshire. Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS) – general RCAHMS collections including the Scottish Power collection, William Arrol collection, Aerial Photography collection and the Shearer and Annand collection. Scottish and Southern Energy. Power from the Glens, 2005. Walker, Frank Arneil. The Buildings of Scotland: Argyll and Bute, 2000. Wood, Emma. The Hydro Boys, 2002.

HISTORIC SCOTLAND HISTORIC Power to the People to the Power The built heritage of Scotland’s hydroelectric power heritageThe built of Scotland’s

Power to the People The significant and early development development early The significant and in Scotland power of hydroelectric its combination not least from results But and weather. of topography been not have this potential would without the pioneering realised vision of a handful of architects, engineers and politicians whose personal energy and skills meant that in the Scotland has led the world energy of this green development at various times in its history. source This book traces the development of the industry the ground- through technical achievements breaking Scottish engineers and the by realised important contribution of a number post-war and of distinguished pre- Scottish architects. hydroelectric power Power to the People: Power to the ISBN: 978-1-84917-036-9 The built heritage of Scotland’s heritageThe built of Scotland’s