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Sharia En Nationaal Recht. Rechtssystemen in Moslimlanden

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Sharia En Nationaal Recht. Rechtssystemen in Moslimlanden M;J;DI9>7FF;B?@A;H77:LEEH>;JH;=;H?D=I8;B;?: @$C$Ejje I^Wh_W[ddWj_edWWbh[Y^j h[Y^jiioij[c[d_dceib_cbWdZ[d jkii[djhWZ_j_["feb_j_[a[dh[Y^jiijWWj 7CIJ;H:7CKD?L;HI?JOFH;II Sharia en nationaal recht De serie ‘Verkenningen’ omvat studies die in het kader van de werkzaamheden van de wrr tot stand zijn gekomen en naar zijn oordeel van zodanige kwaliteit en betekenis zijn, dat publicatie gewenst is. De verantwoordelijkheid voor de inhoud en de ingenomen standpunten berust bij de auteurs. Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid De wrr is gevestigd: Lange Vijverberg 4-5 Postbus 20004 2500 EA ’s-Gravenhage Telefoon 070-356 46 00 Telefax 070-356 46 85 E-mail [email protected] Website http://www.wrr.nl WETENSCHAPPELIJKE RAAD VOOR HET REGERINGSBELEID Sharia en nationaal recht rechtssystemen in moslimlanden tussen traditie, politiek en rechtsstaat J.M. Otto Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam 2006 Omslagfoto: ‘Sun Falling on Sultan Abdul Samad Building’, Kuala Lumpur, Maleisië © Brandix Pictures Omslagontwerp: Studio Daniëls, Den Haag Vormgeving binnenwerk: Het Steen Typografie, Maarssen isbn 90 5356 841 7 nur 717/741 © wrr/Amsterdam University Press, Den Haag/Amsterdam 2006 Alle rechten voorbehouden. Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd, opgesla- gen in een geautomatiseerd gegevensbestand, of openbaar gemaakt, in enige vorm of op enige wijze, hetzij elektronisch, mechanisch, door fotokopieën, opnamen of enige andere manier, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de uitgever. Voorzover het maken van kopieën uit deze uitgave is toegestaan op grond van artikel 16B Auteurswet 1912 jº het Besluit van 20 juni 1974, Stb. 351, zoals gewijzigd bij het Besluit van 23 augustus 1985, Stb. 471 en artikel 17 Auteurswet 1912, dient men de daarvoor wettelijk verschuldigde vergoedingen te voldoen aan de Stichting Reprorecht (Postbus 3051, 2130 KB Hoofddorp). Voor het overnemen van gedeelte(n) uit deze uitgave in bloemlezingen, readers en andere compilatiewerken (artikel 16 Auteurswet 1912) dient men zich tot de uitgever te wenden. meningen over islam, sharia en recht “Years of intense introspection finally revealed to Muhammad Abdullah of Mecca that the natural state of all human beings is goodness. And if that funda- mental law is violated, the meaning of life is lost” (Jaffer 2003: 3). Mehru Jaffer, journalist en schrijver te Wenen . “In de islamitische staat heerst het goddelijk recht en de wetten daarvan mogen niet veranderd, aangepast of bestreden worden” (Khomeiny 1979: 17). Ayatollah Khomeiny, leider van Iran (1979-1989) . “Die allesomvattendheid is in de praktijk niet reëel. De onderzoeker die in een concreet geval wil vaststellen wat het islamitisch recht inhoudt staat voor de moeilijkheid dat er nauwelijks of geen bepaling is te vinden” (Brugman 1994: 5). Jan Brugman (1923-2004), hoogleraar Arabisch te Leiden en kenner van het islamitisch recht . 5 “Ik roep op tot een onmiddellijk moratorium (…) op lijfstraffen, steniging en doodstraf (…) in de islamitische wereld in naam van de principes van de islam zelf” (nrc Handelsblad, 30 maart 2005). Tariq Ramadan, filosoof en islamoloog . “In all events, the challenge for analysis will be that of trying to sift, out of a mass of explanations in terms of religion and culture, the underlying political and social forces at play. It will equally require us to separate the ways in which history is used to explain, and the ways it is misused as pretext and as rationalization” (Halliday 2003: xv). Fred Halliday, hoogleraar internationale betrekkingen te Londen . “Conservatieven en neo-conservatieven zijn dol op democratie, maar niet op de middelen om daartoe te komen: langdurig touwtrekken om economische, juridische en sociale hervormingen; en op diplomatie, buitenlandse hulp, al die dingen waar conservatieven niet van houden” (Trouw, 28 januari 2004). Fareed Zakaria, politicoloog en hoofdredacteur van Newsweek International . “Negenennegentig procent van alle problemen in de wereld hebben op de een of andere manier met de islam te maken. Dat is de realiteit. Ja, ook in Nederland” (Trouw, 16 oktober 2004). Geert Wilders, Tweede Kamerlid . sharia en nationaal recht 6 inhoudsopgave inhoudsopgave Ten geleide 11 Voorwoord 13 1 Inleiding 17 1.1 Islamisering van recht en de clash of civilisations 17 1.2Gangbare aannames over sharia en recht 18 1.3Van ontwikkelingslanden naar moslimlanden, en terug 20 1.4 Van algemeenheden naar feiten en regels 22 1.5 Centrale begrippen: sharia en rechtsstaat 22 1.6Invalshoeken van het onderzoek 26 1.7 Onderzoeksvragen en opzet 29 1.7.1 Vier onderzoeksvragen 29 1.7.2 Opzet 33 2De historische ontwikkeling van sharia en nationaal recht 37 2.1 Inleiding 37 7 2.2Sharia en gewoonterecht: het eerste spanningsveld 39 2.3 De klassieke sharia van de schriftgeleerden en het recht van de heersers: het tweede spanningsveld 41 2.4Puriteinse opstandige bewegingen: het derde spanningsveld 44 2.5De periode tot 1920. Expansie van Europees recht en de reacties: het vierde spanningsveld 46 2.6De periode 1920-1965. Opkomst van nationale staten met hun ontwikkelingsideologie: het vijfde spanningsveld 51 2.7De periode 1965-1985. Barsten en breuken in de staatsideologieën en islamitische omwentelingen 57 2.8De periode na 1985. Confrontatie, islamisering en juridische matiging 64 2.9 Veranderingen en paradoxen in de huidige internationale verhoudingen 73 2.10 Sharia en de historische hoofdlijnen in de rechtsontwikkeling 76 3Sharia en nationaal recht nu: harmonie en conflict 85 3.1 De nationale rechtssystemen: neutrale en netelige rechtsgebieden 85 3.2 Staatsrecht 86 3.3Pragmatische uitwerkingen van de sharia als basisnorm 96 3.4 Familierecht 97 3.5 Strafrecht 102 3.6De wetgever als hervormer van materieel en procedureel recht 107 3.7De executieve en de bijzondere rol van ministeries van gods- dienstzaken 111 sharia en nationaal recht 3.8 Rechters over rechtsstaat en sharia 114 3.9Conclusie: de huidige positie van de sharia in nationale rechts- systemen 119 4Sharia en nationaal recht in hun politieke en maatschap- pelijke context 127 4.1 Contextuele invloeden op de rol van de sharia 127 4.2De politieke context in gemengde stelsels, klassieke-sharia- stelsels en seculiere stelsels 128 4.3Politieke actoren, religieus-ideologisch spectrum en meesters van de rechten 132 4.3.1Politieke actoren 132 4.3.2 Ideologisch-religieus spectrum 134 4.3.3 Meesters van de rechten 136 4.4Strijdfronten, legitimiteit, politieke tegenstellingen en coalities 138 4.5Vijf governance-dilemma’s 143 4.6Perspectieven van de bevolking 148 4.7Conclusie: pragmatisme van overheid en burger 153 8 5Rechtsstaat, mensenrechten en sharia 161 5.1 Verenigbaarheid? Tegengestelde posities, onheldere begrippen 161 5.2 De opkomst van mensenrechten in de moslimwereld 163 5.3 Tegenstellingen en tegenkrachten 166 5.4 Een theoretisch kader voor toenadering tussen sharia en mensenrechten 171 5.4.1 Inclusieve universaliteit volgens Brems 172 5.4.2 Beoordeling: inclusieve universaliteit en effectief mensenrechtenbeleid 174 5.5 De toezichtcomités van mensenrechtenverdragen: iccpr, cedaw en cat 178 5.6 Conclusie: de lange, bochtige weg naar de rechtsstaat 182 6Conclusies 187 6.1De sharia als spectrum 187 6.2De historische ontwikkeling van de positie en rol van sharia in het nationale recht 189 6.3De positie van de sharia: de stand van zaken in twaalf landen 192 6.3.1Classificatie van rechtsstelsels van moslimlanden 192 6.3.2 Overzicht van rechtsgebieden 194 6.4Sharia, politiek en maatschappij 196 6.5Sharia, rechtsstaat en mensenrechten: tegenstellingen en toenaderingen 200 6.6 Vooruitblik: sharia geen absolute blokkade voor ontwikkeling van de rechtsstaat 204 inhoudsopgave 7 Overwegingen en beleidssuggesties 209 7.1De noodzaak van een bredere en samenhangende beleidsvisie 209 7.2 Het belang van nationale rechtssystemen en de sharia 211 7.3De geleidelijke opbouw van de rechtsstaat 212 7.4 Sharia en nationaal recht: benaderingen en analyse 212 7.5Sharia en nationaal recht: beoordeling 214 7.6 Ondersteuning van de rechtsstaat 215 7.7 Mensenrechtenbeleid 216 7.8 Ontwikkelingssamenwerking 218 7.9 Communicatie, beeldvorming, gesprekspartners 219 7.10 Kennisinfrastructuur 220 7.11 Naar een kader voor buitenlands beleid ten aanzien van de moslimwereld 222 Literatuur 227 Verklarende woordenlijst 235 9 sharia en nationaal recht 10 ten geleide ten geleide De wereldwijde opleving van politieke uitingen van de islam staat de laatste decennia volop in de belangstelling. Een van de opvallendste manifestaties hier- van is het streven naar islamisering van staat en maatschappij door het invoeren van ‘de islamitische wet’, de sharia. Velen, niet-moslims maar ook moslims, volgen dit streven met grote achterdocht. Voor hen wordt de sharia dan als vanzelfsprekend het symbool bij uitstek voor alle negatieve handelen in naam van de islam: extreem geweld, draconische straffen en herstel van archaïsche verhoudingen tussen mannen en vrouwen. De ervaringen met de toepassing van islamitisch recht in bijvoorbeeld Afghanistan ten tijde van de Taliban, geven hier ook alle aanleiding toe. Door dit soort beelden en ontwikkelingen wordt ‘de sharia’ een uiterst beladen begrip dat veel onrust en angst losmaakt. Het is daar- om des te opmerkelijker dat de stroom van publicaties over de politieke mani- festaties van de islam veel minder empirische studies bevat over de feitelijke verhouding tussen sharia en nationaal recht in de moslimwereld. Wat de sharia in theorie maar vooral ook in de praktijk behelst, hoe theorie en praktijk zich verhouden tot het nationale, niet-religieuze
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