A Comparative Analysis of the Mystical Approaches in Christianity and Islam

Home , Abdul Qadir Gilani, Malamatiyya, Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, Naqvi, Sufi cosmology, Tazkiah

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE MYSTICAL APPROACHES IN CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM

By MS.BISMA ILYAS CHEEMA 2011-GCUF-05410

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTORATE OF PHILOSOPHY

ISLAMIC STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF ISLAMIC STUDIES & ARABIC GC UNIVERSITY, FAISALABAD

September 2014

ABSTRACT Mysticism generally means intuitive spiritual revelation and the belief that direct communion with God is achievable through human intuition. Almost all religions have their spiritual and mystical stances. So do Christianity and Islam, which are compared in the present study. In spite of the fact that these two religious traditions vary in some context yet in Mystical domain, both bear strong resemblances. Mystics of both faiths teach and preach the similar virtues of love, peace, unity and mutuality. The Holy books of both refer explicitly or inexplicitly to spirituality and to those have been blessed by spiritual insightfulness. Saint Paul was the first great Christian Mystic. However, Jesus Christ is called the founder of Christian mysticism. Christian mysticism is indebted to the Jewish heritage and Greek thought, especially to the writings of Dionysius, the Areopagite. John Scotus Erigena translated these writings and introduced them into Western Europe, whereas Saint Augustine further developed it. During the Dark Ages, mystical approaches in Christianity were criticized due to their emphasis on ritualistic purity and theological nature of Christian empire. Yet mysticism spread widely in that period as for the first time Christian mystics were given acknowledgement instead of persecution.

In the main time, Islamic world saw an uninhibited growth of mysticism/ Sufism where we find Persian mystics like Al-Hallaj in about 900 A.D and later on Al-Ghazali, the Islamic philosopher. In 13th century Ibn al Arabi, Jalal al Din Rumi described desire of human soul for God. Sufism owes wholly to Prophetic model. In Sufism we find well-established Sufi orders and Sufi terminologies which are almost invisible in Christian mysticism. Islamic spiritualism exerted much influence on Europe and almost a century later, we find notable Christian mystics for example, Thomas a Kempis. Later on, there emerged Christian mystics in England and America. Since then a history of mystical parallelism came into observance. The present study has explored the history of mysticism to determine the mutual impact of various mystical schools in Christianity and Islam to allow a comparative and effective exploration of the fundamental doctrines. However, metaphysical experiences and contributions from both sides clearly bring to light certain contrasts as well which emphasize originality of Sufism. International scenario of the global village brought to light theory of clash of civilizations which compelled the scholars of the major religious doctrines to think about inter-faith dialogue. Thus the academia developed an interest in the pluralist world view and it was gradually realized that the Sufis or the men of esoteric learning were best suited for the task of Universal peace and harmony.

PREFACE Introduction

Mysticism is labeled as the great spiritual current that runs through all religions. In widest sense, it is the consciousness of One Reality, which is called sometimes Wisdom, Light, Love or Nothing. Almost all world religions and cultures have mystical sect, for example, Kabala in Judaism. Hinduism has a wide range of philosophies and imbibes many mystical branches like Vedanta and yoga. Buddhism, Taoism and the Baha’ism all have mystical elements in them. Christian mystics are those monks who deliberately cut themselves off from society in order to practice religious values. Mystics are also there in Islamic tradition. Muslim mystics or Sufis always followed Sharia (Islam law) and Sunnah (customs of the Prophet (S.A.W.W). That is why, Sufis have always believed and thus justifiabely declared them to be God’s people. The Holy Quran also refers in several places to Sufis as the elect. They are His friends, on whom “no fear shall come and they shall not grieve.”(The Holy Quran, 10:63). The title was endowed firstly to the prophet as being elect for his sinlessness, inspiration and apostolic mission and secondly attached to certain Muslims, for their self-mortification, sincere devotion and firm attachment to the eternal realities. The Quranic saying “And (I am) in your own selves. Do you not then perceive” (The Holy Quran 51:21) invites the human beings to peep into themselves and to study those to do it. Mysticism has so much significance and vitality in Islam that without knowing some of its ideas and the forms they adopt, one cannot fully grasp Muhammadan religious life.

Scope and Significance

The academic research into the mystical realms is quite new, as in the past it was believed that mystical and esoteric truths and experiences were only reserved for the few initiated people and that the abstruse nature of spiritual occurrence made it relatively secretive and confidential.

Hence mysticism remained confined to the monasteries and the khanqahs and the general public always responded to it with a feeling of awe and skepticism. But due to the inevitable

change of the world view from modernism to post modernism, certain non-go areas of knowledge have become populated.

There lurks a fear that the civilizations are going to see the ultimate clash and that the history is to be ended soon. To the surprise of every one it was discovered that the religions of the world were for the most part compatible with each other and a pluralistic approach could affect the universal peace and harmony. It was under these ideas that the academia took interest in the pluralist world view and it was gradually discovered that the path of Sufis or the men of esoteric learning was best suited for the task of universal harmony.

Mysticism has flourished along the historical vicissitude among people of different cultures and religions and it has transcended the boundaries that define nations and nation states. As such, a comprehensive study of the mystical doctrines and practices is available.

The topic under reference deals with only two major religions of the world. The religion is more than just a body of do’s and don’ts. Its defining parameters include the provision of a code of life with certain cultural and social nuances. So the mystical approaches in Christianity and Islam can also be compared. Instead of exploring all the dimensions the study has compared the doctrinal, experiential and ethical dimensions of each tradition. Since the area of mysticism generally entails a trans-worldly encounter, it is important to take seriously the claims of mystics, describing them at face value. The study unfolds as fellows:

• A brief survey of the history of mysticism and its development in various ages. • A description of the development of the Islamic tradition and some of its characteristics. • A description of the Christian tradition in mysticism. • A comparative analysis of both traditions • Concluding remarks highlighting the similarities and differences of each.

This study has compared the mystical tradition in Christianity and Islam. Ignoring the contrasting features of each, the study has not reduced one religious tradition to the other. But rather by comparing the Islamic tradition, which offers a clearly elaborated process and technique for mystical experience, mystical tradition of the Christians will also be studied in depth. The historical origins and the complex mythology of the two mystical traditions may be distinct for both, the concept and objectives of the spiritual experiences, bear a great deal of resemblances.

The research has entailed the study of primary religious texts as well as secondary resources and interpretations and has thus provided a blue-print for a more coherent understanding of comparative religion. This comparative work involves substantial citing from both traditions. A deliberate effort is made not to read those texts which highlight our own cultural and religious biases. Rather the study is limited to those writings that are relatively clear and non-controversial. Consequently, the comparative analysis brings to light a deeper grasp of the mystical dimensions of the two religions.

By use of primary sources,the Bible, the Quran, Hadith and writings of those such as Al-Ghazali and Rumi,and Christian writings like Letters of Saint Paul and Confessions of Saint Augustine etc. alongwith secondary sources, this study analyzes the origin of mysticism in Christianity and Islam and finally draws a comparative analysis of the mystical approaches in Christianity and Islam.

Hypothesis

a) In Islam, mysticism is accepted as a legitimate spiritual phenomenon.

b) Mysticism is not ackhowledged in Islam

c) Christianity holds similar origin, faith and experiences in mysticism like Islam.

d) Christian mysticism does not propound similar ideas.

e) Islam believes in spirituality/Sufism but it does not approve of any super-natural mystic experience as a legitimate religious experience.

Review of Literature:

Since the topic does not take into account any particular historical referentiality, I have started reading different texts of the Islamic Mystical tradition of various periods as well as the Christian mystical records. The revealed books of both the traditions have certain points that pose the esoteric and impenetrable truths as challenges to human thought.The first English translation of The Bible from Latin by a 14th centuary theologian John Wycliffe is studied. However in modern King James Version of Bible which mentions hundered of differences from the old version, is widely consulted. Bibles of Saint Barnabas and of Saint Thomas are trusted for their Mystical interpretation. Translation of the Holy Quran by Abullah Yousaf Ali and by Abdalhaqq and Aisha Bewley are consulted wherever required.

Since mystical showing and telling i.e. experimentation and theorization is not readily given or understandable in the ordinary sense of the word, a researcher has tried to find the explanation of one profundity through the insightfulness of another reliable resource.

In order to develop an overall understanding of the topic, I have started reading of different treatises by al-Ghazali like Al-Munqidh min al Dalal in which he details his experience of leaving the path of textual studies and adopting the ascetic conduct with due care and control. Ghazali’s Mishkat ul Anwar (Niche for Lights) and Ihya ul Ulum (Revival of Reglious Sciences) and Alchemy of Happiness are also consulted in the study. Ibn Khaldum’s Moqadimma translated Franz Rosenthal details not only Sufi history but also biblical Saints like Peter Mathew and Jhon etc.

Goldziher’s Vorlesungen Iiber den Islam gives an account of Sufi asceticism and mysticism by the greatest living authority on Islam. Macdonald’s The Religious Life and Attitude in Islam is valuable introduction to the study of the moderate type of Sufism represented by Ghazali.The chapters on psychology are particularly helpful. Hijwiri’s Kashf al- Mahjub, translated by R.A.Nicholson is the oldest Persian treatise on Sufism. Margaret, Smith, (1928), Rabia the Mystic and Her Fellow Saints in Islam is a fundamental study that deals with the role of women in Sufism in general. Mahmud Shabistari’s Ghulshan-i-Raz (Secret Rose Garden) is a versified presentation of the major Sufi doctrines. It proved usefull as well as interesting during the study. Jami’s Lawaih is a prose treatise on Sufism. Ibn Arabi’s Tarjuman al-Ashwaq is a wonderful collection of mystical odes. Saadi’s Gulstan-i-Saadi and Bustan-i-Saadi, Sultan Bahoo’s Kinz al Anwar, Umer Khaym’s Rubayat, Hafiz Diwan-i-Hafiz and Rumi’s Mathnawi are consulted for individual discourses of Muslim Sufis.

Translation of Tafsir al- Tustari by Annabel Keeler and Ali Keeler is the earliest surviving Sufi commentary on the Holy Quran. This translation performs a key role in understanding Tustari’s

mystical thought and his teachings. This commentary provides almost 1000 verses of the Holy Quran carrying spiritual significance in complete English for the first time. It also imbibes numerous citations to traditions of the Prophet, details of mystical life, stories of the Prophet and stories of earlier mystics. The book offers an introduction to the Sufi tradition of Quranic interpretation and an account of spiritual doctrines fundamental to the later development of Sufism. Ibn Taymiyya’s Futuh al Ghaib and Abdul Qadir Jilani’s Ghunyat ul Talibeen provided much information on the topic.

Awarif’ ul-Ma’arif written in the 13th century Shaikh Shahabu’d-Din Umar bin Muhammad-I Suhrawardi (1891:reprint edition, New York,1970) from a Persian translation of the Arabic text proved of much help in studying the early history of Sufism. J.Spencer Trimingham’s The Sufi orders in Islam (Oxford, 1997), is the comprehensive book on the development and the situation of Islamic orders. The book also contains an extensive bibliography.

At the same time, the study of Russell’s Mysticism and Logic has helped me in understanding the modernist stance concerning the mystical realm.

Reading A. J. Arberry’s Muslim Saints and Mystics, Translation of Tadhkirat al Auliya’ by Farid al-Din Attar gives an overview of the famous Muslim mystics of the medieval times whose lives and sayings have remained the core text of the mystical orders in the following centuries. An Urdu book, Khazinat ul Asfiya by Mufti Ghulam Sarwar Lahori, translated by Mufti Mahmood Alam shares biographies of thousands Sufi Saints.

John Reynard’s Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood is another book on Attar’s style but it covers the relatively newer era of the saints and mystics. Prophets, saints, martyrs, sages, and seers-one of the richest repositories of lore about such exemplary religious figures belongs to the world’s approximately 1.3 billion Muslims.

Illuminating some of the most delightful tales in world religious literature, this engaging book is the first truly global over view of the Islamic hagiography. John Renard tells of the characters beyond the Quran and Hadith, whose stories of piety and service to God and humanity have captured hearts and minds for nearly fourteen hundred years. Renard’s thematic approach to the major characters, narratives, social and cultural contexts, and theoretical concepts of the remarkable treasury of tales, based on material raging from eighth to twentieth century, and from countries raging from Morocco to Malaysia, provides diverse cultural, social, economical and political backgrounds. The book also serves as a useful and evocative tool for approaching the vast geographical and chronological sweep of Islamic Civilization.

A very important person in the field of comparative mystical studies is Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee. His book titled Prayer of the Heart in Christian and Sufi Mysticism paves the way for a deeper dialogue between the mystical traditions of Christianity and Islam.

Guiding the reader through the stages of mystical prayer-a way to create a living relationship with Divine with in the heart—this book draws upon Christian and Sufi resources such as St. Teresa of Avlia, ‘Attar, St. John the Cross, and Rumi. Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee describes the stages of prayer: how prayer is first born of need, but then takes one deep within the heart, into the stages of union and ecstasy. Through mystical prayer, one is drawn into the silence of real communion with God. Here, in silence with in the heart, a meeting and merging takes place that carries one beyond the self into the mystery of Divine presence. This exploration delves in to the secret of how to pray without ceasing, in which prayers become alive within the heart, and includes a chapter on the need to pray for the well-being of Earth. It brings together the Christian and Sufi mystical tradition and will benefit any practitioner of prayer who is drawn to discover a relationship with God within their heart.

Dr. Maria Jaoudi’s book Christian and Islamic Spirituality is an invaluable document towards the research in hand. Dr. Jaoudi bases her chapters on the three classical mystical stages of the spiritual journey itself: Purification, Transformation, and finally Union with God. Each chapter centers on the insight of saints and theologians from both traditions. Jaoudi has included a section on God-centered ecology that reveals a mutual strong component in both traditions. This beautiful and inspirational work creates a hopeful vision of spiritual understanding and mutual respect between two great religions basd on love and peace.

Annemarie Schimmel’s Mystical Dimensions of Islam and Dr.Nicholson’s Studies in Islamic Mysticism, The Mystics of Islam and William Chittick’s Mysticism in Islam, Sufism A short Introduction are consulted time and again and proved of much worth throughout the study.

Modern scholarship has deeply related the philosophical stances and sometimes the psychological potential of human thought with the mystical ideology. An important book that deals with this subject is Varieties of Religious Experience by William James. Mystical poetry of both traditions is also consulted. The works of Rumi, Jami, Shabistari and Arabi etc along with Meister Eckhart, St Paul, and St Augustine are quoted, compared and contrasted where required. Research Methodology

The Research, for the most part of it, is of qualitative nature. The research has entailed library research method and is more of analytical and critical nature. The analytical study of the texts has been consistently aided by the sensibility of reading and inter-text or an inter-faith text and through it there is an appraisal of multidimensional esoteric literature in the field.

The research has entailed the study of the primary religious texts as well as secondary 8

resources and interpretations and would thus provide a blueprint for coherent understandings of comparative religion.

The comparative study has focussed more on the point of agreement rather than disagreement between various religious and mystical view points and this requires the study of relationships existing between available texts by means of direct quotations or indirect allusions. In order to accommodate this perpetual cross referencing, I have gone through comprehensive reading schedule. I tried to adopt the following line of action.

i. An in-depth study of comparative religion with focus on Christianity and Islam leaving out the incoherent political demonstration and with a focus on mystical dimensions.

ii. Close reading of the major doctrinal stand points while looking for comparative elements.

iii. Since mystical stances are mostly person-specific i.e. depending on individual and personal experiences and interpretations rather than being collective and exoteric, a detail study of the biographical literature of the mystics has been indispensible.

iv. Since a lot of mystical texts come from resources in different Asiatic and European languages, the researcher has to depend extensively on the translated works available in English and Urdu.

v. The rise of mystical schools of thought did not correspond to each other and therefore it is not possible to create clear temporal links between different mystical approaches. Therefore a synchronic approach has to be used that deems all writings and there contents as ‘present’.

vi. Application of both deductive and inductive approaches during the research and there by juxtaposing the microcosmic cues religious and microcosmic universals to establish the mystical positions within the religious canons followed by the possibility of eclectic interpretation.

vii. The researcher aims at actually going and holding a few talks with the scholars of both faiths and benefit from the observations/study thus made available.

viii. As for as the use of terminology is concerned, mysticism is generally used for spiritual tradition in Christianity. But the word mysticism is replaced by Sufism throughout the dissertation whenever it refers to Islamic mysticism. This is so because the word Sufism is specifically preferred in place of Islamic mysticism. Instead of “P.B.U.H”, the abberivation “S.A.W.W” has been used in the study as the later stand for Salla Allahu ‘alayhi wa sallam, “May Allah commend and salute him”,

an honorific phrase that accompanies mention of the Prophet Muhammad. Similarly the abberivation “ R.A.A” stand for radiya Allahu ‘anhu, “May Allah be well pleased with him”, the prayer attached to the names of the Companions of the Prophet (S.A.W.W)

CHAPTER - I A BRIEF HISTORY OF MYSTICISM AND ITS DEVELOPMENT IN VARIOUS AGES Comparative studies in religion often bring this fact on surface that people of different cultures and climes share similarities though geographically and historically they are poles apart from each other. This has been especially true in mysticism, where in spite of cultural and geographical boundaries people propound similar ideas. Mysticism is an area that has provided scholars with significant opportunities for cross cultural studies in the field of religious studies. It raises an important question of how mystical ideas emerge and develop over time. While handling this profound issue, the present study will provide a remarkable example of religious synchronicity where two diverse spiritual traditions Christian and Islamic - - - posit very similar ideas about the nature of God’s love, and path of self denial and in some cases about ethics.

1. Comparative studies and Mysticism

1.1. Development of Religious Consciousness

Religion has ever been the centre of attention since the dawn of human consciousness or rather “religious consciousness”. There is evidence to suggest that Europe’s sky-kicking slogans of secularization and liberalism could not hinder the human recognition of the importance of religion. These movements have influenced the track of Religion, which is now most often called a personal matter of an individual living on this planet. Sechedina believes that the apparent move has altered the ‘form’ and ‘substance’ of religion since the 1970’s. (Sachedina, 2001, P: 6).

Religion’s ascendancy in the world in the latter half of the twentieth century differs a lot from that of the earlier half of the century. Its new form in its ‘flexibility’ is quite contrary to the forms of ‘rigidity’ of the traditional religions.. The realization of the idea of a universal global community is changing the perception of religion as well as inter-religious understanding. Now the focus is on finding grounds for establishing mutual cooperation and on promoting interhuman understanding. Rather than suggesting the uniqueness of one’s own faith, there is a call for sharing and thus benefitting from what is best in every tradition. (Sachedina, 2001,pp:6- 7). This is especially true to comparison in the domain of mysticism. 11

1.2. East and West Resonance

Human social existence is involuntarily heading towards a living style which considers aloofness and alienation wholly undesirable. The shell of isolation is being shattered even consciously and deliberately for the welfare of the entire human race. Humanity has suffered in East and West equally because of the inflexible attitude of different religious communities in the past. For like our predecessors, we were brought up on the first half of Kipling’s quatrain only: “Oh, East is East and West is West, And never the twain shall meet…” (Kipling, 1889, The Ballad of East and West)

Today different cultures are merged into one another. The distinction between the Orient and the Occident is rapidly fading. Our fantastic century has made us one. We must be reminded the last words of an exceptional man like Socrates, “I am not an Athenian nor a Greek but a citizen of the world”.(Walsh, 1908, p:1029). We all have become the Cosmic Dancers, to use Nietzsche’s image, who cannot rest in fixity but keep on turning and leaping from one position to another. The world citizen is the child of ‘Planetary culture’. (Keith, 1965, p: 192). And survival of humanity in this planetary culture is bettered by the mystics of every age.

1.3. Challenge of Religious Diversity and role of mystics

In addition to this cultural convergence and global unification, religious diversity poses a great challenge in particular regions. Africa and Indonesia with Islam, Christianity and their own belief systems like ebo orisha Yoruba in Africa are Pluralistic societies. The ever-growing number of the immigrants from the developing countries contributes to the pluralistic societies of Europe and America, India and Palestine have already been affluent with people of multi-faith traditions. Ninian Smart, after mentioning the great cities where people of various cultures and faiths live together, adds another reason of knowing others i.e. rich pluralism inside traditions like Islam, Christianity, Buddhism etc, in order to create mutual understanding, though may be not agreement for the animation of community relations.(Smart,1992, p:10)

These developments can have a wide-spread effect. In some places they will proceed peacefully, but in others they are likely to result in upheavals as profound, and possibly as 12

bloody, as those that propelled humanity out of the Middle ages into the Modern age. The negative effects of this interaction may be seen in occasional riots against Muslims in India, 2nd World War holocaust of Jews in Germany, and the Serbian attempts of ethnic cleansing in former Yugoslavia. These positive and negative aspects have not engulfed the political scene only but have also influenced the academic and intellectual spheres. Currencies of terms like neutrality, objectivity, mutual coexistence on the one hand and fundamentalism, extremism and fanaticism on the other bear witness to this development. In the present scenario the role of mystics becomes more urgent. This promoted an interest in the study of mystical experiences of various faiths.

1.4 ‘Unity is in Diversity’

“Ours is an oasis of intensity of juxtaposition: too many people, too many world views on top of each other…” Every individual is exposed to every world view at all times under a constant physical and mental threat. To take a comprehensive world view would be to risk one’s own identity. (Khuri,1992, P:226). This anarchy will leave us nowhere only if we bring to mind that long-forgotten universal fact that “Unity is in diversity”. In Varietate Concordia is the Latin motto chosen by Europeans in the year 2000.Its official English translation is “Unity in diversity”. (Symons and Arjenvos,2002,p:110). This diversified unity falls into the ideal schematization of divinity. Therefore it can be ascertained that the visible diversity is implicit in invisible or rather indivisible unity. And all this is in accord with the will of divinity. The phenomenon can be figured out like this:

Mystics of all religions worship this Divinity. Thus they are in unity, ignoring the apparent diversity of the paths they adopt.

1.5 Quotations from the Holy Scriptures

Now let us take into account some of the statements from the holy scriptures of Christians & Muslims that could be interpreted, directly or indirectly, within the parameters of Mysticism. The Bible also states; “Howbeit when he the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide

you into all truth: for he shall not speak of himself; but whatsoever he shall hear, [that] he speak: and he will shew you things to come.” (John 16:13). See the following Biblical verses on Mysticism: “All scripture [is] given by inspiration of God, and [is] profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness.” (Timothy 3:16) “Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called [to be] an apostle, separated unto the gospel of God.” (Romans 1:1-32) “Jesus saith unto him, I am the way, the truth, and the life: no man cometh unto the Father, but by me.” (John 14:6) The holy Qur’ān states: “For we assuredly sent amongst every people a Messenger”. (Al- Quran, 16:36) and the diversity is acknowledged in these words: “If your Lord had so willed, He could have made mankind one People: but they will not cease to dispute.”(Al-Quran, 11:118). So the above mentioned Biblical and Quranic citations bring this fact on surface that the Messengers are the agents to deliver the divine message to the men of understanding who are called the mystics. Moreover the diversity designed by God is not without purpose. The one possible purpose is to discover the truth in various religios traditions and thus to follow the truthfull believers that is the mystics of any faith.

1.6 Comparative Study of Religions and area of mysticism

The Western Universities like Oxford and Cambridge, which claimed to shoulder the responsibility of proclaiming the message of God, are now pursuing what Ninian Smart calls the ‘Scientific Study of Religion as being plural in scope’.(Smart,1986, P:216). Setting a framework for comparative studies, Ninian Smart states, religion is an organism that has six (now seven) dimensions namely doctrines, myths, ethical teachings, rituals and social institutions along with various religious experiences.( Smart,1984, P: 16). This encourages a scholar to compare the experiential aspects of one religion with that of another. W.T. Stace described two related types of mysticism the introversive and the extroversive, however, both forms, he says share common criteria. These are: 1. A neotic quality 2. Ineffability 3. A sense of holiness 4. A positive effect 5. And a paradoxical aspect (that which defies logic). Stace argues that since these are universal aspects, comparative work on mysticism is possible. (Stace, 1960,p:157).The academic departments like Divinity, Missiology and Theology are giving space to Comparative Religion,

History of Religions and Science of Religion. Contemporary literature on religion is vividly characterized by comparative approach. How do all religions fit together? What relation do they carry with one another? This is the most difficult question in the field of comparative religion today. No one answer would be universally accepted as correct. (Smith,2003, p:317). The focus on comparative religion has brought out extensive as well as intensive literature on Mysticism, which demands critical attention.

2. Mysticism: An Introduction and History

2.1. Mysticism in generic sense

Mysticism in its generic sense means intuitive spiritual revelation, and more particularly it implies the belief that a communicative union with the divine element is achievable through direct and sudden revelation which may be the product of a certain to belief system and the requisite training under a guide or it may be due to an ecstatic stance that an individual takes up under special circumstances. Almost all religions have their spiritual and mystical stances for example, Lao Tse in China, Shinto in Japan, Vedantic Learning in India, the Dalai Lama cult in Tibet and surrounding Buddhist areas and of course the Islamic and the Christian mystical stances that the present study aims to explore on comparative basis.

As Maulana Rumi truly describes the basis of all religions: “The Lamps are different but the Light is the same: it comes from Beyond. If thou keep looking at the lamp, thou are lost; for thence arises the appeare of number and plurality. …. Religions are many, God is One”. (Rumi, 1259, The One True Light, Math. III,).

2.2. Origin of the word

The origins of the word mysticism were in the Mysteries of ancient Greece. The name was perhaps derived from mueim, ‘to close the lips or eyes’ with the probable primary sense of ‘one vowed to keep silence’, and hence ‘once initiated into the mysteries’. The Mysteries or the secret cults had continuity from Pre-Greek religion of the worship of the Earth Mother till Homeric and later times. Indian cults of dark gods like Krishna and the Mother Goddess existed 15

side by side and survived the invasion of the Aryan tribes and emerged again in the devotional movements of today. The Greek Mysteries were linked especially with the Earth Mother, Demeter (the Roman Ceres and the mother of Proserpine), and with Dionysus, a god of vegetation and later of wine (Bacchus). (Parrinder, 1995,P:8).

2.3. Definitions

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines “Mysticism” as: 1. n. Mys-ti-cism a. Immediate consciousness of the transcendent or ultimate reality of God. b. The experience of such communion as described by mystics. 2. A belief in the existence of realities beyond perceptual or intellectual apprehension that is central to being and directly accessible by subjective experience. 3. “Vague, groundless speculation”. (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2009). According to Collins English Dictionary, it is: “belief in or experience of a reality surpassing normal human understanding or experience, esp. a reality perceived as essential to the nature of life”. (Collins English Dictionary 2003). Thesaurus states that mysticism is: “a religion based on mystical communion with an ultimate reality”. (Thesaurus, Based on Word Net, 2003-2012). It may also be an attitude towards ‘reality’ or even a name for “The paranoid darkness in which unbalanced people stumble so confidently”. (Scharfstein, 1993, P:1). Thus mysticism simply means the spirituality of the direct experience of God. It is not merely a matter of belief. This direct experience of God is a kind of knowing, which travels beyond rational thinking.

2.4. A true mysticism

It is generally misunderstood that mysticism is about “mystical experiences”. But true mysticism is not about transitory “experiences” but with the lasting experience of God, which transforms the believer in-to union with God. Further, if unity lies at the root of things, and man is created in the nature of God, he must have capability of knowing God through his soul or spirit. For the mystic believes that spirit guides us about spiritual things as our intellect guides us about things material. We can know a thing only by becoming it, so we must be Godlike if we want to know what God is. Subject should become the object. So the aim of a mystic’s life, 16

weather he is a philosopher, poet, artist or priest, he is to become like God and thus to attain union with the divine. What distinguishes the mystic from the theologian, the logician, the rationalist philosopher, and the man of science, is his belief which is not based on revelation, logic, reason, or demonstrated facts, but, on feeling, on intuitive inner knowledge. Yet what he has felt or seen, does not convince anyone else. (Spurgeon, 2008, Intro). William James calls such people “unmystical” as they do not posses what he has called “mystical germ”. He compares it to a tune that is “very vague and impossible to describe or put into words .…. It is indefinite, to be sure, and rather faint. And yet I know that if it should cease there would be great hush, a great void in my life”. (Pratt, 1911, P:232).

2.5. Mysticism, in Academic Circles

Webster’s third provides three definitions. Mostly now a day, especially in academic circles, mysticism is taken in terms of the third of these, which is “Vague speculation, belief without foundation”. (Webster, 3rd edit. 1961). See also (Underhill, 1956, pp:3-6). Mysticism is commonly taken as mystification or madness. In modern age, it is taken not as a reality but as a name only. (Chittick, 2005, pp: 5-10). Bertrand Russell’s point: you cannot be a mystic and a rational person at one and the same time (Russell,1917, pp:8-10) has been likely agreed. Russell further states that Mysticism is “ an attitude towards life, not a creed about the world”.(Russell,1917, P:11). But “Mysticism” most preferably emphasises an earnest attempt of many religious people to have serious communion with ultimate reality. There is always something “mystical” about religion since it is considered the foundation of religion to experience communion with ultimate reality, the religious people are always found in search of such communion. (Chittick, 2005. pp:20-23).

2.6. The nature of mystical experience

The term “mystical” could be applied to any esoteric doctrine which was revealed only to those who had an innate capacity as devotees out of a large humankind. (Smith,1995, P:1). So Mystical experiences are always religious experiences, but not all religious experiences are mystical. Mystical experience, because it is characterized by ‘special intimacies’ like ‘Union’ with the Holy. (Steinback, 2007, P:24). Mystical experience can vary in form and is not restricted to a few privileged individuals. But this does not mean that everyone is a mystic. Rather mystical experiences are not within everyone’s reach because they are not the result of 17

individual efforts but are experienced as “gifts”. Furthermore, mysticism is not limited to experience of union. It is characterized by a mystic’s service to God and his participation in bringing love and justice. Thus he always tries to redeem the world through self-effacement. (Steinback, 2007, P:26).Mystics of both Christian and Islamic traditions effaced themselves.

The central fact of a mystic’s experience is “is an overwhelming consciousness which absorbs of his own soul: a consciousness of God and or eclipses all other centers of interest”. (Underhill,1920, P:2). That is why, there is not any wide difference between the Brahmin, Sufi or Christian mystic. Most often they resemble each other. The essential feature of all mystical life is the way a mystic feels about his Deity and about his own relation with it. Now we come to the psychological facts, i.e. the so-called ”mystic way”. The mystic way is a process of sublimation, which carries the correspondence of the self with the Universe up to higher levels, beyond normal consciousness. (Underhill, 1920, pp:4-6). To the mystics, God is no mere abstract Being, but is conceived of as the personal object of their love. The third stage, the true goal of mystic experience is the intuitive contact with the ultimate reality which theologians call Godhead and philosophers the Absolute. Some modern theologians have separated the conceptions of God and of the Absolute but the mystics never do this. (Underhill,1920, pp:20-21). However, there are diverse forms and expressions of mysticism in some of the major religious traditions of East and West.

3. Historical Background of Mysticism

The earliest mystical records are extant date back to almost eight hundred years when Upanishads were written in ancient India. These texts focused on mystical knowledge, the nature of reality and the identity of the individual soul atman with the universal soul Brahman. The period of revelations before and after this must have continued along with its respective mystical aspects but the texts available according to the acceptable academic stand point mark the next historical instance in three hundred and twenty BC when Zhuangzi wrote the Taoistic texts of mystical nature. These promoted a mystical, spontaneous, naturalistic counterpart to the typical Confucian emphasis on morality. He made use of the fables to emphasize mystical realities. He was followed by Yang Hsiung who wrote T’ai Hsuan Chingor the Canon of the Supreme Mystery that identified the good and the evil as non-dualistic in nature. (McColman,2010, p:132). 18

4. Mysticism in Christianity

4.1. Derivation from the Greek

Christianity followed on the ancient Mysteries both in theory and practice. It emphasizes more on personal and emotional religion than on the state rituals. Its terminology is also linked with the Mysteries at Eleusis and elsewhere. In the Apocrypha of the old Testament a ‘Mystery’ was known as the secret doctrine. In the New Testament the ‘mystery’ is the revelation of the word of God, unknown in the previous ages and was revealed now to the believers. (Parrinder, 1995, pp:8-9). ‘Behold, I tell you a mystery,’ said Paul in such sense. ‘We speak wisdom among the perfect’, he says and ‘we speak God’s wisdom in a mystery’. (1Cor. 2.6-7). Paul wrote of his own mystical vision as being ‘caught up to the third heaven’ and hearing unspeakable words.(2 Cor. 12.1-4).

4.2. The first Christian mystic

Saint Paul was the first great Christian mystic. The New Testament writings best known for their deeply mystical emphasis are Paul’s letters and the Gospel of John. (Ralph Inge-Anglican, 1897, p:28).

4.3. The Second Century

In the second century, Clement of Alexandria wrote of ‘the Mysteries of the Word’ and Christ was considered the “Teacher of the divine mysteries”. Christian teachers such as Clement and Origen were following both Biblical and traditional Greek ideas and forming their own systems of thought. In the meantime, Greek thought was itself developing. This was in the Neo- Platonism of Plotinus and his followers. Plato has been considered the greatest of all philosophers but Plotinus combined Platonic and other mystical ideas in his essays. (Parrinder, 1995, P:9).

4.4. Dionysius and Neo-Platonism

Christian mysticism as a system, however, is derived from Neo-Platonism through the writings of Dionysius the Areopagite, or Pseudo Dionysius. Dionysius was probably an anonymous Syrian monk who lived about A.D. 500. Dionysius synthesizes Christian teachings with Neo-Platonism in his short but potent writings. In his Ecclesiastical Hierarchies, Dionysius mentions three stages of mystical progress, which are purgation, illumination and union. These are already mentioned by Plotinus.( Parrinder,1995, P:10). In his Mystical Theology, he presents a mystic, travelling from particular to the universal to know that Unknowing which is enveloped and to think about that super-essential Darkness which is hidden by the light reflexed by existing things. Like Plotinus, he talks of the ‘Union’ of the soul with God and of the gradual ‘divinization’ (thosis) of man, after rising ‘by unknowing’ (agnosia), he ‘transcends all being and knowledge’. (Dionysius (500 AD), Chapter 1-2).See also (Parker, 1897, p:23).

The 9th-century Scholastic Philosopher John Scotus Erigena translated the works of Pseudo-Dionysius from Greek into Latin and thus introduced the mystical theology of Eastern Christianity into Western Europe, where it was combined with the mysticism of the early Christian prelate and theologian Saint Augustine. (Fairweather, 1936, p:10)

4.5. Saint Augustine in Western Europe

Augustine’s Confessions are autobiographical depictions of intense religious episodes. The interpretation of the Confessions as a preeminent instance of early Christian Mysticism emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, in 1862 to be exact. It is debatable how many are really Augustine’s mystical experiences as recorded in the Confessions. His personal mysticism offers the live experience of a founder of Western Christianity at the time of his painful conversion. (Peter,2005, p:2). The British Benedictine, Dom Cuthbert Butler regarded Augustine as the “Prince of Mystics”. He emphasized on experiential features which he understood in Augustine’s texts. These are especially transience, ineffability, passivity and rapturous joy. (Butler,1922, p:107). Scholars believe that Augustine’s experiences represent a synthesis of Platonism and Christianity.

4.6. Middle Ages and Monasticism

In the Middle Ages, mysticism was often associated with monasticism. Some of the most celebrated mystics are found among the monks of both the Eastern Church and the Western Church, particularly the 14th-century Hesychasts of Mount Athos in the former, and Saints Bernard of Clairvaux, Francis of Assisi, and John of the Cross in the latter. (Mcginn,2006, p:136)

4.7. Mysticism of France and Holland

The French monastery of Saint Victor, near Paris, was an important center of mystical thought in the 12th century. The renowned mystic and Scholastic philosopher Saint Bonaventure was a disciple of the monks of St. Victor. St. Francis. Among the mystics of Holland were Jan van Ruysbroeck and Gerhard Groote.

4.8. Eckhart and his followers in Germany

Johannes Eckhart, referred to as Meister Eckhart, was the foremost mystic of Germany. He was considered "the father of German thought". Eckhart’s Christianity is unique as he is neither a rationalized modernist, nor a conservative traditionalist. He reconciles his own religious experiences with the historical type of Christianity and gives them ‘esoteric’ or inner meanings. (Suzuki,2003, p:2). See for instance: “God the Father and the son have nothing to do with time. Generation Is not in time, but at the end and limit of time …”.(Blackney,1941, P:292). “Again, God loves for his own sake, acts for his own sake: that means he loves for the sake of love and acts for the sake of action …. Thus God created the world so that he might keep on creating. The past and future are both far from God and alien to his way”. (Blackney, 1941, p:62).

These passages thoroughly contradict the Biblical story of creation. It has not been given symbolic meaning by Eckhart, and, further his God is not at all like the God conceived by most Christians. (Suzuki, 2003,p:3). “When God made man, he put into soul his equal, his active everlasting masterpiece … God’s nature, his soul …. And that he loves his work!” (Blackney, 1941, pp:224-5).

These quotations repelled orthodox Christians of his day and made them accuse Eckhart as a ‘heretic’ and that he defended himself and complained: “Could you see with my heart you would understand by words, but, it is true, for the truth itself has said it”. (Evans,1924, P:38). Other important German mystics are Johannes Tauler and Heinrich Suso, followers of Eckhart and members of a group called the Friends of God. One of this group wrote the German Theology that influenced Martin Luther. Prominent later figures include Thomas a Kempis, generally regarded as the author of The Imitation of Christ.

4.9. Mystics of the 14th and 15th centuries

Mystics of the 14th and 15th centuries in England include Margery Kempe and Richard Rolle, Walter Hilton, Julian of Norwich, and the anonymous author of The Cloud of Unknowing, an influential treatise on mystic prayer.

4.10. Women mystics

Members of the most distinguished Christian mystics have been women, notably Hildegard of Bingen, Saint Catherine of Siena, and Saint Teresa of Avila. The 17th –century French mystic Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon introduced into France the mystical doctrine of quietism.

4.11. Period of Reformation and suspicions about esoteric doctrine

By its pursuit of spiritual freedom, sometimes at the expense of theological formulas and ecclesiastical discipline, mysticism may have contributed to the origin of the Reformation, although it inevitably came into conflict with Protestant, as it had with Roman Catholic religious authorities. Since the Reformation, both Catholic and Protestant scholars found it highly problematic to study early Christian esoteric traditions. Catholics were not willing to accept the existence of such traditions as they associate secrecy with heresy, and opposite to the public nature of the tradition of the Great Church. Protestants suspect the traditions of the Catholic Church being tainted with esoteric doctrines and thus a kind of degeneration of Jesus and of his apostles. Both denominations raise deep suspicions about esoteric doctrine as they think such doctrine

undermine the value of specialized knowledge by offering salvation to all human kind through a simple act of faith. (Stroumsa,2005, pp:1-2).

4.12. From 17th to 19th century

The most notable German Protestant mystics were Jakob Boehme, author of Mysterium Magnum , (The Great Mystery), and Kaspar Schwenkfeld. In New England, Jonathan Edwards, exhibited a strong mystical tendency, and influenced the United States during the 19th century. Mysticism manifested itself in England in the works of the 17th-century Cambridge Platonists. These include works of the devotional writer William Law, author of the Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life; and in the art and poetry of William Blake. See Blake’s Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. However, the late 19th century has re-created a new interest in mysticism in the West. Eastern philosophy and Religious Occultism and Theosophy have not only been embraced but also studied. Yoga achieved the highest popularity of all the mystical practices. In the past, mysticism was accepted as a gift started by Godhead. In contrast, modern mystics travel on a self-initiated path and they do not try to reach the same state of egoless resignation. The practice of mystics has also affected modern philosophers, writers and artists including Aldous Huxley, Jorge Luis Borges, William Blake, William Butler Yeats, Arthur Schopenhauer, Frank Lloyd Wright and Friedrich Nietzsche etc. (Balint,2011, P:8). Christian agnostic writings of the post-Bible era mark a tinge of mystical writings to the Christian world but due to emphasis on ritualistic purity and theological nature of Christian empire, mystical approaches were strictly discouraged and today we have only a vague record of the spiritual quest during the dark ages.

5. Mysticism in Islam

There exists the relationship between the rise and development of a mystical element in Islam that which we know as Sufism and the mysticism in Christianity of the Near and Middle East when the Arabs were empowered as a political force and when Islam was in the process of development and formulation. The contacts between Christianity and Islam were at their peak in the beginning of the Islamic era or perhaps the writers focused more on Islamic Mysticism after the end of the 9th Century. (Smith, 1995, P:V). The fantastic forms and difficult ideas in Mysticism are always recurrent. East and West often feel themselves akin in this context. The 23

experiences of Eastern mystic might resemble with that of Western mystic. (Nicholson,1921, P: Preface).

5.1. The term `Mystic` or `Sufi`

Diversity is found in opinions of scholars about a “Mystic” or a “Sufi”. Some consider them the same where as some trace out difference between the two. According to St. Clement of Alexandria, the mystic is the true Gnostic, who by acquiring higher knowledge achieves the Christian goal of the contemplation of God of which general believers are denied. The Sufis also name the mystic as “Arif”, the Gnostic or adept. The mystics are the “elect of the elect”, the “Friends of God” a chosen circle to whom He grants ma’rifa, which is not the result of acquired knowledge but of intuition. So, mysticism represents a spiritual tendency which is universal and is found at all periods of the world’s history, and so among Muslims and Christians. (Smith, 1995, pp:1-2).

5.2. Difference between Mysticism & Sufism

Dealing mysticism in the context of Islam, some of the earlier Orientalists considered mysticism alien to a harsh and sterile religion of the desert that is, to Islam. They claim that Islamic mysticism derives from outside sources and ignores the spiritual and intellectual heritage of Islam. There are many basic differences of outlook between Christianity and Islam even in the case of “mysticism”. Sufism has had much more pervasive presence in the Islamic tradition than has mysticism in Christian civilization. Some scholars avoid the word ”mysticism” because of its strong negative connotations and prefer “Sufism” specifically with reference to Islam as the word is derived from Arabic. Though there are many parallels between Sufism and mysticism and various teachings and practices are linked with mysticism, yet Sufism in the Islamic world is not exactly mysticism in the West. A Sufi may not be a mystic in the current usage of this word. A mystic is usually supposed to undergo supernormal or perhaps “extrasensory” experiences. In contrast, most so-called “Sufis” are ordinary Muslims who happen to practice their religion more seriously than others. (Chittick, 2003, pp:15-17). Islamic mysticism teaches individual salvation after attaining the true tawhid, states one of the Western Orientalists. (Schaeder, 1935, P:845).

5.3. Who is a Sufi?

What is Sufism? And who is a Sufi? These are not the simple questions. Let’s discover the answer. “Somebody asked Abu Hafs: “who is a Sufi?” He answered: “A Sufi does not ask who a Sufi is” Maulana Rumi in his poem, The Doctrine of Reserve, defines a Sufi: “The Sufi is the son of the ‘moment’ (ibn ‘al-waqt)”. (Rumi,Mathnavi, I, 123). Most Muslims who exerted more of their energies in developing the spiritual dimensions of the human person are known as Sufis. The Sufi teachers taught the people to devote their intentions, their love and their sincerity to the divine will. The Sufis are not an ethnic or religious group, but a mystical movement that is found all over the Islamic world and has a profound influence in the Middle East. Sufism is a reactionary movement against the rigidity of the orthodox religious leadership and the growing worldliness of the Muslim empire. The name Sufi is derived from the Arabic word Sufi which means wool. Early Sufis wore simple woolen garments similar to those of Christian monks.(Chittick,2003, p:72). During the life of the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.W) a selected numbers of devoted Muslims prayed on the veranda of the Prophet’s mosque most of their time. They were labeled ahl as-Sufa, (“People of the porch”).

Derivation of the term Sufi creates difference of opinion among the scholars as it does not have any mention in Al-Quran or any book of hadith. The term is not even defined by the standard Arab dictionary till the 8th century. Al-Risala, written by Qushyari (d. 465/1074) states that the term Sufi was first used in the 9th century only. This generic term was used, then, for those individuals who adopted spiritual attitude in a particular religion. He says that after the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.W), the Muslims were titled Sahabi (companion) in that period. This was considered the highest title for the pious and religious. Those who were directly educated by the Sahaba were called Tabiin (followers of the companions), and next to them were called Taba Tabiin (followers of the followers of the companions). After the time of tabii, religious and devoted people were called Zahid (the pious) and Abid(the servant of Allah). The term Sufi was used for the succeeding generations. (Rizvi,1975,p:31) and (Dar,1961, p:336) Hujwiri, in the mid-eleventh century, summed up the discussion:

“Some assert that the Sufi is so called because he wears a woolen garment (jama-1-Suf), others that he is so called because he is in the first rank(Saff-i- awwal), others say it is because the Sufis claim to belong to the ashab-i-Sufa (the people of the Bench who gathered around the Prophet’s mosque). Others, again, declare that the name is derived from Safa (purity).” (H 30) (Hujwiri,1959, p:43) Junayd, the undisputed leader of the Iraqian school of mysticism (d.910), says “Sufism is not achieved by much praying and fasting, but it is the security of the heart and the generosity of the soul.”(QR 60). Thus Sufism is a branch of mysticism in Islam.

5.4. Esoteric elements and their Interpretations from the Holy Quran

Sufism believed that the Quran and Hadith have esoteric, meaning and symbolism (Batin). Quite contrary to the literal method of interpretation (Tafsir), Sufism used an allegorical or symbolic method (Ta’wil) which brings out the hidden meaning and symbols in the holy texts. In Sufi tradition, the esoteric meanings of the Quran can be derived from mystic experiences, and so, esoteric interpretations by Sufi Shaykhs are considered authentic. When, for example, the Quran says that he who accepts God’s guidance will be guided “for himself” (linafsihi) and that he who remains ignorant is so “on himself” (‘ala nafsihi). (The Holy Quran, 17:15)

The exoteric interpretation emphasizes the idea of recompense and punishment only. The Sufi understands this verse of the Quran in the light of the sayings of the prophet: “He who knows himself (nafsahu) knows his Lord”. This interpretation is further confirmed by the Quranic passage. Thus when it is said that on the day of resurrection man will receive an open book: “Read thy book; it sufficeth that thou should this day make up thine own account”.( The Holy Quran, 17:14). The Last Judgement is highlighted as a knowledge of oneself with reference to which man’s will is entirely passive. Sufi writings frequently refer to the Quran and present esoteric interpretations either directly or indirectly. Some Quranic verses conventionally suggest mystic ideas and Sufis comment extensively on them. While all Sufi interpretations are basically mystic, three major trends in Sufi interpretations can be pointed out, mystic, philosophic and esoteric. A famous Sufi commentary on the Quran, the Persian book Kashf Al Asrar (The Unveiling of the Mysteries) by Meybodi, mentions conventional interpretations as the first level of meaning and esoteric

interpretations as a deeper level. Commonly in Sufi writings three or four levels of meaning of a Quranic ideas are explained. (Chittick,2005, pp:17-23) See also (Schimmel,2003, P:3). There is a verse in Quran related to esoteric interpretations: “He it is who has sent down to thee the book: In it are verses basic (of established meaning); they are the foundation of the Book: others are allegorical. But those in whose hearts is perversity follow the part thereof that is allegorical, seeking discord, and searching for its hidden meanings, but no one knows its hidden meanings except God. And those who have knowledge say: “We believe in the Book; the whole of it is from our Lord:” and none will grasp the Message except men of understanding. (The Holy Quran, 3:7). In the verse quoted above, there is a stop between …except God and those who…and reading this way the verse attributes the knowledge of the Quran’s hidden meanings to God alone. By removing the stop it becomes: “…no one knows its hidden meaning except God and those who are firmly grounded in knowledge, they say. . .”which suggests that those well-versed in knowledge can extract these hidden meanings. Both forms are valid in Arabic language.

5.5. Tasawwuf and the Holy Quran

The term Tasawwuf got introduction late in the 2nd century A.H. But Tasawwuf was the integral part of believer’s life since the very beginning. This is another name for Sufism, the Islamic realization of God. Similarly tasawwuf is meant to purify the inner self and the Quran has set the basic necessity of a man’s success to be in purifying the inner self.

“Indeed whosoever purifies himself (by avoiding polytheism and accepting Islamic Monotheism) shall achieve glory”. (The Holy Quran, 87:14) “Indeed he succeeds who purifies his own self (i.e. obeys and performs all that Allah ordered, by following the true Faith of Islamic Monotheism and by doing righteous good deeds). And indeed he fails who corrupts his own self (i.e. disobeys what Allah has ordered, by rejecting the true Faith of Islamic Monotheism or by following polytheism, or by doing every kind of evil wicked deeds).” (The Holy Quran, 91:09, 91:10) Allah says in the Quran, “The Day whereon neither wealth nor sons will avail, except him who comes to Allah with a clean heart [clean from Shirk (polytheism) and Nifaq (hypocrisy)]”. (The Holy Quran 26:88, 26:89).

“Indeed whosoever purifies himself (by avoiding polytheism and accepting Islamic Monotheism) shall achieve success, and remembers (glorifies) the name of his Lord (worship none but Allah), and prays (the five compulsory prayers and Nawafil – additional prayers)” (The Holy Quran, 87:14, 87:15) So these are related only to the inner self. Followers of Tasawwuf have the knowledge of inner self with which one can purify one’s heart and inner will.

5.6. Origin of Sufism

The origin of Sufism is located near Basra, today’s Iraq and later it passed to Persia, India, North Africa and Spain. Sufi schools were opened for those who wish to study under Sufi masters. Students were trained gradually through progressive stages to have unity with God. Sufis denied all materialistic trends of society and lived in simplicity. As Sufi students grew in number, they were given lodges and hospices in this region to practice the path of retreat and self-denial. (Balint, 2011, P: 9). However, modern research states that the origin of Sufism cannot be linked to a single definite cause, for instance, as a revolt of the Aryan spirit against a conquering Semitic religion, and as the aftermath, of Indian or Persian thought. The fact is Sufism is a complex phenomenon. No simple answer can justify the question how it originated. (Nicholson, 1914, pp:9-10)

5.7. Growth of mysticism in Islam

The Islamic Era allowed an uninhabited growth of mysticism and about the year 700 AD, the proponents in tents of direct communion with God through the cultivation of divine love were everywhere in the Islamic world. The flash-point in the history of Mysticism in general and in the history of Islamic Mysticism in particular came when Al-Hallaj the Persian Mystic was executed in Baghdad on March 26, 922 AD for asserting oneness with God. He was jailed for nine years, flogged, mutilated, beheaded and then burned and all this while he kept proclaiming, ‘I am the Truth’. (Hallaj, (trans.),1978). That was why Hallaj was titled as “Martyr of Mystical Love.” (Schimmel,2003, P:62). Mansur al-Hallaj was born in Iran in 857. “Hallaj” means “Cotton carder” in Arabic so his name truly represented that he was the off spring of a family whose primary vocation was cotton cultivation. He opened his eye during the era when Islam was spreading throughout Asia. Hallaj’s uniqueness lies in his belief that mysticism should not be limitized to people of his circle only. Rather it should be shared with every layman. And above that he was concerned with

people of every religious faith. He travelled Mecca, India and Central Asia. He was called by different names: “the aesthetic”, “the nourisher”,“the enraptured”. His views were blasphemous to the orthodox people and particularly to the Abbasid rulers in Baghdad where he settled. There he was imprisoned for eleven years, remaining in opposition and was martyred like Christ, considering his death a redemption. (Schuon,2004,p:29).

5.8. Sufism in 10th Century

Although the ninth Century is the starting point of Sufism, yet we cannot say that any fixed doctrine was taught and handed down to the successors. Such a method is alien to the nature of Sufism, which does not obey any authority and does not follow any tradition. Rather it is free movement which assumes various forms and obeys only the inner light of the soul of the individual. Divergence is observed everywhere in such tendencies. (Nicholson,2005, PP: 8-9). Sufism was consolidated and organized in certain aspects in the late tenth century. During this time, different Shia groups influenced the entire Muslim Empire politically. (Schimmel,2003, P:82).

Abu Sa’id Fadlu’llah, born on December 7th, A. D. 976, was the son of Babu in Khurasan, a religious man, known in Mayhana, as Babu bu’l-khayr. Abu’ Sa’id learned the principles of Islam from Abu’l –Qasim Bishr-I Yasin. Bishar, a remarkable man in Mayhana also taught Abu Sa’id the theory of disinterested love, which forms the basis of Sufism. Abu Sa’id always respected the venerated teacher as the later gave him the introduction of Sufism. (Nicholson, 2005, PP:2-4). Abu Sa’id said that all his books and papers never gave him that peace which he desired. He prayed to God to award him spiritual peace. He had indirectly accepted Abu’l Fadl as his spiritual teacher. (Nicholson,2005, P:7). The Halat u Sukhunan –i. Shaykh Abu Sa’id Ibn Abi‘l-khayr,a work by an unknown author (probably a descendant of Abu Sa’id) was composed after century later the death of Abu Sa’id. Muhammad Ibn ‘al-Munawwar, the great-great grandson of Abu Sa’id compiled a much detailed biography which is entitled Asraru ‘l-tawhid fi maqamati ‘l-Shaykh Abi Sa’id (Abu Sa’id, Zhukovski, (ed.), 1899,p:7). The writer compiled the book on the sheer request of some devotees who desired to enter upon the path (tariqa). By following the spiritual experiences and heart-touching sayings of Shaykh Abu Sa’id, they wanted to travel on the road of (haqiqa). The Book was completed 120 to 150 years after the death of Abu Sa’id (d.1049 AD). The book was the first example in Persian which covers the life of an individual mystic as its subject. (Nicholson,2005, PP:1-2). 29

The two oldest biographies reveal that Abu Sa’id spent seven years in seclusion (Khalwat) and then after the death of Abu‘ l-Fadl, he practiced severe austerities and then he spent seven years in the hills and mountains of Mayhana. He remained busy in such practices to attain perfection in saintship till the age of 40. Even after his conversion, he remained busy for many years in self – mortification (muja-hada). Abu Nu ‘aym al-Isfahani (d-1037) wrote a book which covers the biographies of early Sufis right from the Prophet (S.A.W) and His companions (R.A). He has collected every bit of information about the Sufis (pious) and their deeds. (Isfahani, 1932-38,V:10) The next person-institution in the history of mysticism is the 11th century Persian Islamic Philosopher Al-Ghazali(d.1111 AD) who left a teaching position in Baghdad to become an ascetic. He was the first man to codify the philosophy of mysticism with emphasis on the emotional aspects of an individual’s spiritual relationship with God at the cost of mathematical rationalism. (Schuon,2001,p:139). Ghazzali is called the master of moderate mysticism in Medieval Ages. This he learned largely from Muhasibi. (Shimmel,2003, P:55). Al-Ghazzali’s treatises, “The Reconstruction of Religious Science” and “The Alchemy of Happiness” sketched Sufism as directly descending from the Qur’an. This form of Sufism has much compatibility with Islamic theology.

This period was the period of Sufi Literature which began about 1000. Then years from 1200-1500 are called “The Golden Age of Sufism”, when Sufi doctrine was put in practice through the Islamic region. (Smith, 1995, P:102).

Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani (d.1166 AD) was renowned as Muhyi’d – Din (the reviver of religion), Al-Ghawth-al-Azam, (The superior helper), Abu-Muhammad (father of Muhammad), Sultan-ul-Awliya (king of saint, Al-Hassani and Al-Hussaini. (The descendent of both Imam Hussain and Imam Hassan). He was a great Sufi and Jurist. He was born in 29th Shabaan 470 AH, 31st oct. 1077 in Gilani, Tabares-tan, Persia and he died on 11th Rabi-as-Sani 561 AH, 12th Jan, 1166 CE. He was buried in Baghdad, Iran- “Qalandiriyya was his patronym. His father was descendent of Hasan Ibn Ali (Imam Hasan). His mother was daughter of Abdullah Swami, a descendant of Husyn Ibn Ali (R.A.A) thus he was both Al Hasani and Al-Hussaini (Renard, p: 142)

His father was known as “Jangi Dost” (one who loves God) Abdul Qadir Jilani (R.A.A) was blessed with miraculous birth, his mother was 60 years old. Another miracle was the foot print of 30

Holy Prophet (PBUH) on his body, it was also a miracle that when Hazrat Abdul Qadir Jilani (R.A.A) was born , with him almost 70 babies (male) born and quite surprisingly all turned out to be “Saint” of their time. (Encyclopaedia Britanica, Abdul Qadir Jilani, 15th Edition, Chicago p-6 (2010).it is one of his blessed trait that during Ramadan he was an infant and he did not even a drop of milk and fasted. He put stress on suppressing the “Nafs” to get through the exam of life. His silsila is traced back to Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H).

Hazrat Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani (R.A.A) the disciple of

Abu Saeed Al Mukharami

Abdul Hassan Ali Bin Muhammad Qureshi……….

Junaid Al- Baghdadi……….

Hassan Al- Basri

Sayyadina Ali Ibn Ali Talib

Hazrat Muhammad (S.a.w)

(Leiden, P-169)

His spirtual instructor was Abul Khair Hammad Ibn Muslim al Dabas in Tasawwuf. (Malise, P: 243) He was given lessons on Hadith by Abu Muhammad Jafar al-Saraq.He played a vital role in Muslim Sufi History and converted numerous non-muslims like Jews and Hindus.(Martin, 2011,P:128)

5.9 Sufism in 13th Century

The 13th century produced some of the best saints in Sufism; such as Attar (d. 1220), al- Farid (d.1235), Ibn ’Arabi (d. 1240), Rumi (d. 1273), and Iraqi (d. 1289). This period also produced saints and ascetics in Christian and Vedantic traditions.

The turn of the 13th Century AD saw the Andalusian born Ibn al Arabi who theorized that love is of higher importance than knowledge. He was the one who worked out, assimilated and propagated the basic similarities of various religious faiths. Ibn ’al Arabi, by his philosophical writings, concentrating on vision of Unity, set the track for his time. He gave a new life and added spirit to the mysticism of the Sufis. Muhammad Ali Muhammad Ibn ‘al Arabi al-Ta’ I al-

Hatimi, (1165-1240) was born in Murcia, Spain. Young Arabi entered the path of Sufism at the age of twenty. He travelled much to meet a number of Sufi Shaikhs. From 1200 to 1206, he spent much of his time in writing mostly at Mecca. His Meccan Revelations was also composed in that period. Arabi’s reputation as a Sufi spread far and wide. Some admired him and some orthodox mullahs of Islam condemned him largely. He composed Bezels of Wisdom around 1230. It is said that he had written over some two hundred and fifty books during his lifetime. Above all his writings are the most comprehensible and simplest in understanding among the works of all Sufi poets. His works are less embellished and more thought-provoking. That is why he is considered the most influential thinker of Sufism in any history of mysticism. (Swami, 2007, pp:260 – 263).

. . . There is no existence save His existence. . . . This means that the existence of the begger is His existence and the existence of the sick is His existence. Now, when this is admitted, it is acknowledged that all existence is His existence: and that the existence of all created things, both accidents and substances, is His existence. . . . (Arabi, Ibn, Meccan Revelations, I).

Arabi’s vision about unity of God and of universe is universal among the seers. By the 13th century, he got access to the ancient writings of Greece, the Neoplatonists, the Christian Fathers, vedantists and Buddhists and of course of his predecessors in Sufism. Yet it does not mean that Arabi only produced philosophical learning. He spoke out of his own spiritual experience in a manner which was traditional in his time. Above all his target was to explain the true identity of God along with the self to comprehend the Truth. (Swami, 2007, pp:260 – 263).

On Him alone we depend for everything; our dependence on other things is in reality dependence on Him, for they are nothing but His appearances. (Arabi, 1980, p:137).

The eye perceives nothing but Him; only He is to be known. We are His; by Him we exist, and by Him we are governed; and we are, at all times and in all states, in His presence. (Arabi, 1980, p:79).

If men knew themselves, they would know God; and if they really knew God, they would be satisfied with Him and would think of Him alone. (Arabi, 1959,p:17)

The latter half of the 13th century saw the advent of Jalal al-Din Rumi who detailed the longing of the human soul for God, and speculated on the conduct, meaning and purpose of life.

Maulana Jalaladdin Balkhi (1207-1273) is the best known Sufi poet. He is famous as Rumi in the West. Although he was born in Afghanistan, yet he spent most of his life in Turkey. Rumi’s main contribution is Mathnawi, a six volume book of spiritual teaching which have poems, stories and Quranic interpretations. This collection is considered an embodiment of Persian culture. It also introduces philosophy and practice of Sufism in the most befitting manner. Much of his poetry deals with the idea of Tawhid, or unity, a theme shared in all Persian and Sufi literature. In aesthetics as well as in every other domain , the monistic idea is the basic inspiration of Rumi. Rumi’s greatness is accepted in East and West equally. He is recognized as a mufti, a poet and an ascetic lost in Love. His mystical Odes are about 2,500, comprising Diwan-i-Shams- i-Tabriz, The Mathnawi, having about 25,000 rhyming couplets in six volumes; and about 1,600 quatrains or the Ruba-e-iyat. His themes of universal love and tolerance have crossed geographical and cultural borders. This has influenced artists throughout history.

See the verse of his poem, The Faithful Are One Soul:

“The Faithful are many, but their Faith is one; and their bodies are numerous, but their soul is one.” (Math. IV, 408)

The Mevlevi order of Sufism, which still exists today, is practiced in memory of Rumi after his death. Mevlevi Sufis or “whirling Dervishes”, follow the practice of the Seme, a dance and musical ceremony of Sufis. This ritual enables them to have union with God and thus to attain Sufi’s spiritual ascent. (Swami, 1996, pp: 270-271). After his demise in 1273, Rumi was quickly recognized as Maulana, “the master” and his book Mathnawi has since then been welcomed as “the Quran in Persian”.

All this while, Europe was passing through its dark ages and the shaping influence of Islamic spiritualism that it received has yet to be appropriately explored. Chaucer’s famous Canterbury Tales give us an idea of the spiritual penury of Europe before and around the Renaissance. It was almost a century later that we see the notable Christian mystics for example, Thomas a Kempis who through his Devotio Moderna, the spiritual reform movement, exerted some influence.(Parkin, 1999,p:19) From this time on we have a history of mystical parallelism and one of the objectives of the present study is to determine the mutual impact of various schools of thought in the mystical/spiritual domain in Christianity and Islam.

CHAPTER-2

Mysticism in Christianity

1. Christian Mysticism: Concept and Historical Background

1.1 Mysticism, a vital part of Christian Heritage

To many modern Christians, the words like 'mysticism', 'mystic' and ‘meditation’ belong to the Eastern religions. They do not know that Christianity also imbibes a strong tradition of Mysticism. They find a fact that mysticism in Eastern religions especially in Islam is on top position, very deep and in an organized form. But in Christianity, it is also a vital part of the Christian Heritage. Mysticism simply means spirituality of having direct experience of God. It can also be said that Christian Mysticism in actual sense, refers to the grooming and nourishing of mystical practices and theory within Christianity. Christian mysticism is defined as, the elemental part of Christian belief and practice that concerns the preparation for the consciousness of and the effect of a direct and transformative presence of God. According to Christianity, mysticism is taken as an exercise in which any person can try to become as pious, holy and pure as Christ was. And then he can experience God as directly as Christ did in the past. Jesus Claimed, "I and the Father are one", (Jn: 10.30) which showed to the world that the union of God and man was possible. It is agreeable and compliant point in Christian mysticism that transforming union of God and man is the most desired objective. So it is a goal for every Christian mystic to become Christ-like to become as fully permeated with God as Christ was. Thus becoming like him, fully human and by the grace of God, also fully Divine. In Christian teaching, this doctrine is known by various names, such as divinization, defecation and transforming union. (McGinn, 2006, p: 37). Thus a person can ‘try to become’ a mystic in Christianity whereas in Islam a person ‘becomes’ a mystic without even knowing it. Secondly, to a Christian mystic, Jesus Christ is the physical demonstration of Divinity as to Christians Jesus is the God, the son. So he can follow rather tries to become Christ-like. Whereas to a Muslim Sufi, the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.W) is the path-setter but He is not taken as Divinity or sharing any of God’s attributes directly. So unlike a Christian, a Sufi in Islam believes in direct communion and so in direct guidance by God, Allah whom the Christians call God, the Father. 34

It is a universal belief that all children are born mystics. The Bible says, "Everyone who loves is begotten of God, and knows God". (1 Jn.4.7)

1.2. Roots of Christian Mysticism

The term "Mysticism" is derived from "The Mystical Theology", a tiny treatise written by the greatest Christian Writer of the 6th century, Dionysius or St. Denys (the Areopagite) but Dionysius is in no way the founder of Christian mysticism. That honor truly belongs to none but Jesus the Christ Himself. But there was mysticism long before Jesus was born. God “Strolled in the garden” with man (Heb.Adam). Jacob saw Heaven opened. God spoke to Joseph through dreams. Moses communed with God on Sinai. David lost himself in dancing for the Lord. But when Christ proclaimed “I and the Father are one” (Jn:10-30), he in fact showed the human beings that they could also become near and dear ones of God. For this purpose he showed them his own glorious example. For reaching on that highest destination, the common man must invoke in himself the qualities and attributes of Christ at first. (Patmore, 2005, pp: 75-85). As Paul reached the point of losing himself and said, “I no longer live, but Christ lives in me!” (Gal: 2-20).

1.3 Contribution of Jewish Heritage, Greek thought & of Jesus experience

To rediscover the story of Christian mysticism is very interesting and adventurous. Their manifold experiences and examples can be truly inspirational and motivational for the lives of the people even today. The Christian Mystics struggled in the ways of God along the margins of the ordinary and the extraordinary, the world of mundane and the world of the spirit, where all things were unanimous and congruent. In the beginning the Christian mysticism was fed by two streams: the Jewish heritage and Greek thought, specifically by its contemplative ideal thought by ancient philosophers. Many of mystical praticises in Chirstianity have roots in Jewish experiences of their Prophets, Patriarchs and other reglious persons mentioned in the Jewish Canon of Scripture: dreams, angelic messages, visions, miraculous events, divine inspiration and sagacity all can be interpreted in the light of Mysticism. The Prophets of Old Testament (e.g. Ezakiel) have experienced the Divine presence. (Harrison,1999, pp3-11). At the bottom of it, is the noble experience of Jesus Himself as a person filled with Divine life that taught his followers about the Love of God for His creatures and promised them the powerful support of the Divine Spirit. The Christian Bible, specially the New Testament, not only records Jesus’ teachings but

also the experiences of his earliest disciples. These motivational texts have been the source of inspiration for Christian mystics through the ages. Christian mystics have experienced God in countless ways as the ultimate Godhead or Ground of Being, as God who is Father but also Mother, or as God intimately present in the humanity of Jesus through his life, death and resurrection, in the glory of the cosmic Christ or in the presence and gifts of the Spirit. Christian mystics share certain characteristics, but they are all different as individuals who lived in different times and places. (Jauodi, 1993,P:47) It is crystal clear that there are no mystical orders or paths in Christian mysticism which are there in Islamic Sufism. In fact the idea of mystical realities has been widely held in Christianity since the 2nd century A.D, referring not simply to spiritual practices, but also to the belief that there is hidden (mystical) meaning in their scriptures and also in their rituals. (McGinn, 2006, p: 128). 1.4. Christian Mystic Terminology

In spite of the absence of any mystical order in Christianity, there is a wide range of terminology in Christianity. Although, the terms seen general in their religious connotation yet they are linked with some mystical idea or experience of a mystic. The terms are narrated in short and detailed form in Encyclopedias and Christian Dictionaries. Some of which are consulted herein.

ABBA: It is a term for “Father” used by Jesus in addressing God, a personal, loving, friendly, intimate term denoting the relationship of the believer to Father God. (Lasker, 1987, p: 3)

AGNOSTICISM: A philosophical position which neither affirms nor denies belief in Deity. Agnostics believe that the questions whether God exists or not must be left open and unanswered. The concept comes from David Hume who questioned the idea of causality and in a way about the historical correctness of Biblical miracles. (Alister, 2008, p:5)

BAPTISM: It is an initial ritual ordered by Christ. It refers to the act of being into or immersed into something. All new Christians are baptized into water and symbolize that they are dead and buried to an old way of life.This act bears testimony to our commitment to Christ as reflection of obedience to Lord. (The Oxford Dictionary of Christian Church, 2005).

CONVERTED: Someone who has received the message of Lord Jesus Christ or Jesus himself into his or her life is converted.It is a complete change in life because of Christ.

CRUCIFIXION: Crucifixion is a slow and painful execution of the victim who is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and is left to hang until he dies.The crucifixion of Jesus Christ is a 36

central event in Christianity and many churches take the crucifix as the main religious symbol. ( James,1990, p:47)

DEMONS: Demons are those fallen angels who took Satan’s side when he revolted against God.

DIVINIZATION: It literally means to become divine, become God, or to take upon a divine nature. Transforming effect of Divine grace, the Spirit of God, or the atonement of Christ is called Divinization in Christian theology. (Encyclopedia Bretannica, 2005)

EPIPHANY: The term refers to a Christian feast to celebrate revelation or the ‘shining forth’ of God in the world as a human being in the form of Jesus. The feast is celebrated on January 6, and has its origin in the eastern Christian churches. ( Swinburne,1995, p:44)

EVANGELISM: Evangelism means sharing the good news about Christ. It can be shared person to person or to a large community in evangelistic meetings. It informs others about the services done by Jesus towards them accepting Jesus as personal Lord or Savior. (Marty,2008, p:20)

GOSPEL: Gospel literary means good news or tidings. This good news narrates that Jesus Christ lived the life of a man like us. He lived absolutely perfect and sinless life. He met cruxification to pay the penalty of human sins. He will rise again to life and live forever. (Sharp,1977,p:51)

INCARNATION: It is a belief that God became incarnate descended from Heaven in earthly shape of a person known as Jesus.Thus fully God and fully man.

REDEMPTION: The word redemption is taken from the Bible that means‘a purchase or a ransom’. In the history redemption was used for the purchase of a slave’s freedom.It is an important idea in Christianity. The Christians use the term redemption for Jesus Christ’s sacrificial death that freed believers from the slavery of sin. ( Swinburne,1995, p:109)

SALVATION: In Christian theology, problem of humanity is sin, which brings suffering in this life and in life hereafter. The solution is salvation from sin and suffering, temporal, and eternal both. According to Christian belief, the life, death and resurrection of Christ made salvation possible. (The Oxford Dictionary of Christian Church, 2005). STOICISM: Stoicism is not a Christian idea. It is a school of Hellenistic philosophy established in Athens by Zeno of Citium. The Stoics taught the people that destructive emotions were the result of errors in judgment. They believed that a sage or a person of moral fibre and intellect did not have such emotions. Stoics had concern with relationship between theory of cosmic determinism and human freedom and the belief that the virtuous have their will. (The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol.1,2013)

TRANSFORMATION: In transformation, Christians prayed to have Christ as their Savior. They believed that they were regenerated or reborn, with God’s life to become children of God. They were reborn with the Divine life of God within. This transformed life brings closer to the image of Christ. (Sharp,1977,p:68) 37

TRINITY: This Christian doctrine states that God is three personed; Father, Son and Holy spirit.

1.5 Types of Christian Mystics

Many mystics are men but an extraordinary number of Christian mystics are women. Mystics have been members of religious orders, priests and laypeople, ascetics and monastics and married or unmarried. There is a division among mystics. The mystics who reject the world and withdraw from it are called Passive Mystics and the others who complete and face worldly duties along with their spiritual requirements are called Active mystics. Over the centuries the experience of Christian Mystics has grown into the body of teaching that early Christian writers called Theology. (King, 2001, p: 79).

1.6 Church monks as passive Mystics

A monk is actually a person, living alone in a church or with other monks, who dedicates his whole life in serving others and become an ascetic who willingly chooses to leave the world and spends his entire life in contemplation and in prayer. In clear words, some monks have a very profound effect on mysticism in Christianity. First of all they, themselves rejected the world and worldly pursuits and seek God and give the accurate knowledge and have presented their own examples and their vital role have made the mark. Paul of Thebes and Anthony the great were the most inspirational monks in the history of Christianity. Their writings and translations of the Bible have been a guiding light for the Christians. The monks helped the poor and needy and fought for the rights of exploited so that most of them became martyrs and made an example. Moreover their explanations of God, Christ and other religious concepts were also very motivational for the needy. They conveyed a lot of messages such as --take care to be silent. Empty your mind. Attend to your meditation in the fear of God, whether you are resting or at work. If you do this, you will not fear the attacks of demons. Sit in thy cell and thy cell will teach thee all. (Abha Moses) (Lawrence,2001, pp:111-119). Somebody asked Anthony the Apostle “what shall I do in order to please God? He replied, Do what I tell you, which is this; wherever you go, keep God in mind; whatever you do, follow the example of Holy Scripture; whatever you are, stay there and do not move in hurry. If you keep to this guide line, you will be saved.” (Thiselton,2010, p:160). It is also a fact that the true monks were also absorbed in love of Lord that when a monk was informed about the death of his father he replied abruptly that “Do not Blaspheme, My Father cannot die”. (Thiselton,2010, p:130)

The monks throughout give the instructions that if some one do evil to us, we should do good to him, so by our good work we may derive out his malice. So, all the monks played a strong role in uplifting mysticism in Christianity. (Kingsland,1927, pp:108-109).

2. Apostolic Age, 1st century

2.1. Period of the direct followers of Christ

The Apostolic Age of Christian history is in fact the traditional period of 12 Apostles (Christians) who dated from the great commission of the Apostles in Jerusalem by the resurrected Jesus. The Apostolic that was between the year 30 and 100 successfully brought out the writings by the direct followers of Jesus Christ. Even early Church Fathers who are considered somewhat responsible for the start of Christian mysticism believed on that New Testament books by twelve Apostles. It is a reality that the Apostolic age was the real foundation upon which the history of Christian mysticism is based. (Parsons,2011, pp: 9-11).

2.2. Prominent Mystics of the Age

There were many prominent mystics, one of them was, “James, son of Zebedee” who was Apostle and martyr, born in 1st century A.D. died in 44 A.D. and other was “Saint Stephen” who was the first martyr of Christianity. He was accused of blasphemy; at trial he delivered a speech based on the true selfish face of Jewish authorities. His martyrdom was closely witnessed by Saul of Tarsus (Roman famous name Paul) who afterward became an Apostle too. (Fairweather, 1936, p:37) The other famous Christian mystics were “Abdias of Babylon, Abercius and Helena, Abgar V of Edessa, Achilles, Ampliatus, Anastasias, Ananias of Damascus, Andrew, Andronicus of Pannonia, Anianus of Alexandria, Anne, Antipas of the Pergamum, Apelles of Heraklion, Aphrodisius, Apollinaris of Ravenna, Apollo, Archippus, Aristobulus of Thessalonica, Birillus, Carpus of Berrhoe, Cornelius the Centurion, Dionysius the Aeropagite, Dismas, Edistus, Felix and Regula, Flavius Clement, Hermas of Dalmatia, Hermagoras of Aquileia, John the Evangelist, Joseph of Arimathea, Mark of Apollonias, Narcissus of Athens” etc. Moreover some famous saints in England were Augustine Barker, Anglican William Law, Lancelot Andrews, Puritan Richard Raxter etc .(James, 1996, p:129)

2.3. Role of 12 Apostles

It was the age when Apostles were there to teach common people. The 12 Apostols, who were the first group of followers of Jesus Christ, were doing their duties effectively. It can easily be perceived that mysticism played a vital role in the early Church. Early Christianity was a

religion of the spirit that expressed itself in heightening and igniting human consciousness. It is also obvious that Jesus himself enjoyed a special sense of closest contact with Almighty God. In fact the pure mystical aspect of early Christianity found its fullest expression in the letters of Paul (St. Paul, the Apostle) whose original name was Saul of Tarsus and in the Gospel according to John. Both are the great figures. It is agreeable and amenable that the pure mystical inspiration is always for union with Christ. (Smart,1992, pp:291-305).

2.4. Saint Paul, The First Christian Mystic

The original name of this great mystic who was born in (c.5-c.67) was “Saul of Tarsus” who was a Apostle, taught the Gospel of Christ to the 1st century world. He is generally considered one of the most elegant and inspirational figures of Apostolic Age. He influenced both the Jesus and Romans. He was the great writer. 14 of 27 books have been associated to Paul and even half of the Acts of the Apostles deal with his life and work. (Chapman,1989, P:920). The main source for the reliable information about this greatest saint’s life is the material found in his Epistles and in the book of Acts. (The Oxford Dictionary of Christian Church, 2005). Paul was a native of Tarsus, the capital city in the Roman Province of Cilicia. Paul said that he received the Gospel not from any man but by the ‘Revelation of Jesus Christ’. He declares his independence from the Jerusalem community but only agreed on the nature and content of Gospel. St. Paul explained many types of mysticism. His own discovered or invented mysticism is called “Pauline Mysticism” that is unique and different from other types of mysticism. His mysticism is not God-Contact -mysticism but it is Christ-Mediation-mysticism, in which man cannot achieve a union with God directly but through His messenger, the Jesus Christ.(Stace,1960,p:107). Pauline mysticism and Gnostic or Hellenic Christian mysticism have been considered to be in direct contrast with one another. In other words it can be said that St. Paul does not commend any type of God-contact-mysticism but rather saw human being to enter into the relation with God by means of a Christ-contact-mysticism and this is the main point of Paul’s message to the world. He even proclaimed “In the mystery ‘I am in Christ, in Him I know myself as being who is raised above the sensuous, transient, because in Him I am assured of resurrection, in Him I am a child of God”. (Blenkinsopp,1964, p:112) Paul is criticized for his God like-Christ idea. St. Paul also claimed to be a servant of Christ and had experienced an unforeseen, startling and sudden change, due to all powerful grace, not because of the result of

his thoughts; he claimed to have seen Christ after his resurrection. He went far away to preach his views. He also helped poor and needy people throughout his life. He was during his last 5th visit to Jerusalem, arrested and spent his final days in Rome and was martyred. (Mcginn, 2006, pp:54-58.)

3. Age of Martyrdom --- 2nd to 4th Century

3.1. A Christian Martyr

After the age of Apostles, came the age of Martyrs. A Christian Martyr is in fact a person who is tortured, stoned, crucified, burned at stake or killed for following Christianity. In Christianity a martyr’s death is taken as “baptism in blood” ; a thing that washes away all the negativity and sins from oneself. In fact martyrdom for the faith got the central position in the Christian experience. (Kingsland,1927, p: 201).

3.2. Jesus Christ, The first Martyr

It is a reality that the notion of sacrifice or persecution by the world runs deep in the traditions of Christianity. In the letters of Paul or Epistles of Paul, it was highlighted that “To live outside of the Christ is to die, and to die in Christ is to live”. (Robertson,1961, p:70) In fact in 2nd century, church Fathers like father Tertullian wrote that the blood of martyr is the seed of the Church. So it was and still now is obvious that faith calls for sacrifice and every true Christian has within him the seed for martyrdom. It is commendable for Christians that their great Master, Christ Himself was delivered over to the wrath of His competitors. Even before His arrest, He uttered the unforgettable words, “No one takes my life, but I lay it down for my own accord”. (Jn:10.18). Thus it can be perceived that Jesus Christ was the first martyr in the history of Christianity. (Smart, 1984, p:93).

3.3. Reasons for Martyrdom in the Antiquity

There were many reasons for martyrdom in the Antiquity, one of which was the confession to be Jesus Christ, or to be God. The proclamation was in fact, “God, made man, was born, lived, did and rose again for our salvation”. (Robertson,1961, p:70) In other words, Christ and God were amalgamated by some saints and those were persecuted by Church. The second reason of persecution of saints was the clash of two different societies because of Gospel. The different societies responded by rejection and refusal. Jews did not 41

accept the philosophy of God Incarnate. For them, Divine is transcendental so, they were highly offended on the idea of “God, made man...... ”but the Romans were less hostile because they had the ancient tradition of opening their Pantheon to the gods of nations which they conquered. So they would not let any other religion to stop them. Secondly, they were also steeped in metaphysics. So both Romans and Jews acted against the faith of some Christian saints and tortured them. (Khuri, 1992, pp:20-29). The third reason for the martyrdom was that in between 2nd to 4th centuries, a sect in Christianity started spreading the Christian knowledge in the other areas of the world. They sent out missionaries in the form of school, educational institutions, because for them progress was synonymous to the spread of faith. But saw it as conspiracy against their religion and as “Contagious disease”. The converts were disciplined and well-mannered fellows. They did good works for people there, but they were accused of polluting the minds of children against their religion and secondly they did not worship, obey or sacrifice for the gods of country. That was indeed the essential and main cause of the clashes because their refusal to the gods of the state was taken as challenging to the Divine light claimed by the emperor. They were sent to the stake, beheaded and thrown to the wild beasts. (Parkin, 1999, p:109). The fourth reason was the result of mutual incomprehension and misunderstanding between Christians and Romans. Romans thought that punishment would be most effective tool to stop the converts and divert their attention from being religious. They also took another step to get rid of Christian faith spreading institution that they started rewarding those who took pleasure in the barbarism of the games. They stated then organized spectacles of torture to distract the attention of the crowd. The most recent example of this kind is Olympic Games. (MacColman, 2010, P:818.) Another reason for the martyrdom was that the saints struggled against the ultimate temptation. So they were ready to pay the price and they were ready to be lived as savages so they were tortured. There were many other reasons for the martyrdom. Even Church, that was the sole interpreter of the Gospel as an institution, did not allow individual Christians who tried to teach people with out taking the sustenance of Church. Thus those saints were murdered. (Kingsland,1927,p:234)

3.4. Famous Martyrs

The famous martyrs were Polycarp of Smyrna, Justin martyr, Sicilian martyr, Perpetual and Felicity, Ptolamaeus, Lucius, Plotinus, Blandina, Pope Fabian, Saint Sebastian, Saint Agnes, Felicity, Euphemia, Saint Alban, Ignatius of Antioch, Saint Afra, Saint George, Saint Behnam, Saint Lucy and Saint Cecilia. (King, 2001, pp: 435-439)

4. Neo-Platonism and Christianity

4.1. Neo-Platonism in History

Neo-Platonism is a modern term which first appeared in 1827, was in fact a philosophical and religious system mixing Platonic ideas and oriental mysticism, and originated in 3rd century A.D. In fact Neo-Platonism constituted a continuous tradition consisting of philosophers started with Plotinus. They followed the daring views of Plato (428/427-348/347 A.D). Plato’s views on Truth, Abstract, Theory of forms, Platonic Idealism and Platonic Realism led to a school of thought called “Platonism”. (Irivin,2011, pp:64-70) Plato’s teacher Socrates threw ample light on Reality. According to him Reality is inaccessible for those who use their senses for seeking it. He taught Plato that those who see with their eyes are blind. Moreover the people who take the sunlit world of the senses to be real and good are in fact living pitifully in a den of ignorance and evil and the idea of imitation was also praise worthy. His student Plato gave his ideas that were given the name “Platonism”. The group of philosophers who followed his footsteps were considered his disciples and took his ideas to the heights. (Schuon,2004,p:205) One of the disciples of Plato, whose name was Plotinus had keen interest in Platonism, metaphysics and mysticism. He gave tremendous ideas like The One, The Intellect, and the Soul; Emancitionism; Henosis. He believed in the One, a fundamental principle of the universe. He believed in the intellect and the soul and thought that matter was evil. (Ritari, 2009, pp:95-100) Plotinus thought the worldly matters were evil and thus den of ignorance. He thought that ‘the good and one’ was beyond being and was in power and dignity. In history, Neo-Platonism was very influential throughout the history. Even in middle ages, Neoplatonic ideas were supporting pillars for Jewish, Islamic and Christian medieval thinkers. In Muslim lands, Neoplatonic texts were available in Persian and Arabic translations and notable thinkers such as Al-Farabi, AviSeenna, and Moses Maimonides contemplated on

neoplatonic ideas in their own writings. Even in Latin translations in the middle ages, Thomas Aquinas was impressed by this neoplatonic philosophy. (Harrison,1999, pp:30-36)

4.2. Struggle between Neo-Platonism and Christianity

As far as the struggle and influence of Neo-Platonism and Christianity is concerned, the struggle is going on from the beginning because factors affected each other. Both had something in common and also had some differences. The two systems had so much in common that at first sight it is a cause of wonder that why did both Christianity and Neo-Platonism quarreled. It is a reality that Neo-Platonism had a vital influence on Christian theology throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle ages in the west. The credit goes to St. Augustine of Hippo, who got the imprints of Plotinus and Porphyry and the work of Christian writers, Dionysus the Pseudo-Areopagite who was himself motivated by Proclus and Damacius, Teado and preach detachment from the world, the method of inwardness and communion with God as the highest good. They have same metaphysics of idealism, the same psychology, spiritualism; same attitude toward life and same sober mysticism. But despite of all these similarities it is a fact that Christianity won in the battle between them. (Inge,2006,p:216) Neo-Platonism was too much spiritual. It was based on philosophical cross roads that lead to nothing. As it is known that Christianity showed the example of the life hereafter by examples from this materialistic world. Even Heaven and Hell were shown to the people by giving examples from the geographical world. Even the philosophies, if told to a man in the street, he would not easily grasp the whole conversation. He would only understand the punishment and reward philosophy in the most simple and comprehensive words that have been told by the Christian Churches. Neo-Platonism had not learnt the secret of working upon the affections. The love of beauty was a poor substitution for sympathy and the love of God explained by the Neo-Platonism is more like the desire of the moth for the star. The attraction of the clear white pure light shines forever than the devotion and attraction that attracts disciples of Jesus Christ to the human as well as Divine, Redeemer. (Parsons,2011, P:67)

4.3. Common Beliefs of Neo-Platonism and Christianity

Thus the impact that put Neo-Platonism upon Christianity was according to St. Augustine, “God” is beyond ineffable comprehension of man. He can be perfectly described by negatives; best known by nescience; best appreciated and adored in silence. So the first person of

the Neo-Platonic Trinity was beyond being. They could describe what he was not, but they could not describe what he was. That philosophy was the point of mutual understanding between Neo- Platonism and Christianity to some extent. ( Greson, 2004 p:111) Another common belief of both is that God is above all distinctions. He is free of all thinking and feelings. As in Neo-Platonism it is also believed that ‘the One’ is beyond everything, even beyond the most exalted intelligence. If God were self-consciousness, He would be double; so He should be with out consciousness. And both Augustine and Platonism agree that God is absolutely immutable. The word of God is one, by whom all the things are made. Thus it is obvious that Neo-Platonism had great impact on Christian mysticism. (Grant, 1975, p:107)

4.4. Saint Alban, Famous Mystic of the Age

Saint Alban (birth unknown, died disputed 209, 251,304 Holywell Hill) is commonly known as the first English martyr. He was so daring that he is still remembered by Roman Britain. Another distinctive feature of this dynamic mystical figure is that a lot of miracles are associated with him which occurred to him during the 3rd and 4th centuries. (The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol.1,2013) Even in “Bede’s Ecclesiastical History”, his miracles are appreciated. He hid a Christian priest Amphibalus from the Roman soldiers on his horse during a religious persecution of Christians. The holy company and the pious nature of priest impressed Saint Alban so much that he converted to Christianity. He gave practical tribute to his savior that when the Roman soldiers came to kill the priest, he put on his cloak and presented himself to the soldiers instead of his guest. When he was brought to the temple before a judge, he was asked to pay a tribute to their god and renounce from Christianity. He declared that he worshipped and adored the true and only one living God who created all the things in the universe. His words made wonderstruck impact on the audience. The judge ordered for torturing him but all in vain. In the end he was persecuted and beheaded. It is said that when he was going to be murdered he lifted his eyes up to the Heaven to save him. It was seen that the river got dry and his fellows crossed it and got safety. Following soldiers started excusing him and requested him to get them with him. But the cruel emperor ordered to execute him. He was going to be murdered. When the executer lifted his sword and hit his neck hard: his own eyes fell off his face. Even the place where his blood fell, helped to sprout out the spring of fresh water that is full of miraculous recovering power. Many pilgrims go there to visit his shrine and places where he was taken and

used the water as holy blessing because of the blood of a blessed martyred saint. It is regretful that his teachings were not focused. If focused were not brought to lime light and spread all over the world because a common man who got such a highest position must had something for his followers. Anyhow, some of his miraculous events are still enjoyed. There are many churches and schools that are dedicated to St. Alban. (Glen,1999, p:40)

4.5. Saint Augustine of Hippo

Augustine is also a famous saint, born in 354 Thagaste, Numidi (modern day Souk Ahias) and died on 28 August 430 (aged 75) was known as Saint Augustine, one of the early philosophers and theologians. (The American Heritage College Dictionary, 1997, p: 91.) He played a vital role in the development and establishment of Western philosophy as well as Western Christianity. He was also a good Bishop and made his mark as one of the most influential figures among the church fathers in the West. His evergreen works, still widely read are “City of God” (413-427) and “Confessions” (397-401). His contemporary, Jerome, wrote to Augustine in 418 “You are known throughout the world, Catholic honor and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient faith”. (Eugene, (trans), 1970, p:343) As a thinker he is very difficult to be captured in words fully. He in fact vacillated between an optimistic Hellenistic view in his earlier years and a more pessimistic view in his later years. Moving between these two extremes, he got the advantage of both extremes and accommodated a wide array of disciplines and thought in his over-arching desire to make sense of world, both in theory and practice. It is his distinctive and most amazing feature that his writings have the most diverging aspects from the four schools of Hellenistic philosophy (Epicureans, Stoics, Skeptics and Platonist) with the mixing of Christian ideology. He spent his life in Northern Africa. In 387, he converted into Christianity and made the concept of grace of Christ which was according to him indispensable to human freedom. He helped to present the theory of “Original sin” as well as “Just war Theory”. (Wilken,2003, p:291) Due to the teachings of Augustine on salvation and Divine grace he is considered to be one of the theological fathers of Protestant Reformation. He was greatly influenced by Stoicism, Platonism and Neo-Platonism, above all by the work of Plotinus, author of the Enneads. The impact of Neo-Platonism is there in his early writings. Later philosophers such as Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were greatly inspired by his powerful writings on ‘human will’ which was the central topic in his ethics. Augustine was also inspired by Aristotle because of his

Rhetoric and Poetics. He was influenced by Cicero and Virgil who were known for their teachings on language. Even Thomas Aquinas was greatly impressed by Augustine but his point of view on the topic of Original sin was much more clear and optimistic. (Cross and Livingstone, 2005,P:219) According to Augustine some people are blessed by God and there is none of their own will to be one of saved people and they get salvation because of God’s will. (Gonzalez,1975, Vol:2) Augustine presented a lot of views on many topics like Christianity, mysticism, Eschatology, Just war, Mariology, Natural Knowledge and Biblical interpretation (esoteric), original sin, free will, sacramental theology, statements on Jews and views on sexuality. It can be conceived that Augustine of Hippo was indeed a relentless and devout practitioner and a daring mystic whose contribution, output, diversity, range and form is still the hall mark today. (Van Der meer,1961, P:60)

5. Christian Mysticism in Middle Ages 5th -15th century

5.1. Search for deeper spirituality

Mysticism was wide spread during the middle ages. All the Christian saints and mystics were in the search of a deeper spiritual connection with God. Before that, they used to seek God in different ways like practising meditation, prayers and casting of their worldly belongings and pursuits. But that time, if any mystic’s holy vision or thoughts interfered with the church hierarchy, they might be accused of devilish doings and were burned, beheaded or martyred at the stake. There were many mystics who were gifted with unexplainable and precious visions and revelations and enjoyed the love of God (the Divine Ecstasy) elevation and had the gift of healing powers. In fact, in every age there were many friends of God. According to the great medieval historian, Walter Peter, the word mystic has been usually associated to the Greek word that stands for “to shut” as if one should shut one’s mouth from uttering the pure and special reality which is for special people (the friends of God). The Platonists themselves interpreted as the act of shutting the eyes that one may see the more, inwardly. One of the most inspirational mystic figures in the middle ages, Meister Eckhart claimed that God is everywhere. He is infinite in His simplicity and simple in His infinity. Therefore He is everywhere and He is Perfect and complete. He is everywhere on account of His simplicity. Only God can flow into all the things, their very essence. Nothing else can flow into anything else. God is the inner most part of each 47

and every thing, only in His inner part. He was later charged with heresy by the church. The writings of Medieval writers were also an outstanding piece of true love of God and their search of Him. There were many martyrs in middle ages such as Valentine, Engratia, Hewrmit, Lyudmila, King Edward, Jovana Vladimir, Stanislaus, Sir Thomas Bucket, Tsar Lazer, Jan Huss, Jerome and Saint John of Arc.

5.2. Johannes Scotus Eriugena, A Major Figure in Western Spirituality

John Scotus was an Irish theologian, great poet, thinker, Neoplatonic, a respectful figure among Christian mystics and marvelous translator was so far as was considered to be. He was in fact the supporting pillar in the 9th century mysticism. He was born nearly 815 in Ireland and died in c.877 in England or France(disputed). He was the author of many outstanding books, even his masterpieces are still enjoyed today. He had impressive contribution on the commentaries and translation of Pseudo-Dionysius. He has been appreciated as the ‘Greatest mind of the early Western Medieval period or the last fabulous mind of antiquity’. (Dermot,1989, pp:131-152) John Scotus was a major figure in the establishment and upbringing of mystical spirituality in Western European Christianity. His translation of great Greek Christian minds of middle East and near-middle worked wonder in Europe. It is said about him that he was truly responsible for the meeting of Rome and Athens in Gaul and it is largely through his efforts that Latin West started enjoying the mystical Neo-Platonism. (Caribine,1983, P:14) Eriugena presented the profound thoughts to the world which were unluckily misunderstood and condemned as Pantheism. In fact Pan-theism is ‘all is God’ and mere Theism is ‘God is up thee, beyond all things down here’. Actually he focused to say that there is God everywhere within man and beyond the reach of man. This mystical Pantheism of him truly depicts that God is the true light and soul of all around us and within us. And He is free of all boundaries, limitations, time, space etc. Another amazing approach of Eriugena was that the whole universe, every soul would not be left in hell for punishment forever because God is Love, purely affectionate, sole Savior who is the Heart, source and substance of everyone. In this way he presented his great ideas on “apokotastasis” or “universal salvation”. Thus his surprisingly progressive, positive and illuminated view shows marvelous and amazingly positive scenario of a triumphantly ever-loving, compassionate God who is the basic and main element of every thing. He believed that God is the beginning, middle and end of the created universe. God is that

form which originated all things, particularly in all things and eventually return to it again. This idea is frequently repeated in his masterpieces and in his monumental work the “Periphyseon”. In his words God is the nucleus and the axis around which every thing revolves. (Fremantle,1955, Pp:72-75) Eriugena was such an important figure because of his creative, masterful use of Neo- Platonism. He influenced Greek speaking Christian theologians of the East along with Augustine and Ambrose of the West. He is responsible of richly Western mystical seeding of traditional with his most sublime and powerful ideas. Many historians truly confess that he was the first philosopher of the middle ages, the great and true Christian mystic since the death of Augustine in 430, the first European philosopher since the execution of Boethius in 524. In fact he is considered to be the first man in 300 years who was able to think. It can be rightly claimed that Eriugena is an original philosopher who articulates the relation between God and creation in a manner which preserves both Divine transcendence and Omnipresence. Eriugena is a mystic who emphasizes the unity of human nature with God. (Dermot,1990, pp:131-133)

5.3. Writings of Medieval Mystics

The writings of Medieval mystics in 13th century Europe explained the real purpose of life and led the common people to that way, which is assigned to man by God. Inspired by these mystical saints, people having an urge to seek God produced works of amazing spiritual vitality. Their unique style and awesome simplicity, truth to nature, harmonious unity together with precision won the hearts. The great Medieval mystics were Marguerite Porte who was martyred because of her booklet “The Mirror of Simple Soul”, and Henry Suso, a masochistic German Dominican mystic. The later gave many spiritual texts including Northway, Biichlein der Wahrheit “Little Book of Truth”, and Hildegard of Bingen.

6. Reformation Era ---16th century

6.1. Rise of Protestantism

With the Renaissance came the Protestant Reformation, which in many ways helped to flourish mysticism and let the people produce a fair amount of spiritual literature. In fact Protestant Reformation is simply referred to as Reformation which was initiated by Martin Luther, John Caluin and other early Protestant Reforms. (Cameron, 2012, P:207). That Protestant Reformation Movement began actually in 1517, when a German Monk 49

named Martin Luther became helpless and unhappy because of the gross corruption and hypocritical practices within the church, nailed his 95 theses to a door. This simple act of him led to revolt and war in Europe. It became a cause of 30 years war fought between 1618 and 1648 and it involved most of the major European powers. As a result Protestantism became the dominant religion in the parts of Germany, Switzerland and the low countries as well as all of Scandinavia, England and Scotland. The newly formed Protestant denominations held various beliefs but all of them collectively rejected the authority of Pope and put a lot of emphasis on the teachings of the Bible. This all had a deep impact on the above given names in religions where Protestantism took hold, notably in England, names of saints fell out of favor and with the increasing focus on the scripture, the Bible appealing names came into fashion. Even in England the pious Puritans took things further names from the old Testament, which had been rarely used in Middle ages became common in the 17th century. The Puritans also began the practice of using words for names such as ‘faith’ and ‘hope’. (Estep,1986, pp:103-105)

6.2. Martyrs in the Reformation era

The martyrs in the Reformation era were Jan de Bakkerb1525, Feliz Manz 1527, Patrick Hamilton 1528, George Bllaurock 1529, St. Thomas More 1535, St. John Fisher 1535, Car Thusian Martyrs 1535-1537, St. Arthur of Glastonbury 1539, Margaret Pole 1541, Hugh Latimer 1555, William Hunter 1555, Drik Williams 1569. Thus mysticism continued to flourish in the Reformation period also and continuously guided the common people to the true path.

7. Modern Era ----- 17th to 21st century

7.1. Cambridge Platonists

In the 17th century, the priests, theologians, philosophers, poets and mystical figures were acknowledged as Cambridge Platonists because they articulated a marvelous, integrated, tolerant and comprehensive Christian spirituality. They tried to disaggregate and fuse the different elements such as faith, reason, life of mind and the body, justice and mercy, beauty and duty etc. In fact, 17th century is known as Cambridge Platonism, founded by Benjamin Whichcote (1609- 83). And these Platonists put a profound and impressive impact not only on the shape of subsequent religious thought but also on the life of English speaking world. Beside Whichcote, there were many other remarkable personalities such as Henry More (1614-87), Ralph Cudworth (1617-88), John Smith (1618-52), Peter Sterry (1613-72) and Nathaniel Cloverwell (1618-51). 50

All of them were highly educated personalities, some of them were appointed in universities such as Cambridge and Oxford university. In simple words, Cambridge Platonists group was consisted on English Philosophers and religious thinkers who tried to reconcile Christian ethics with Renaissance humanism, juxtaposed factors were joined by them such as religion with new science and faith with rationality. The sermons of Whichcote united the group. His principal disciples at the university of Cambridge were Ralph Cudworth, Henry More, John Smith and the Mystic Peter Sterry at Cambridge and Norris at Oxford were influenced by Cambridge Platonism without wholly accepting its morals and religious ideas. Some of the ideas of Cambridge Platonists were not radically new. Moreover, they emerged at the momentous time in the history of culture and religion. They appeared amid the great violent civil war, in a period of crucial religious conflict between Roman Catholics and Protestants. (Charles and Alison, 2004,pp:4-6)

7.2. Puritan’s reaction against Calvinism

Cambridge Platonists were actually educated and puritans reacted against the Calvinist emphasis on the arbitrariness of Divine Sovereignty. According to them, Thomas Hobbes, who was a political philosopher and the Calvinist both, erred in supposing that morality consists in obedience to a will. To Cambridge Platonists, Morality is actually rational. And for them the goodness of man and attraction and love for it depicts his nature and cannot be changed at any cost. They also denied the rituals, church government or detailed dogmas’ necessity for Christianity. The man should be free to choose whatever way suits him to seek God. Their tolerance brought them the name of “Latitude men”. They were condemned as Unitarians or atheists because they put a lot of stress on morality. Their style of metaphysics helped them interpreting Plato in Neo-Platonic light. They learnt much from Descartes’ critique of Empiricism. Their views on the Sovereignty of the good, the true and the beautiful marked a profound impact on the Christian mysticism of that time.

7.3. Dominican Mystics or Rhineland Mysticism

The later Medieval Christian mystical movement in German was in full bloom and called Dominican mysticism or Rhineland Mysticism. It was quite in contrast with Scholasticism and German theology. But it is viewed as predecessor of the Reformation period. During this Age the prominent characteristics were the focus on layman as well as the clerics. There was strict emphasis on instructions and preaching downplaying asceticism. The object of main focus was

new Testament instead of old Testament. The salient feature of the age was the attention towards Christ rather than towards the church. (McCloman, 2010,pp: 47-57)

7.4. Atmosphere of Conflicting Factors

It is a reality that in the West, in 16th century to mid 20th century the atmosphere was full of conflicting factors. Competing with mysticism, science and reason were attacking mysticism. Still today both education and religion are hostile to mysticism. In the modern age, many people find religion boring because of the lack of inner exploration for which our souls yearn. (Fox, 1983, p: 321) The materialistic lust was increased by the time and it took the modern man away from God. Even today, West remains so out of touch with its own mystical tradition that many Westerns who are in search of mysticism still feel that they have to go to East for finding true mystics to guide them on the path of mysticism. It is true that in age or era, there are always mystics or friends of God, who live with us. But the materialistic approach hinders the way of recognizing them. Carl Jung (a famous student of Freud) also warned that the people of West were themselves responsible for the deprivation from mysticism as East was giving much attention toward God and God related issues despite of their economical slump. (Fox, 1991, p: 78)

7.5 Modern Mystics

However there are many saints such as Ellen G. White (1827-1915) who was also the founder of seventh day-Adventist church writer and mystic, Domenico daCese (1905-78), Maria Valtorta (1898-1963) visionary and writer, Mary of St. Peter (1816-1848), Carmelite nun and mystic, Marry Martha Chambon (1841-1907) nun, visionary and mystic, Rudolf Stenier (1861- 1925) founder of the Anthrosophical society. There were also many martyrs like Arther Bell, John de Britto, Devasahayam Pillai, Joseph Smith, Marcus Whitman etc. So, no doubt Christian mystics are the treasure of Western civilization. They inspired the human beings and allowed them to be “Birthed” into Love and thus to serve humbly and with undaunted love the future generations of human beings. (Harry, 1997, p: 34). They were ready to consult other’s traditions. Mystics all over the world should be given tribute as they broke the barriers among different cultures and religious societies.

A modern scholar who belongs to the New Thought Moveement clarifies that a mystic should not be taken as a mysterious person. A mystic, to Holmes, has Unity with the Divine and an inner sense of Life. Mystery amd musticism are totally different phenomena. Mysticism is a reality while mystery may be an illusion. Truth is never based on anything mysterious. (Holmes, 1938, p:423). In modern mysticism, the mystical experience of the individual is much emphasized. A mystic’s personal experience, feelings and acts during his solitude may vary from person to person yet they are of much value in understanding modern mysticism. Mystics share certain perceptions of the Divine inspite of the differences in their religion or historical period. (James,1996, pp:30-35).

CHAPTER-3 SUFISM IN ISLAM

Mysticism is taken as a Western term in the Islamic domain. Its connotation of supernaturalism takes it apart from Sufism which is considered the true form of mysticism in Islam. Islamic mysticism is not just the name of few supernatural experiences of some individual. It imbibes direct encounter with the Divine along with the truthfulness of the mystic. So Sufism is very vast and most intricate Divine subject to deal with in English, especially within a limited space. It is a special spiritual branch of Islam. It is indeed a Divine knowledge that is bestowed to the chosen people. All of them preached love and peace. They tried and still are trying to abolish differences among people, their longings and wishes that have set their lives on fire. Before discussing the matter in detail, let’s know first what is Sufism or Islamic mysticism.

1. What is Sufism?

Sufism is a mystical way of approaching to the true Islamic faith. It is actually synonymous to spiritualism. According to Sufis, religion is a theory and Sufism is called its practical. The purpose of adopting the path of Sufism is to find the truth of divine love and to know about God by way of personal experience.

As far as the Sufi terminology and etymology is concerned, Islamic mystics are called ‘Sufis’ and their way of life is called ‘Sufism’ (also spelled Sufiism). Both the terms mystic and Sufi are evolved in western languages in early 19th century. Similarly, Islamic mysticism is in general called ‘Tasawuf’. Tasawwuf is a journey taken by soul in search of truth. It is the renunciation of all things except God. Tasawwuf has been variously defined by various scholars. In his book “Awaairif al Ma’aarif”, Suharawardi mentions that more than a thousand definitions exist for Tasawwuf.

Other terms that suggest themselves as source words are as following.

Safa, meaning purification.

Suffa, meaning a bench or low veranda. During the time of the holy Prophet(S.A.W.) a number of companions disengaged themselves from normal worldly activities and devoted themselves to an ascetic way of life. Most probably Suffa refers to them.(Sulami, 1953, p:87)

Saff, meaning rank, line or row. The first row in congregational prayers in Islam has been accorded a special status for it symbolizes those who are in the first rank of spirituality. From the etymological point of view the only term that qualifies as a source word is “Sufi”. (Ahmet T. Karamustafa,2007, p:19)

Sufis are also referred as ‘FUQRAA, the poor, or the most appropriately the men who perform their duties excellently. The world FAQIR is very controversial word. Most of the people misinterpret it incorrectly because of not thinking deeply. They take it as the synonymous to Beggar, and the interpretation they consider is actually wrong. The word Faqeer stands for that person who deals with the world most efficiently. In fact he lives in the world, not the world lives in him. He proves with his character that he is not made for this world rather he clearly proves that the world is made for the service of him. He does not only recite the Holy Quran but also implement all the directions given in it and obeys the last prophet of Almighty Allah. (Siddique, 2008, p:110). And the reason that why some Sufis adopt this title , is that by adopting this honorable epithet they in fact follow the pride of this universe, the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W) , Who said:

‘Fuqr is my pride and fuqr is from me’. (Abu Daud, Sunan, no, 1517.Sahih Ibne Majah,Sunan, no, 3819)

So, by adopting this title which is according to them given by their Lord Most High, they feel great honor .It is a kind of universal truth about them that they handle the world in the most amazing and flawless manner. It is one of the most complicated and difficult tasks to face this world and not to be tempted by its glittering and alluring charm that strikes the sight and makes a man prisoner of the curse of greed. They in fact maintain the same relationship with this world as is between the boat and the sea. Junayd Baghdadi highly praised faqr which to him takes man to the heights of glory.( Rāzī,1982, p:113)

Hazrat Ali (R.A.A), the great master of spiritual teachings and 4th caliph of Islam, was of the view that; ‘the world is similar to the sea and you are like a boat, do not let the water enter in the boat ever as it will make your boat sink in the ocean.’ (Ali Ibn Talib,1980, Sermon:70)

2. Chief characteristics of Islamic Mysticism or Sufism

Tasawwuf, Sufism is the name given to mysticism in Islam. Sufism is the philosophy and practices aimed at direct link between God and man, and the people who practice Sufism are called Sufis. There are numerous characteristics of Sufism. Some of the prominent features are following:

2.1. Dhikr: Remembrance

Dhikr, recollection is the basic step toward contemplation. Lowest form of remembrance is the recollection in speech and higher is the recollection in mind. Sufis believe that the higher rank of excellence in worship may be achieved by Dhikr that leads to ecstasy. Sufis follow the Quranic saying which says:

“Believers, be ever mindful of God: praise Him morning and evening”. (Al-Quran.33:41-42)

Sufis have formed the Dhikr in well-defined shape by attaching greater importance to its popular instead of Quranic meaning. Dhikr is the repetition of holy and sacred words or phrase. There are ninety-nine names of God but foremost among them is Allah that is His greatest name and contains all His divine attributes. When Abu Sa`id Abi-khyr heard the verse of the Quran that says, “Say Allah! Then leave them to amuse themselves in their folly”. (Al-Quran.6:91) His heart felt the force of the words and he left his studies of intellectualism, sat in seclusion, where for seven years he repeated “Allah!, Allah!, Allah!...... ” (Jahsiari,1938, p:102). It is said what you think, you become. if we think of Allah we become with Allah. But it is a truth that the effect of Dhikr is both powerful and subtle than the single act of mental thinking. This is the secret of dhikr that it is a sacred word that conveys the essence of that which it names. This is “the mystery of the identity of God and His Name”. (Ghazali, 1995, p:145)

2.2. Tawakkul :Trust in God

Tawakkul means the total self-abandonment in Allah to achieve His will. It also shows the complete reliance of Sufi on God to fulfill daily needs. It is Sufi tradition that a Sufi is a corpse in the control of God and he does not resist to the Divine will. This trust leads to tranquility that precedes illumination and satisfaction. (Oxford Dictionary of Islam,2004)

It is said that a Sufi who has overcome his self-will, has come to the level of `satisfaction` Rida and `trust in God`, Tawakkul. Trust in God in higher sense means the renunciation of all personal wishes and desires. It is like a lifeless thing in the power of a washer who can do anything with Sufi freely. Some ancient Sufis earned their name due to this `trust`. As they committed themselves to their Creator`s care, would never search food, work for hire, practice any trade, or allow medicine to be given to them when they were ill. (Shirazi,2004, p:14-15)

2.3. Ishq e Elahi: Love of God

The essence of God is love and the Sufi path is a path of love. It is very difficult to describe love in words. It is like trying to describe honey to someone who has never tasted or even seen honey, to one who doesn’t know what honey is. Sufism is a path of Love. Love is not to be learned from men: it is one of God’s gifts and comes of His grace. (Nasr, 2007, pp 21-22) Sufi is a traveler who travels on the path of love, travelling back to his Creator by the mysteries of the heart. The relationship of God and Sufi is of Beloved and lover. Sufis are commonly called the lovers of God. Sufis are to travel deep within themselves for centuries and this journey takes place into the private room of heart where lover and Beloved share the pleasures of the ecstasy of union. Path of Islam is followed by these lovers and they spend time according to the teachings of the Holy Quran but from the mystical angle. Such as there is mentioned in Quran that:

“Allah is nearer to us than our jugular vein”. (Al Quran, 50:16)

According to the mystics this verse is about the mystical experience of the Sufi’s closeness with God. The Sufi takes God as his own Beloved, who is so near and so kind, not as a father figure or a judge. In such closeness the lover enjoys ecstasy with Beloved. (Llewellyn, 2002, p: 5)

So mysticism is the love of the Absolute. Love of God makes the seeker strong to endure the hardships of the way. Those pains, difficulties and miseries that God showers upon him to test his faith, Sufi bears all of them happily. This type of love lifts the heart of mystic to the presence of Divine. (Schimmel, 1975, p:4)

The recognition of Divine companionship is the obvious feature of Sufism. It is a bilateral relationship between Almighty and the believer that has many aspects. These aspects can be perceived being a true believer of Quranic verses. Sufi comes to know after different experiences that Allah is the Guardian of those who believe (Al-Quran:2:257). Allah is always there to help His people. When the believers are in calamity Allah solaces them saying,

“O you who believe! If you help Allah, He will help you…” (Al-Quran 47:7).

Sufi recognizes that “Allah is appreciative and all knowing”. (Al-Quran 2:158). When he realizes this eternal fact he expresses repentance over his sins. Allah accepts his tauba and blesses him, “O you who believe! Turn to Allah with sincere repentance…” (Al-Quran 66:8).

2.4. SELF CONTROL:

Sufism is the name of self-control or the denial of one`s self. In the early period of Islam, Sufism was a spiritual revolution, purpose of which was to reform the nafs (corporeal self). It was major object to discipline the soul and to purify it of vices in order the get the complete Iman and attain the position of Ihsan. Sufism started as an ascetic discipline. An ascetic person has great control over his desires. He refrains from all forms of indulgence such as money, food, comforts, material goods, sex for religious reasons. The base of this spiritual movement was grounded in the Holy Quran and Prophet`s Sunnah that calls for Zuhd. (Hassan, 2011, Introduction). The Sufis of early times were ascetics and they lived in intense poverty. Their view point was that the worldly comforts and possessions astray a person from a dedicated and purified religious life. They had strong belief that the desired concentration can be achieved if they were not overwhelmed by worldly desires. Even some of them went a step further supporting the idea of denial not only of earthly desires but of the desire itself. Ibn Khuldun has concluded the life style of early Sufis in these words. He says that Sufis guarded piety, gave up every object of

worldly attractions for God`s sake, renunciated pleasures, power and wealth, abandoned society and led a secluded life devoted to the services of God. These were the fundamental principles of Sufism that prevailed among the companions of the early times. (Ibn Khaldun, 1958, pp: 23-24). Hassan al basri is the major figure of early ascetic movement. He focused on worldliness, fear of God and piety. He kept himself far away from the world and its pleasures. He used to say that this world is a bridge which you cross but upon which you should not build. Other prominent figures of this time are Rabia al basri and Ibrahim Ibn adham. (Ibn Khaldun, 1958, pp: 23-27)

2.5. Muraqaba: Meditation The practice of muraqaba is to be engaged in the practices of meditation attested in some faith communities. The word muraqaba is derived from the same root (r-q-b) occurring as one of the 99 names of God in the Quran al-Raqîb, meaning "the Vigilant" and attested in verse 4:1 surah of the Quran. Through muraqaba, a person watches over or takes care of the spiritual heart, acquires knowledge about it, and becomes attuned to the Divine Presence, which is ever vigilant. While variation exists, one description of the practice within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows: He is to collect all of his bodily senses in concentration, and to cut himself off from all preoccupation and notions that inflict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to turn his full consciousness towards God Most High while saying three times:

"Ilahî anta maqsûdî wa-ridâka matlûbî—my God, you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I seek". (Hairi,1992,p:239)

Then he brings to his heart the Name of the Essence—Allâh—and as it courses through his heart he remains attentive to its meaning, which is "Essence without likeness". The seeker remains aware that He is Present, Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of his saying (may God bless him and grant him peace): "Worship God as though you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He sees you". And likewise the prophetic tradition: "The most favored level of faith is to know that God is witness over you, wherever you may be".(Hadith Gabriel, Al-Bukhari, Al-Muslim)

2.6.Tariqah: The Path

From Islamic point of view, Sufism is the inner dimension of the religion, as kernel of nut with shell that is the outward form--- shari`ah. Kernel is the path tariqah, of which rules are formed by the Prophet (S.A.W.W), to the Imams and from them to their authorized shaykhs.

(Pazouki,2002, pp: 4.6). Sufism describes the spiritual life as a journey or a pilgrimage. The Sufi who goes to this journey in search of God is called a traveler salik. He passes through different slow stages to follow the goal of union with Reality fana fi`l haqq. According to Ibn e khaldon`s Kitab Ul Ullama, the path consists of following seven stages (i) Repentance (ii)abstinence (iii) renunciation (iv)poverty (v)patience (vi)trust in God (vii)satisfaction. The journey of sufi is not done until he passses through all these stages perfectly and has tasted the pleasures of each stage. Then he may be raised to higher rank of consciousness which he calls, `the Gnosis` marifat. (Khaldun, 1958, pp: 29-30) The path of Sufi is named Sharia. Sharia is that way of life that was observed by Hazrat Muhammad (S.A.W.W) and then Hazrat Ali (R.A.A). Sufis follow that Tarika in order to get close to God and to get Salvation.(Fakhry, 2000, pp: 41-43)

2.7. Belief in Doomsday

While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to God and hope to become close to God in Paradise—after death and after the "Final Judgment"—Sufis also believe that it is possible to draw closer to God and to more fully embrace the Divine Presence in this life. The chief aim of all Sufis is to seek the pleasure of God by working to restore within them the primordial state of fitra described in the Qur'an. In this state nothing one does defies God, and all is undertaken with the single motivation of love of God. (Najm al-Din, 1982, p:80) 3. Sufi Terminology:

Carefully defined terminology enables people in a particular field to communicate clearly. In fact these terms in Sufism are taken as titles or epithets that are highly prestigious and a great honor for them. The use of terms herein shows that in Sufism there is a systematic working of methodology adopted by various Sufis. Sufi terminology is well-defined and systematic. There is nothing random and unmindful. Sufi terminology is famous and widely used among mystics of the world. There might be a difference in pronouncing because of the origin of the word in the native language. Yet its connotation is universal and easily understandable. Sufi dictionaries, encyclopedias, and various books on Sufi terminology are extensively written in every age. Some of the sources have been consulted herein:

AABID: A Worshiper is called an Aabid. From Islamic point of view, it refers to a pious person who devotes almost all of his time to ibaadat. (Nurbakhsh, 2003, p:6)

ABDAAL: Special class of Auliyaa is called Abdaal. Their identity is concealed. It is said that their number is forty and it remains constant. When one dies, he is replaced. (Hozien, 2002, p:8)

AARIF: A person who knows is Aarif. He possesses the deep insight in spiritual matters. Hidden knowledge of Allah is given to him through inspiration. He sees Allah through spiritual eye (batin). (Encyclopaedia Bretanica, 2005, p:23)

ADAB: Adab are the special spiritual manners. It is said that whole art of being a Dervesh is one`s manners. (Noordin, 2001, p:85)

BAQA: Baqa is the start of `journey in God` that follows Fana (absolute self-annihilation) and thus completes the spiritual path. (Alparslan, 2005, p:34)

BAY`AT: When one submits oneself completely to the pir-o-murshid is called Bay`at. It is like a slave sold to his Master. (http://www, muslimphilosophy.com/pd/p-dmp-htm.Accessed:9/3/2010)

DHIKR: The Sufi’s remembrance of God in special manners is called Dhikr.(Haywood, 1960, p:41)

FAQEER: A derwesh or a destitute person is called a Faqeer. In the terminology of Auliyaa it is a pious mendicant who never begs and trusts in Allah. (Nurbakhsh, 2003, p:47)

IDRAAK: It means perception or apprehension. Idraak is a reflection of cognitive experience of particular objects gained through external sense-organs. Cognition through external senses is called mahsusat and cognition through internal senses is called wajdaniyat. (Renard, 2005, p:44)

IRFAN: When a Sufi gets self-knowledge, Irfan is achieved. In this way, he also gets knowledge of God. (Alparslan, 2005, p: 47)

ISHQ: The higher degree of love is Ishq. In Sufi terminology, the love of Salik for Allah is beyond the limits and above any other worldly thing.This is called Ishq. (Noordin, 2001, p:58)

KASHF, ILHAAM: Kshaf literally means to open. It is like a message put through inspiration into the heart of a saint. Ilhaam is considered the same as kashf, but it is lesser clear than Kashf. These revelations come from spiritual realms and thus are divine in origin. (Nurbaksh, 1998, p: 103)

MURSHID: In Sufism, a Sufi teacher is called Murshid. The Murshid has an obligation to follow the commands of Shari`ah with absolute dedication and respect. The Murshid`s role is that of a guide and mentor towards the disciples on the Sufi path. (Alparslan, 2005, p:89)

RAZA AND TASLEEM: Whole-hearted acceptance of all that comes from Allah is called Raza and tasleem. (http://www, muslimphilosophy.com/pd/p-dmp-htm.Accessed:9/3/2010)

TARIQA: Tariqa is the term for a school or order of Sufism. It is specially used for the mystical teachings and spiritual practices of such an order to seek ‘ultimate truth.’ (Hozien 2002, p:40)

TAWHID: Tawhid means Oneness. To know everything as the one, to regard every act as the one, is Oneness. (Renard, 2005, p:137)

SAALIK: A person who believes that he can be a sage and at the same time follows his worldly occupation is called Saalik. (Abdurrahman, p:207)

SUFI: Sufi is a person who is freed from dirt, who meditates, who turns to Allah from people and who regards the gold and mud as the same. Allah has purified his heart so his heart is full of nur (light) and he tastes the pleasures of dhikrullah. (Encyclopaedia Bretanica, 2005, p: 23)

WAJAD: Ecstasy is called Wajad by Sufis. This is the sign of spiritual development and marks the opening of all inspirations and powers. (Jahsiari, 1938,p:39)

ZUHD: Zuhd means the renunciation of the world or to abstain from worldly pleasures. The person who practices the Zuhd is called Zaahid. (Cyril Glassé,2008,p:321)

4. Sufi Interpretation of Al-Quran

Sufism is the representation of the inner aspect of Islam, so esoteric commentary on the Quran is substantially doctrine of Sufism. Some of the sayings of the Prophet (S.A.W.W) are fundamental for Sufism. The Prophet (S.A.W.W) enunciated those sayings as a contemplative saint, addressed to those of his Companions (R.A.A) who later became the first Sufi masters in history. There are also “Holy utterances” (ahadith qudsiyah) uttered in the first person by the mouth of the Holy Prophet from God. Although these are not revealed in the same “objective” mode, yet they have the same degree of inspiration. These “holy utterances” are not meant for the whole religious community but are reserved only for contemplatives. This provides the basis of the Sufi interpretation of the Quran. (Shirazi,2004,p:31) 62

Esoteric interpretation of Al-Quran is commonly known as Sufi interpretation and ta’wil. It is in fact the allegorical interpretation of Al-Quran and the inner hidden meanings and messages are drawn and then applied in life. Because of a firm belief of Sufis, Al-Quran is sent for all ages bearing messages for every situation. So, in spite of reading it without translation and proper comprehension, Sufis draw the messages for them. They put the example of gardener. They are of the view that Al-Quran is like a prescription or a manual of instructions, given to a gardener (man by his owner Allah). If man doesn`t act upon the instruction daily instead if he reads it out without understanding, he will definitely be in gross loss.

Esoteric or Sufi interpretation of the Quran i-e ta’wil, is the quest for the hidden; inner meanings of the Quran. It was a synonym of conventional interpretation in its earliest uses. (Newby,2002, P:24) Esoteric interpretations by Sufis are not opposite to the conventional translations.These are actually much deeper and based on practical facts.Esoteric interpretations do not usually contradict the conventional, (in this context called exoteric) interpretations, instead, they discuss the inner levels of meaning of Quran.

The words ‘Ta’wil’ and ‘Tafsir’ have been translated to explanation, elucidation, interpretation and commentary but from the 3rd century onward ‘Ta’wil’ was commonly regarded as the “esoteric or mystical interpretation of the Quran while conventional exegesis of the Quran was called “Tafsir”. The term “Batin” refers to the inner or esoteric meaning of a sacred text, and “Zahir” to the apparent or exoteric meaning. (Leaman, 2008, P: 94-104).

Esoteric interpretations are found in Sufi, Shia & Sunni interpretations of Al-Quran. A hadith which states that Al-Quran has an inner meaning & that inner meaning conceals a yet deeper inner meaning and so on …, has something been used in support of this view.( Ayoub,1984,p:34)

“There is no doubt in this book. It’s guidance for believers. Guidance for those who believe in abstract (not apparent) and take care of their prayers and spend what we have blessed them”.(Al-Quran 1: 1-3).

So, According to Al-Quran, Almighty Allah Himself declares that man has been blessed with true guidance in the form of Al-Quran, and that is ever applicable in every situation. Man

can get pure guidance from it by contemplating in it. The verses of Al-Quran demand faith and firm trust because Faith is the light that leads man to his true destination.

“Those who believe, know well that everything is true, and said by their Lord, the Almighty …..” (Al-Quran 1:25).

So, Sufis have firm belief in their heart, so to say. In belief they win, and who follows Almighty Allah’s command with trust and solid belief, is in true sense successful. Sufis firstly try to find out the true way told by their Lord and become the near and dear ones of Him. Then they are allowed to guide the creature of Almighty Allah. It is obligatory for human being that whenever they are informed of or invited by any man of God for seeking the straight path, he (if he wants to be one of blessed and luckiest people) must say “Labbaik” which is a word stands for acceptance by heart.(Kharraz, 1937, p:123)

“Whenever you get the news of My path from Me, So, Whoever adopt this way and follow my direction, Never have any fear nor grief on him”.(Al-Quran,1:38).

As far as the history of esoteric interpretation of Al-Quran is concerned, Sulami (d. 1021 C) is considered the most important author of esoteric interpretation prior to 12th Century, without whose work the majority of every early Sufi Commentaries would not have been preserved. Sulami’s major commentary is a book named Haqaiq-al-Tafsir (Truths of Exegesis’) which is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis. (Kynsh, p: 41-55).

Another most important mystic of the early formative period was Sahl Tustari (d: 896).His commentary (Tafsir-al-Quran al-Azim) has been compiled later by his disciples and preserved as a commentary on the Quran. Tustari’s commentary doesn’t comprise interpretations of every single verse rather there are comments on a selection of verses. (Tustari, 2008. p:15).

A spiritual commentary of the Quran is attributed to Jafar-al-Sadiq (Tafsir Imam Ja’far-al- Sadiq). However, its authenticity remains suspect. This commentary conveys a spurious textual tradition and does not contain much reliable material, however the items cited on Jafer Sadiq’s authority is Sulami’s book seems to be based on identifiable chains of transmitters.(Clerke, 2001 , p:65).

From the 11th century onwards several other works appear, including commentaries by Qushayri (d: 1074), Daylami (d: 1193), Shirazi (d: 1209), and Suhrawardi (d: 1234). These works include material form Sulami’s books plus the author’s own contributions. Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Maybodi (d: 1135).Kashf-al-Asrar, The Unveiling of the Secrets. (Godlas, 2008, pp: 350-400).See also (Netton, 2011, p: 27).

Rumi (1273) wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book Mathawi. Rumi makes heavy use of the Quran in his poetry, a feature that is sometimes omitted in the translations of Rumi’s work. (Mojaddedi, 2008, pp: 363-373).

Rumi’s style of interpreting the Quranic verses into outstanding poetic form with a lot of depth and bearing events and situations, presence of symbolism an major tool, is really notable.

Sanai (d:1336) wrote two influential works of esoteric exegesis on the Quran. He reconciled notions of God’s manifestation through and in the physical world with the sentiments of Sunni Islam. Sinai was a prolific author, 154 titles are ascribed to him, of which at least 79 exist today. (Elias, 2010,p:41-55).

Comprehensive Sufi commentaries appear in 18th Century such as the work of Ismail Hakki Bursevi (d:1725). His work Ruh-al-Bayan (The Spirit of Elucidation) is a voluminous exegesis. Written in Arabic, it combines the author’s own ideas with those of his predecessors (notably Ibn-Arabi and Ghazali), all woven together in Hafez, a Persian poetry form.(Elias, 2010,p:14-55)

Shia Islam is a branch of Islam in which one finds some of the most esoteric interpretations on the nature of the Qur’an. Shia interpretations of the Qur’an concern mainly issues of authority where the concept of Imamat is paramount. In Twelver Shia Islam, there are mainly two theological Schools: the Akhbari and the Usuli. The first school interprets the Quran mainly through reliance upon traditions (hadith) ascribed to the Imams. The second school gives more power to independent reasoning and judgment (Ijtihad). Ismaili interpretation shares common ground with Sufism. The method is called Kashf, an “unveiling” to the heart of the interpreter, and is dependent upon the master, the grace of God, and the spiritual capacity of the interpreter.(Godlas, 2008, pp:350-400).

“This is an honorable Quran, in a book hidden, which none can touch except the purified”.(Al- Quran 55:79)

In exoteric sense, the Quran requires Muslims to perform ritual cleansing of their hand before touching it. Esoteric interpreters were of the opinion that it implies that individuals with spiritual purity are able to grasp the meaning of Al-Quran. (Taji-Farouke,2006,pp: 75-85). A hadith attributed to Muhammad (S.A.W.W) is essential in understanding the inward aspects of the Quran, and is fundamental to Quranic exegesis.

Attar of Nishapure, the 12th century mystical poet, gives a mystical interpretation of the Quranic story of the descent of Adam and Eve from paradise to Earth.

“The men whose mind and vision are ensnared by heaven’s grace must forfeit that same grace, for only then can he direct his face to his true Lord”.(Attar,1984,p:294)

Occasionally a verse may be interpreted in a sense very different from its conventional meaning. For example Hamadani in his book Tamheedat (Preludes) interpret 04:6-7 (It is a fierce fire created by God, to penetrate into the hearts) which conventionally refers to the punishment in hell, as passion of divine love. Hamadani interprets 14:48 (On the Day when the earth is changed into another earth, and the heaven, and they will emerge before God) which conventionally describes the Day of Judgment as a description of the moment of spiritual awakening or enlightenment. Sufis believe the Quran’s initial letters (Muqatta’at) conceal mysteries that can not be fully expressed in words and should be understood by means of mystic experiences.(Tustari,2008 ,p:123)

In Sufi commentaries of the Quran, Sufi concepts are commonly related such as the hierarchical levels of realities in human experience (human, supra sensible, and Divine levels), and the ideas concerning the six subtitles (Lataif-e-Sitta). (Godlas,2008, pp: 330-340).

The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning so it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths to hidden depths.

There is a statement made by Imam Jafar Sadaq (d: 765 CE):

“The book of God comprises four things: the statement set down, the allusions, the hidden meanings relating to the supra-sensible world, and the exalted spiritual doctrines. The literal statement is for the ordinary believers. The allusions are the concern of the elite. The

hidden meanings pertain to the friends of God. The exalted spiritual doctrines are the province of the Prophets”. (Elias,2010, p:109)

Thus, it can be claimed with authenticity that Almighty Allah has not sent the Quran only to read but also helps us in understanding its real messages and instructions and his friends or Sufis, play a vital role in helping to understand it….

“There is no doubt in this book”.

“Zalikal Kitab-a-Laraiba-Feehe”.

(Al-Qur’an 2:1).

Several books have been written dealing with how to differentiate real and fake mysticism, went on to say that some 700 verses of the Holy Quran are generally believed to contain mystical remarks that can be served in mysticism. This does not mean that Quranic verses are specifically for a particular subject; as a matter of fact, a single passage of the Holy Qur’an and sometimes be used in numerous fields of knowledge without one contradicting the other. Sufi writings make frequent references to the Qur’an and present esoteric interpretations either explicitly or implicitly. There are 3 major trends in Sufi interpretations can be recognized, mystic, philosophic and esoteric. A famous Sufi commentary on the Qur’an, the Persian book Kashf Al-Asrar (The Unveiling of the Mysteries) by Meybodi, mentions conventional interpretations as the first level of meaning and esoteric interpretations as a deeper level. It is common in Sufi writings to explain three or four levels of meanings of a Quranic concept. (Kynsh,p:213).

It is an open secret and there is almost no dispute among Muslims that the Quran has concealed meanings however this does not mean that very esoteric interpretation of the Quran is necessarily valid. Some interpreters are known to have overplayed the allegorical aspects of the Quran, claiming privileged understanding of its contents and distorting its meaning.Acceptance of these meanings is also a matter of debate. Mainstream theologians, were willing to accept these interpretations if certain conditions were met.

Here arise two questions. How can one begin to say what God “meant” by His revelation? How does one balance the desire to understand the meaning of the Qur’an with the

realistic fear of reducing it to discover its richness and transforming possibilities? According to one interpretation, the Quran is a document which is different for each individual and the language and type of discourse chosen to interpret varies with different commentators. (Sands, 2006, p: 203)

In short, it is a fact that Sufi’s interpretations help the people to understand the commands of the Holy Quran more effectively. For example as in the Holy Quran, it is mentioned that “perform good deeds in such a way that even your left hand could no know.” People couldn’t get the exact and real sense of this command that they should do the good with right hand without informing the left hand. Sufis interpret it as:

We should do the good and positive things and try not to be effected by our Nafs or inner selfishness. Man is in fact amalgamation of positive and negative. So, if he gets an idea of doing good and at the same time he suddenly does not want to do it because of some reasons based on greed, sluggishness etc. He must not left his negative approach effect on his positivity and favors all without any partiality and prejudice. Moreover, it is commanded us to use right hand for eating. But according to Sufis’ interpretations, right hand stands for fair means of earning, and what actually commanded us, is that man must not eat or live upon unfair means, man must follow the fair and God directed ways to live. In this way man can live a happy contented life.(Schuon, 2004, p:127)

5. Orders in Sufism

The word ‘Order’ has many synonymous words for it best suited. The word ‘Silsila’ is an Arabic word that means chain, often used in various synonyms of lineage. It may be translated as religious order or genealogy. Tariqa is also another Arabic word for way or path, a word used for a school of thought or order in Sufism or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking ‘Haqiqah’ or ultimate truth.

A tariqa has a murshid who plays the vital role of a leader or spiritual teacher or director. The members or the followers of a tariqa are known as muridin meaning desirous, desiring for the knowledge of God and loving God.

A shajra in Sufi order is actually the record of the line of succession of a shaykh. It traces the spiritual genealogy from the present day Shaykh back in the line to the Holy Prophet

(S.A.W.W), who was the pioneer, the innovator who transmitted the spiritual possession to those who carry on the Sufi practices. Sufi teachings are authorized by living Shaykhs, who maintain a living link and authority over those below them. This authority is granted by means of formal initiation and rights of succession are set forth. (Hassan,2011, p:111)

Khilafat Nama or letter of succession is duly signed and sealed by the senior Shaykh of the order.

Hazrat Nizam-Ud-Din Awliya (R.A.A) explained the granting of Khilafat;

“Khilafat is the right of that person who never aspires in his mind to have it and who has ‘Aql-e-salim’ or matured knowledge to understand and to judge complex matters of the world with absolute forbearance and impartiality and; who is a perfect scholar is and whose heart is full of Divine love and wisdom.” (Chishti,1991, p: 14)

As far as the philosophy of Sufi orders is concerned, it is best summed up in the words of the last sermon of Hazrat Khwaja Moin-ad-Din Chishti (R.A.A), which he delivered to his followers just one month before his demise. The great saint said;

‘Love all and hate none,

Mere talk of peace will avail you naught,

Mere talk of God and religion will not take you far,

Bring out all the latent powers of your being

And reveal the full magnificence of your immortal self.

Be surcharged with peace and joy

And scatter them wherever you go.

Be a blazing fire of truth

Be a beauteous blossom of love,

And be a soothing balm of peace

With your spiritual light,

Dispel the clouds of discord and war

And spread good will, peace and harmony among the people,

Never seek any help, charity or favor,

From anybody except God,

Never go to the courts of the kings,

But never refuse to bless and help the needy and the poor,

This is your mission to the people,

Carry it out dutifully and courageously,

In short I, as your pir-o-murshid,

May not be ashamed of any short coming on your part before the Almighty Allah and Holy Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.W) on the Day of Judgment. (Chishti, 1991, p: 9)

There are many orders in Sufism. The reason of their difference is because of the different areas from where they were originated, their peculiar spiritual teachers, their method of worshipping etc. The most important fact is that whatever name these orders bear, or from wherever they originated, all of them are highly and equally respectable and honorable and above of all their purpose is same and there is no difference in their intentions. As rose will remain the same if people call it by other names.

Abu Said Ibn Abi’l-Khayr(b.967), one of Sulami’s disciples, was the first Sufi who drew up a preliminary monastic rule for his followers. He gathered his followers, founded a convent and set up ten rules (the ideal rules of Muslim community life). Yet Abu Said did not organize a Sufi order as such Abu Said died in 1049 and later his tomb was destroyed by Ghuzz tribes in about 1180. By that time, the first real fraternities, the Suhrawardiyya and the Qadiriyya, came into existence. These two influence the Muslim world even today (Schimmel,2003, pp:243-245)

The famous orders in Sufism are mentioned below;

5.1. Malamatiyya (Blameworthy)

The Arabic word ‘Malamatiyya’ means those who are blamed and derives from the word malama (blame). This Sufi group was originated in 9th century, flourished in Samanid Iran. They believe that Almighty Allah has the knowledge of everything whether it is in the heart or it is in outward. So, they cry for their forgiveness and they always repent on their follies. (Affifi,1945,p:35)

‘God is the one who created for you, all that is on the earth. Moreover, he turned to the heaven and flourished seven heavens with harmony. He is full of knowledge of all things.’

(Al-Quran 23:17).

According to Ibn-Arabi, the Malamatis are considered as the penultimate Sufis, people whose deep inward piety is concealed not only from the eyes of men but ultimately from themselves ,the attachment to the perception of one’s own piety contributing a formidable barrier to the genuine self realization of the sufi heart.( Affifi,1936,p:214)

5.2. Yasawiya/yadawiya

Sufi order (Turuq) crystallized as institution beginning around the 6th century A.H. One of the first orders was the Yasawi order, named after ‘Khawaja Ahmad Yasavi’ from the city of Yasi, the mausoleum of Khawaja Ahmad Yasawi, the founder of the Yasawi Sufi order is located in the southern Kazakh, city of Turkestan, built during the reign of Mangolian conqueror Tamer lane (Timor I lung).

Yasawi, a Sufi poet and teacher is credited with the conversion of the Turkish speaking people of Kazakhstan to Islam and is commonly known as ‘father of the Turks’.His shrine is a national symbol and one of the most important historical monuments in Kazakhstan, with its image appearing on every Kazakh currency notes, where his tomb is located. Today, it is called Turkestan and is situated in Kazakhstan on about a six hours drive northwest from Taskhent, the capital of Uzbekistan. A few generations after Khawaja Ahmad, an important Yasavi shaykh was Ismail Ata, from a village in the vicinity of Tashkent. One of his disciplines was as follows:

‘Accept this advice from me, imagine that the world is a green dome in which there is nothing but God and you, and remember God until the overwhelming theophany (al-tajali-al-qahri)

overcomes you and frees you from yourself and nothing remains but God’.(Ata,Ismail, P: 109).Yasawiya Order had influence from 9th till 13th century.

5.3. Chishtiya Sabariya

Khawaja Moin-Ud-Din Chishti (from chisht orchesht-e-sharif, due East of Heart in Afghanstan, although his tomb is in Ajmer, India) is the most well known of the early saints of the Chishtiya order, which is prominent in India and Pakistan and has spread in various forms in the West.This silsila started from 12th century. The first of the Chishti saint was Abu-Ishaq- Shami Chishti from Dinawar, which was a city in Iranian Kurdistan that was later completely destroyed by Timur.( Affifi, 1963,p:223)

‘For you God has subjugated all that is in the heaven and on the earth, all for him.Behold! In that are signs for people who reflect’. (Al-Quran 45:18).

The Chishtis have strong belief that everything in the world is created for all the human beings and the only condition is that they should be well aware of their Allah and to keep acquaintance with him, they must act as is directed by their Lord the great.

5.4. Kubrawiya/ Oveyssia

The Kubrawiya Sufi order originating like the Yasawiya in Central Asia was named after Najm-ai-din kubra in Bukhara. Is was founded in 13th century (Abu-al-Janab Ahmad Ibn Umr Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abdullah, Al Khiwaqi, Al Khawarzami) known as the ‘saint producing (lit. sculpting or chiseling) and ‘sheikh vali tarash’, since a number of his disciples become great shaykhs themselves.

Although originally from Khiva, located today in western Uzbekistan, he moved nearby to the capital city Khuarzam. Sheikh Najam-al-Din was killed defending Khwarzam, which was completely destroyed during the Mongol holocaust. Today his tomb is in the town of Konga Ugench, which was built in the area of the ruins of Khwarzam. Apparently he is known there as Kabir Ata.

Kubra was a prolific writer. He wrote Arabic commentary on Koran. Then he wrote on the etiquette of the disciples on the pattern of Sulami and Suhrawardi. His mystical treatises have been translated into several Islamic Languages. He takes man as a micro-cosmic manifestation of the macro-cosmic reality. However he prescribes strict adherence to the ten-fold Path, including

Junayd’s way- constant ritul purity, constant silence, constant fasting, constant recollection of God , and constant submission to a Sheikh. These rules form the basis of kubrawi order. The kubrawiyya has also developed color symbolism. For example, white is linked with Islam, yellow stands for Iman, “Faith” , dark for Ihsan “beneficence”, green is the color of itminan “tranquility” etc. However, they say the colors and forms have different meanings and implications to different Kubra.

5.5.Qadiriya

The Qadiriya Sufi order, branches of which are found throughout the Muslim world, was named after Abd-Al-Qadir-Al-Jilani. A Hanbalite preacher, an ascetic, Abdul-Qadir al Gilani (1088- 1166) is considered the most popular saint in the world of Islam. A large crowd of the faithful in Baghdad was all attracted by his sermons and exhortation. His tomb in Baghdad is mainly visited by the pilgrims from Indo-Pak subcontinent, where his order got introduction in the late fourteenth century. He has got unbelievable fame and is called Muhyi ud-din, “the reviver of religion “. He is also called Ghauth-I a’zam “the greatest Help”, and the pir-i-dast-gir ‘, “the pir who keeps one’s hand” for help. Many of Turkish, Sindhi and Balochi folk song pay a tribute to this Saint. His influence can also br felt even in Islamization of West Africa. (Burton, 1851, p:177)

5.6. Suhrawardiyya:

The founder of the first Sufi order, Suhrawardiyya, Abu’l-Qahir Abu Najib as-Suhrawardi (d.1168), was a follower of Ahmad Ghazzali,who was a younger brother of Imam Ghazzali. Suhrawardi is the writer of a very famous book of mysticism, Adab al-muridin, “The Manners of the Adepts”. His book has been translated into different Islamic languages as well as the others. However, his brother’s son and his disciple Shihabuddin Abu Hafs Umar as- Suhrawardi (1145- 1234) who is known in the world of Sufism by his widely –read work on Sufi theory, Awarif al- ma’arif, got more fame than his uncle. (Suhrawardi,1970, Intro). His book influenced the Suhrawardiyya order, which widely spread in India. Abu Hafs Umar became Shaykh ash- shuyukh, the official Sufi master of Baghdad, during the reign of Caliph an-Nasir. Abu Hafs Caliph’s ambassador. That is why his followers are more willing to participate in politics than followers of other orders. (Schimmel,2003, p:245)

5.7. Riffa’iya:

Rifa’i order originated in 12th century and was at peak till 15th cenrury .Sheikh Ahmad-al-Rifai is the sheikh from whom the Rifai order is derived. In some cases such as that of Sheikh Taner (the Rifai and Qadiri orders have united). Abdul Qadir al-Gilani and Ahmad ar-Rifai were almost

contemporaries. Rifa’iyya as an order is more eccentric than Qadiriyya. The Rifa’iyya Dervishes are known as the Howling Dervishes as their Dikhr is loud. They were also notorious for doing strange actions like eating snakes and taking out their eyes etc.

5.8. Mevleviye:( Rumi and Mevleviya).

This order started in 1273 i.e. 13th century.This comprises links to Rumi’s poetry, discourses, biographical essays, and the history of his tariqat (Sufi order) and the Sama. Although many American orders are surprised to know that Rumi was a devout and committed Muslim. Nevertheless his writing is so ‘Islamic’ that the Mathnavi was referred to by the great Naqshbandi poet Jami as the ‘Quran in Persian’.

5.9. Naqshbandiya:

The Naqshbandia named after Bahawal-Din-Naqshband is a tariqat that is widely active throughout the world today and that even has a strong presence on the web. It started in 14th century. The Naqshband further developed basic Islamic practices and principles into the eleven principles of the Naqshband order. One of Khawaja Baha-Al-Din’s successors was Khawaja Muhammad-e-Parsa. The tomb and mosque of his son Khawaja Abu Nasr Parsa is in Balkh in Afghanistan. Another of Khawaja Baha-Al-Din’s successor’s was Va’qub-e-Charkhi, whose most signified disciple and successor was Khawaja Ubayd Ullah Athar.one of the most highly regarded Naqshband sheikhs is Ahmad Sirhindi from India. Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi is also known as the Mujaddid-Ali-Thani (the renewer of second millennium).

5.10. Azeemia Order

Hasan Ukhra Syed Muhammad Azeem Barkhiya, known as Qalander Baba Auliya, is the founder of the Azeemia Spiritual Order. This started supposedly in 1960.

According to Azaamia, a Qalander is a person whose perception goes beyond the physical realm. He ascends from the material realm to the heights where he witnesses the divine unity. This is the zone of Taqveen or the Divine Unity or the Divine Administration. The Qalander experiences the ecstasy and joy of the nearness of the Creator. Thus he perceives the whole truth. Such persons are called the friends of God. The Qalander can free himself from the grip of time and space. All creatures become subsequent to them, since the Qalander connected with Divine Being, they are perfected body. They do not experience the negative desires of

greed, power and control. They have the conduct of Prophets and serve humanity according to Divine Will.

Thus Almighty Allah loves human beings more than 70 mothers and He has sent saints to direct and guide people to His path so that they may live a successful and contented life.

6. Some of the Most Influential Muslim Sufis

It is the true proof of God`s love and kindness that He does everything for the benefit of His creation. He sends prophets and after them Sufis and mystics, because He knows what is in the mind and heart of man.

‘We indeed created man and we know what his soul whispers within him, and we are nearer to him than jugular vein”. (Al-Quran: 50:51).

And that amongst the multitude, Allah, the gracious appoints some selected persons as His friends to preach His commandments for the benefit of the world. Their greatest qualification is that they renounce the wealth and pleasures of the world and dedicate their lives to love, devotion and services of Allah and humanity. When others fear, they do not and when others feel the pinch of pain of sorrow, they do not. When the world would have no such Walis the day of Qayamat would drawn upon it. Some of the Sufi saints are as follow,

Sufi list

1) Hazrat Data Ganj Baksh Ali Hijwiri (990-1077) 2) Muhammad Murad Ali Khan Hajji Hud (1025-1141) 3) Hazrat Shah Muhammad Yusuf Gardezi (1026-1152) 4) Muhiyudin Abdul Qadir Gilani al Hasani wal Hussaini, abdul Qadir Gilani (1077-1166) 5) Syed Muhammad Al-Hussain Gisudaraz (1132-1422) 6) Moinud din Chishti (1141-1230) 7) Baba Fakhruddin Suharawardi Penukondavi (1169-1295) 8) Bahaudin Zakariya Multani (1170-1267) 9) Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki (1173-1235) 10) Lal Shabaz Qalander (1177-1274) 11) Baba Faridudin Masud Ganj-e-Shakar (1188- 1280)

12) Yamani Shah Jalal ad-din-al-mujarrad, Sylhet Bangladesh (1271 CE) 13) Hazrat Jalaluddin Surkh-posh Bukhaari (1192-1291) 14) Allauddin Sabir Kaliyari (1196-1291) 15) Sharafuddin Bu-Ali Qalander (1209-1324) 16) Fakhr-al-Din Iraqi (1213-1289) 17) Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) 18) Sheikh Ruknuddin Abu, Fateh (1251-1335) 19) Amir Khusrau (1253-1325) 20) Syed Hussain Sharfuddin Shah wilayat Naqvi (1255-1342) 21) Ismail Qureshi al Hashmi (1260-1349) 22) Sharafuddin Ahmad Bin Yahya Maneri (1263-1381) 23) Nasi Uddiin Mahmud Chiragh of Delhi (1274-1356) 24) Makhdoom Shamsuddin Arwali Shahi (1280-1364) 25) Makhdoom Jahaniyan Jahangost (1308-1384) 26) Mir Sayed Ashraf Jahangir Simnani (1308-1405) 27) Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani(1341-1384) 28) Salim Chisti (1478-1572) 29) Daud Bandagi Kirmani (1513-1575) 30) Madhu Lal Hussain (1538-1599) 31) Mian Mir (1550-1635) 32) Khawaja Muhammad al-Baqi Billah (1564-1604) 33) Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624) 34) Mullah Shah Badakshi (1584-1661) 35) Dara Shikon (1615-1659) 36) Baba Shadi Shaheed (17th century) 37) Hazrat Sakhi Sultan Bahoo (1628-1691) 38) Bulleh Shah (1680-1757) 39) Shah Abdul Latif Bhutai (1689-1752) 40) Mirza Mazhar Jan-e-Janaan (1699-1781) 41) Shah Waliullah (1703-1762) 42) Hazrat Makhdoom Syedna Hasan Ali (Wali Azli R.A) (1722-1803) 43) Noor Muhammad Mehravi (1730-1791) 76

44) Shah Abdul Aziz Bhuttai (1745-1823) 45) Imam Ali Shah Naqshbandi Mujaddadi Gurdaspur (1796-1866) 46) Maulana Fazl-e-Haq Khaidrabadi (1797-1681) 47) Hazrat Baba Jan (1806-1931) 48) Ata Hussain Fani Chishti (1817-1896) 49) Haji Indadullah Muhaajarr Makki (1817-1899) 50) Sai Baba of Shirdi (1838-1918) 51) Hazrat Pir Syed Mehar Ali Shah of Golra sharif (1859-1937) 52) Hazrat Tajuddin Baba of Nagpur (1861-1925) 53) Hazrat Murad Ali Khan (1880-1968) 54) Inayat khan (1882-1927) 55) Qalander Baba Auliya (1898-1979) 56) Hazrat Wasif Ali Wasif (1929-1993) 57) Baba Qamar u Zamam Faridi Chishti (1940-2011)

Thus in a nut shell, it can be said that Sufis are the great people who do not have any selfish and negative approach and they are to this world as oxygen to man. The people, who devotedly try to seek God, go to him and find the blessed straight path. Because only those can tell about God`s way, who themselves are on it. It is said if you go to man who has Allah Almighty, you will surely get Almighty Allah.

So, Islamic history is rich in the treasure of mystics or most often called Sufis. Each one of the Sufis is an institution in himself. However, here are mentioned very few of them in detail.

6.1 Spiritual Ancestors of Sufism

Some of Muhammad companions are called the Spiritual ancestors of Sufism. Ahl as-suffa, “the People of the Bench” are those pious and poor Muslims who live in the mosque of Medina. Abu Dharr al-Ghifari (d.653), the Prophet’s companion, is considered the true protope of faqir. Salman al-Farisi, a Persian born barber became the model representation of spiritual adoption and mystical initiation--- the symbol of the Persians, is also known as the Patron Saint of small artisans.(Massignon,1934,pp:111-127)

Another name that is mystically linked with the Prophet is of Uways al-Qarani who remained in Yemen and never met the Prophet and spent all his nights in prayer. He is known as the

prototype of the inspired Sufi who is guided solely by divine inspiration, without outward connection with the Prophet. Thus the Uwaysi mystic attains illumination beyond the regular mytic ways and without cogitation and guidance of a living Sheikh.(Schimmel,2003,pp:28-29)

6.2 Hasan al-Basri

The patriarch of Muslim mysticism in the early asceticism having anti-governmental attitude is Hasan al-Basri. He witnessed in 711 the period of splendid conquests of Arabs. His forsight warned the then Muslims not to be lost in the conquest alone and not to be intoxicated by wealth and worldly joys, forgetting the Quranic word: “whatever is on earth is perishing save His face”. (Al-Quran, 55:26). Even centuries later, his words resound in mystical poetry of Persia, Turkey, Arabic and even Punjabi. (Ritter, 1933,pp:110-159). That is why some historians find Hassan and his followers more “realistic” opposed to the more “idealistic tradition” that was prevalent in Kufa. So the first ascetic tendency in Basra was more devotional than speculative. One of Hasan Basri’s disciples, Abul Wahid Ibn Zayd(d.794) spread Hasan’s ideals in Syria, where Abu Sulayman ad-Durani(d.830) along with his follower Ibn Abil-Hawari(d.851) became the best representatives of the Basrian ascetic movement.(Massignon,1935,p:119)

6.3 Al-Balkhi

Another worthy name in Sufism is that of the former merchant, a Khurasanian Sufi, Shaqiq al- Balkhi (d.809). He was an expert on tawakkul, a path adopted by his followers Hatim al-Asamm (d.851) and Hatim’s pupil Abu Turab an-Nakhshabi(d.859). Recent research brings this fact on surface that “the mystical states” were discussed at first by him. He had great concern with “ the light of pure of God”. This idea brings him closer to Rabia al-‘Adawiyya,(d.801) died only a few years before him. (Schimmel,2003,p:38).

6.4 Rabia Basri

The first great female Muslim Sufi and a true impression of God’s love on earth, a constant worshipper of the Supreme, the wonderful narrator, the marvelous orator named Rabia Basri. Born in 95-99AH /713/717 AD in Basra, Iraq was the shining star in the horizon of Islam. (Attar, 1983, P: 129). She blossomed in 8th century. She has the most scented concepts like faith, piety, truth, sacrifice, love and most of all reached the pinnacle of mystic path i.e. Fana fillah. (Smith, 2007, P: 138).

Rabia was a girl enslaved and then freed by her master. She is considered “the second spotless Mary”, lost in union with God. She added rather introduced the idea of selfless love into the early ascetic teachings.(Smith,1928,p:108). The central idea of Sufism was love for love’s sake. Her love of God was absolute in nature, leaving no room for any other love or thought. She

didn’t marry, nor did she talk much of Prophet’s love. Rabia’s love of God was never distracted. Her spiritual eye saw nothing but Him. Rabia’s prayer has often been shared, with some variations by almost every Sufi in every age. Shibli(d.945), the mystic of Baghdad repeated her prayer in prardoxical way: “ O God hand his world and the Otherworld over the me so that I may make a morsel and throw it into a dog’s mouth,and a morsel of the Otherworld and put it into a Jew’s mouth for both are veils before the true goal”. (T2:165). (Smith,1928, p:27). Several other women emerged in eight century as the mystics. They were hated but yet accepted as mystics as the lovers have no categorization of existence in unity of God.(Badawi,1946,p:102).

Hazrat Farid al Din Attar ( R.A.A) praises her unparalleled status as female Muslim Sufi saint.

“No she was not a single woman,

But a hundred women over,

Robed in the quitessence of pain

From foot to faith, immersed in the truth,

Effaced in the radiance of God

And liberated from all superfluous excess.”(Hanif,2002,p:75).

She led a life full of purityand perfect union with God and she was the most influential figure in Sufi theology. She stressed on worshipping neither from fear of hell, nor in hope of paradise. She worshipped only for God’s love. She preached love of God and was known for her doctrine of divine love.(Smith.2010,P:252).

Ninth century revealed the eminent names of Sufis, almost all contemporaries, who diaplayed the potential variety in the domain of mysticism. Dhu’n-Nun, the Egyptian (d.859), Bayezid Bistami, the Iranian (d.874), Yahya Ibn Mu’adh from Rayy (d.871) and at Harith al-Muhasibi, the Iraqi (d.857) belong to the era. D’hun-Nun is called the most eminent hidden spiritualist.(Ash- Sha’rani,1893-94,p:144).

6.5 Junayd Baghdadi

Abul-Qasim al-Junayd, al-Baghdadi, is undoubtedly the master of early Sufis. Born in Nihawand, (830-910) he settled in Baghdad like many mystics. After studying law, he was educated in Sufism by his uncle Sari as-Saqati and was impressed by Muhasibi’s psychological insight and also by Kharraz. Junayd was a man of great intellect (‘age’), seriousness, sobriety and penetrating mind necessary for a master. (Arberry,1935, p:499).

His Sufism was based on constant mental and spiritual struggle. Hunger and renunciation of the world were not only appreciated but also adopted practically by him. His mysticism was imbibed in permanent struggle to return to one’s origion to reach the state “in which he was before he was”—the state of primordial covenant (Al-Quran 7:171). Junayd, like other mystical masters talked about the various stages and stations on path. He appreciated poverty, faqr, emphasized on sobriety (Sahw) as opposite to intoxication (Sukr). Beyezid Bistami gave preference to mystical intoxication as to him it makes man forgetfull of human attributes and takes him to self- anniholation.

Junayd, however considered it dangerous to speak openly about the mysteries of mystical experience. That is why he rejected Hallaj, who openly spoke about the mysteries of love and unity and was punished like many. Junayd spoke in isharat, subtle allusion to the truth, a trend of kharraz, and the chief characteristic of later Sufi writings. (Abdul Kader,1962, pp:141-156)

6.6 Al-Hallaj

Mansoor Al-Hallaj (244AH-309AH) is the most controversial figure in the history of Islamic mysticism. The Muslim legend who was the prototype of the intoxicated lover of God, a persian legend, mystic, martyr, saint, revolutionary writer, dynamic poet, marvelous truth seeker and superb teacher of Sufism was in fact the magnum opus of his age and a bold-blunt scholar whose only topic for research was "God" and in which he made his mark and left no stone unturned and it can be said about him that he took part in the way of searching God as a man of clay and turned out as a man of diamond stunning the world with his extraordinary achievements. His findings were so high standard and unique for the average caliber of common people that it made them enraged rather furious.

Hallaj was really a unique person and historical figure who was condemned to death in 922 of this age following a political trial, a cause célèbre, of which there survive fragments of hostile account that are, by the very fact of their hostility, testaments of his historical authenticity. He has survived also as a hero of legend. Even now in Islamic countries people recall him as an itinerant worker of miracles, sometimes as man madly in love with God, sometimes as a charlatan. (Massignon Louis, 1994, p:1)

The prominent figure that was famous for his saying "I am the Truth (Anal Haqq) which was willingly or unconsciously confused by the orthodox Muslims for a claim to divinity, was also famous for his poetry. He wrote many books. One of which The Tawasin of Mansur Al- Hillaj" is commendable for its ideas. Moreover he wrote many poems and each and every word of his writing has bundle of meanings and pregnant with bunch of clues that can awake and alert the sleeping conscious and give spark that can uplift a human spirit to the level of mystical masters.(Llewellyn,2000,p:99)

6.7 Data Ganj Baksh

Abdul Hassan Ali Ibn Usman al-Jullabi, al-Hajwiri, al-Ghaznawi (990-1077) also known as “Data Ganj Baksh” which means “master who bestows treasures” or Data Sahib was a great saint, persian poet, spiritual scholar, towering figure in the world of mysticism, one of the sublime Sufi sheikhs of Indian subcontinent and a magnetic personality who belonged to a Syed family (descendent of the Holy Prophet S.A.W.W). He was also a marvelous writer and awesome poet who lived during the 5th century A.H (11th century A.D). In fact he is the cause of spreading of Islam in South Asia. (Waley, 1993, p:4)

Hazrat Data Ganj Bakhsh is the most luminous figure of Muslim history who studied Sufism under the kind supervision of Abu’s fad Muhammad, who was a student of Abu’s- Hassan-al-Hurry. Abu’l-Fadl Muhammad bin al-Hussan was well versed in tafsir and riwayat. Ali Hijwiri travelled a lot to search for his perfect spiritual master who would guide and lead him to the straight blessed path.The path was attracting him like a magnet. In Khurasan alone he is reported to have met more than 300 Sufis. (Nicholson, 2000, p:22)

Although Ali Hijwiri was a Sunni believer and also a Hanafit yet following the tradition, he too managed to represent the one and the same thought and concept which was going on from the first day by Prophets but he represented the same pious thought in his own style. He can not 81

be labeled as the Pantheist the extreme length if it is renamed as “annihilation” (Fana). This is his remarkable achievement that his scholarly terminology is also garnished by a true Persian flavor of philosophical speculation. (Nicholson , 2000, P:21)

He in fact strongly and convincingly claimed that man is not a weak or unimportant or evil based thing nor he is a beast like thing. He rather stressed that man is the image of God. If everything made, shows the imprints of its creator, the painter shows same thing about his personality in his outlets and paintings. A poet or writer shows his nature in his writings, then how can it be possible that the greater art in the universe (the man) is without the imprints of his God. In fact he said that the devotion and love in intense condition is like a fire that should be increased to maximum to burn all the impurities in crucible and man comes out as a pure Divine being or a Sufi or something that can be merged and extinguished in the being of God. Even Ali Hijwiri defended Al-Hallaj from the wrong accusation of being a magician. He just remarked that he was too bold, blunt that he did not perceive the situation and as Abrahim (A.S) who jumped into the fire of the king Namrood, he also took the plunge.(Kalabadhi,1935,p:137)

These conventional and mature view points of him were in fact because of his direct lineage to the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W) through his father who was a direct descendant of Hazrat Imam Hassan (R.A.A), son of Hazrat Ali (R.A.A). His sisila-e-nasb (family lineage) is as follow,

Hazrat Ali Hijwiri (R.A.A) , son of Hazrat Muhammad Usman (R.A.A), son of Hazrat Abu’l Hassan Ali (R.A.A), son of Hazrat Abdur Rehman (R.A.A), son of Hazrat Shah Shuja (R.A.A), son of Hazrat Hasan Asghar (R.A.A), son of Hazrat Zaid (R.A.A), son of Hazrat Imam Hassan (R.A.A), son of Hazrat Ali (R.A.A). Hazrat Hijwiri was the ninth descendant of Hazrat Ali (R.A.A). after the tragedy of karbala, many of the descendants of Hazrat Ali (R.A.A) dispersed to foreign lands and among them were

the forefathers of Hazrat Ali Hijwiri who migrated to the Ghaznvid Empire, which is now Afghanistan. (Rashid Abdur, 1967, p:26)

Ali Hijwiri was also blessed with direct lineage to the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W) through his mother who was a descendant of Hazrat Imam Hussein (R.A.A). His mother was greatly devoted to the religious worship and was committed to the bettering the welfare of the poor and the suffering. His maternal uncle was also highly respected and had the title of “Tajul Auliya”. Because of his firmed rooted Islamic training he had authentic and logical thoughts to present. He was very careful about his duty to guide the common people. He explained all the important things through which even a common man gets high success in the ways of God. While stressing on the usefulness of good intentions, he said that the believer’s intention is better than his performance because without intention nothing can be done. He gave the example of a person who endures hunger without the intention of having fast, he would not get his reward from God. But if he gets the intention of having fast, he would definitely be granted and blessed by God. Sayed Ali Hijwiri also quoted an example of a traveller who stays for a time in a city does not become a resident until he has formed the intention to reside there. And thus he proves that a good and noble intention is the essential part and parcel of every act. (Hijwiri,1995,p:233)

Ali Hijwiri elucidates that the path of spirituality or Sufism is not same for all. Infact, the sufis are also selected to pass on this path. The mystic way is difficult to travel except for those who were made for that pure destination. He also gave the logic that holy Prophet (S.A.W.W) said:

“Everyone finds easy that for which he was made”.

(Hijwiri , 2001, p: 5)

Ali Hijwiri stressed on getting knowledge. He mentioned the example of a man who gained the knowledge of religion and saved and left in prosperity. By knowledge he meant to say that knowledge of man’s own self. Man should try to acquire the knowledge of him whether he is young or old. The Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W) said,

“To seek knowledge is obligatory on every Muslim man and woman”. He also said: “Seek knowledge even in China”.He said that knowledge is immense and life is short. Knowledge is obligatory only in so far as is requisite for acting rightly. God condemns those who learn useless

knowledge (Al-Quran 11: 96) and the Holy Prophet said: “I take refuge with thee from knowledge that profiteth not”.

Much may be done by means of a little knowledge, and knowledge should not be separated from action: The Holy Prophet said: “The Devotee without Divinity is like a dunkey turning a mill” because the dunkey goes round a round and never makes any advance.

Ali Hijwiri wrote a few books (which are mentioned in Revelation of the Veiled and listed by Prof. Nicholson in his English translation) but he himself mentioned that all of those were stolen by other people. Some people think that the magazine Kashf-al-asrar is also written by him. (Rashid Abdur,1967 p:29).

It is stated that Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani (R.A.A) during one of his gatherings said that he would have taken Ali Hijwiri as his spiritual guide if he was born in his time.He also stated that, Data Ganj Baksh is a lion of Sufism and one must go to him with utmost respect. (Usmani, 1998, P: 75)

Ali Hijwiri wrote Kashf-al-Mehjoob, Minhaj-ud-Din, Asrar-ul-Khiraqqm wa’l-ma’unat, Kitab-al-byan-li-ahl-al-iyan, Bahr-ul-Qulub and Al-Riayat Li-Huqq Allah etc.

Throughout his life he was a light bearing guide and a true guiding star that served each and every moment in the service of God and helped His creature. Moinuddin Chishti paid homage to Ali Hijwiri and calls Ganj Baksh, a mercy for the world, Phenomenon of the light of Lord. Imperfects found a perfect teacher; in him perfects got a great teacher.

In other words it can be said that Ganj Bakksh was indeed a manifestation of the light of God for all people, a perfect guide unto the imperfect ones and a guide unto the perfect ones. (Suherverdi,1891, p: 275.)

6.8 Al- Ghazzali

Abu Hamid M. Ibn-e -M. At- Tusi Al-Ghazali,born in 1058 Tuesday, died on 18th December, 1111 Tuesday, was considered ‘The Most Influential Thinker of Medieval Islam’. Al- Ghazali can generally be described as a highly respected member of society in his own time as he belonged to the golden age of Islam. He was a Muslim theologian, jurist, philosopher and mystic of Persian descent. He has sometimes been referred to as the single most influential

Muslim after the last Prophet of Islam the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W). He was also awarded the honorific title ‘The proof of Islam’ (Hujjat-al-Islam). He brought orthodox Islam of his time in close contact with Sufism. He was appreciated by many scholars and philosophers for his commendable work related to not only Islam but also of his superb research about Sufism.

‘If there had been a prophet after Muhammad (S.A.W.W), Al-Ghazali would have been the man.’(Smith,1995, P: 48).

That literary giant of Islamic history presented a lot of thought provoking material for the development and grooming of man’s life by correcting his errors and inappropriate behavior and guiding him to the way of benefits not only in this world but in the life here after. In fact almost his all the teachings were replete with practical beneficial knowledge. For example it is an open secret about his famous book Ihya-ulum-ad-din (The Revival of Religious Science) that it has made Sufism (Islamic Mysticism) an acceptable part of orthodox Islam.In his Bidayatul Hidayah (The Beginning of Guidance) he has emphasized on spending life according to sunnah and adopting of the etiquettes told by the pride of universe, the last prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.W).

‘You must convince your heart that whatever Allah has decreed is the most appropriate and the most beneficial for you.’(Ghazali, 2011, p:99)

Al-Ghazali in fact showed the people that if they want to follow Jihad as religious obligation, they must fight a heroic battle against their real cunning enemies. According to him men should declare their Jihad on 13 enemies they can not see and those are egoism, arrogance, conceit, selfishness, greed, lust, intolerance, anger, lying, cheating, gossiping and slandering.

Al-Ghazali was not of the view that man must not fight with others nor should he try to make people pious by suppressing and oppressing them to follow the right path and to become a good Muslim. He wanted them to correct their own behavior because charity begins at home and it is a futile attempt to change the world, Instead they themselves should be the change they want to see in this world .It is a fact that action speaks louder than word.Ghazali always stressed that if people want to purify the world from the negativity and sins, they must strive for embellishing their own pure and positive character and this is the real true Islam and efficient Muslims consciously try to become firm and resolute in practical form.

‘O ye who believe! Fear Allah as he should be feared and die not except in state of Islam.’(Al Quran 3 .102)

Al-Ghazali stressed upon choosing the good and decent manners in life for eternal success. It is the style of the Sufis to correct one’s own self and in real and exact sense ‘lose your self and find it’. To make one’s heart neat and clean , Al-Ghazali has thrown ample light on getting perfect in his various books .He has focused on the important topics like FEAR OF Allah Almighty, Taqwa, Patience, Maladies Of The Herat , Negligence, Love, Excellence And Warning Of Certian Important Action And Occasions. (Ghazalli, 1997, p:101)

According to Al-Ghazali a sound heart is required for inner satisfaction because a sound heart is free from all defects and spiritual blemishes. Though the physical heart is centered in physical heart, the heart here is referred to, is not physical heart but it is spiritual heart.

‘On that day nothing will benefit the human being, neither wealth nor children, only the one who bring Allah a sound heart’. (Al-Quran 1; 63)

‘Whosoever complains of the bad character of another has revealed the badness of his own character’. (Ghazali,1986,p:121)

Al-Ghazali was of the view that the Sufis are the true pioneers on the path of God and there is nothing more beautiful and more peaceful than their life or more praiseworthy their crystal clear, attractive rule and conduct and nothing in this world is more pure than their morality.

The aim which the Sufis set before them is as follows;

‘to free the soul from the tyrannical yoke of passions, to protect it from the satanic evil path of corruption and wrong inclination, animal instinct’ for the sole purpose of decorating the purified heart for the seat of Almighty Allah and the invocation of His holy names.(Ghazalli,1984,p:89)

As it is confidently claimed that Al-Ghazali is one of the Sufis so he stressed on having purity within the man for winning God’s grace. It was narrated that Umar Bin Khatab said; ‘I heard the messenger of Allah (S.A.W.W) said;

‘Whosoever builds a mosque in which the name of Allah Almighty is mentioned, Allah Almighty will build a house for him in paradise.’(Ghazali, 1986,p:127) 86

The great mystic Ai-Ghazali’s quotes are deceptively very simple but in actual in his terse and precise sentences, there is a vast ocean whose depth can not be measured absolutely .In the book ‘Ihya-ulum-Al-Din’ (The Revival of Religious Science) by Imam Ghazali, that is the most read book after Al-Quran . This book is divided into 4 parts and each part has 10 chapters. In the 1st part, Al- Ghazali throws ample light on knowledge and the requirements of religion, ritual purity, prayer, charity, fasting, pilgrimage and recitation of Al- Quran. In the 2nd part, it concentrates on man and society, the manners relating eating, friendship and marriage etc. In the 3rd and 4th part inner life of the soul is the main topic of discussion. The vices of men that must be overcome and the virtues man must strive to achieve. In this book Al-Ghazali claims;

‘Do not allow your heart to take pleasure with the Praise of people nor be saddened by their condemnation’ (Ghazali, 1997, P:121 )

The great Sufi, Ghazali has narrated some of his own experiences while discussing the struggle for the grooming of human soul. He once told that he had never dealt with anything more difficult than his soul, which sometimes helped him and sometimes opposed him. He stressed on ornating the heart with that kind of knowledge which is beneficial. According to him, useful knowledge is that which makes a man grow in the fear of Allah, helps to increase you in the awareness of your defects, deepens man’s knowledge of the worship of his God Most High, decreases man’s desire for this world for the life to come and opens his eyes to the defects of his actions so that he can guard against them. Moreover, he showed the importance of being satisfied on the will of God. God’s will is existing things and sets things created in time in order, for there occurs in this world and in the transcendent world neither too far nor too many, small nor great, good nor evil, benefit nor harm, belief nor disbelief, recognition nor denial, gain nor loss, increase nor diminish, obedience nor disobedience, except on a result of God’s decree and predestination and wisdom and will. What he wishes; is: What he does not wish: is not. (Ghazalli, 1872-73, p:169)

According to Al-Ghazali, solitude, sleepliness, silence, and hunger are the most important Sufi practices if one wants to strip away all of their habits and bad characteristics. Fasting is considered one of the most important ways to follow the path of a spiritual life. This path, called Tariqah, also involves a kind of spiritual ecstasy or intoxication and happens once the self is annihilated .This ecstasy is described in other mystical traditions as well. Other practices which

aloe the Sufis to become closer to God include ritual prayer or dhikr which consist in repeating over and over again the different names of God. There are thousands of repetitions. This is similar to the practices of chanting in some forms of Buddhist meditation – it is supposed to help the mystic to enter into a trance state. Sessions of music and poetry recitations called SAMA have also been used to achieve an ecstatic experience. (Ghazalli,2011,pp:101-112)

As a mystic Al-Ghazali stressed on man’s self, especially on the purging of spiritual heart, the best way to worship Almighty Allah, on the world as it really is and the next world. Thus it can be claimed with conviction that the role of Al-Ghazali is truly appraisable for his unlimited, unimaginable and wonder struck strive in the ways told by Almighty Allah .It is claimed about him that

‘What Aquinas became for medieval Christendom, so al-Ghazali was to Islam of early middle age’. (Qasim,1979,p:87)

So, by acting upon the practical of religion life can be free from all sorts of worries and sufferings.

‘If there comes to you guidance from me, then whosoever follows my guidance shall suffer no fear nor shall they grieve’ (Al-Quran 2:38)

6.9 Ibn-al-Arabi

Ibn-al-Arabi (1155-1240) is known as ‘Shayk-a-Akbar’, the greatest master of intellectual and spiritual genius. He was and still is the best philosopher, poet, thinker, and scholar, mystic, spiritual teacher, superb visionary, sage, great Arabic Shaykh, genius saint and most celebrated of all Muhammadan mystic that ever lived. He is also known as Muhy`idin (the Revivifier of Religion) and the king in the world of spirituality, was born in Southern Spain (Murica) in 560 AH/1165 AD into the Moorish culture of Andalusian Spain, the centre of an extra-ordinary flourishing and gross fertilization of Jewish, Christian and Islamic thought when the major scientific and philosophical works of antiquity were transmitted to North Europe. (Landan,1959,p:6)

Ibn al Arabi is a prominent figure in the world of spirituality known as Al-Shaykh-Al- Akbar, the greatest master and teacher in Arabic. He wrote over 360 books each of which is a treasure of insight and creativity. (Hiertenstein,1999, p:7)

Ibn`Arabi has introduced the dynamic works that put the world wonder stuck and the uniqueness and perfection in his work really allures the soul of man. His outstanding work was so influential and motivational that every man on this earth moved and can still moving. His works guide the people not only in the East but also in the West. This is the true mark of a genuine mystic. Actually it is God`s grace on him that he and his words are evergreen.

Ibn`Arabi is considered the most complex writer and thinker in the world of Islamic mysticism and western spiritual tradition. To understand him wealth of knowledge of Islam, Quran, Hadith, Medieval Arab philosophy is required. (Hirtenstein,1999, p:8)

While throwing ample light on ‘God and the world`, he was of the view that God manifests Himself in every atom of creation. He is revealed in every intelligible object and concealed from every intelligence except the intelligence of those who say that the universe is His form and asperity in as much as He stands in the same relation to phenomenal objects as the spirit to body.

While narrating the relation between God and man, Ibn`Arabi said that man is the form of God and God is the spirit of man. Man is to God as pupil is to eye: by means of him God beholds the objects which He has created: man`s origin is both temporal and eternal: he is an organism durable and everlasting; Man is the substance of every attribute where with he endows God: when contemplates God, he contemplates himself. And God contemplates Himself when He contemplates man. Hence, the views of Ibn` Arabi are so easy to understand that they go deep to the soul of man. (Sullivan, 1999, pp:96-99)

There is less doubt that the works of ibn` Arabi hold the quality of being able to speak to people of all walks of life and beliefs, across the apparent barriers of many centuries and differ cultures. The expression of such mysticism born from the heart and it is to these deepest of feelings readers respond. (Hirtensteir,1999, p:9)

Moreover, he was of the view that he is the face and tongue of God, who is called by his name. and also by the other temporal names because God unites all opposites in Himself. He also

elucidated that God dwells in the heart of man and man invested with Divine qualities, is mirror, which displays God to Himself. Divine qualities may justly be attributes to anyone who is transported from himself that God becomes his eyes and his ears. Although union with God is not possible while the body exists. Ibn` Arabi like Plotinus, holds the view that “deification” is attainable. Elsewhere he says that knowledge of God is utmost goal that can be reached by any contingent being. This knowledge is gained solely by means of faith and contemplation, which reason may serve if it consents to lay aside its reflective faculty.What then is the end of knowledge? Apparently a state of Nirvana or transcendental unconsciousness. (Chittick 1989, pp:45,46)

Ibn`Arabi a great master of mystics showed man a straight forward and clear way to reach to God. And for this pious and holy purpose he has shown a sequence of methods which man should apply to get able to reach his destination. He illustrated that the seeker needs training for character, abandonment of headlines and endurance of all indignities. The advice is this: “Go shut yourself in and do not yield to seeing people and occupy yourself with Dhikr, remembrance of God, with whatever sort of Dhikr you choose” for example “Allah, Allah”.The path to the lord is shown through steps:

A) Preliminary work to be done by the seeker a) Your first duty is to search for the knowledge which establishes your ablution and prayer, your fasting and reverence. You are not obliged to seek more than this is the first door of the journey. b) Then work c) Then moral heedfulness d) Then asceticism e) Then trust

B) The ascent a) Unveiling of the sensory world b) Unveiling of the imagined world c) Unveiling of the world of abstract meanings. 90

Then God will show you the secrets of the vegetable world, mineral world and animal world.

Then the infusion of the world of life-force into lives and if it is not stopped with this, he reveals to you the `surface shine’.

Next the light of the scattering parts becomes visible. . . . to Fana and then Baqa . (Arabi,1994,p:213)

After passing through these stages, Ibn`Arabi was of the view that, among those who make this journey, some are entrusted with God`s word and some are not. Those entrusted with one or more of God`s words become the inheritors of Prophets of that world the full Muhammadan perspective balances all the words of all Prophets or, from other perspective manifest all the Divine names in balanced fashion.(Arabi,1911,p:147)

Some seekers ‘stop at fana’ and do not return---that is they do not live in this material plane as functioning social presences. Rather they remain in Fana---lost in God often uttering ecstatic sayings. They have not fully re-entered the world.Other seekers do return and manifest the Divine among the brethren, all things being equal. Those who return are higher than those who in being absorbed in God, do not return to ordinary life.Those who return are either saints or prophets. Both groups share the knowledge without acquired learning, action by the heart`s intention (Himma), and the ability to see the world of images in the sensory world. They differ in how they address the people. The commentary says,

“The saint addresses whoever is behind and following him. The prophet addresses whoever is before him, through fundamental authority, not through their following. And the saint speaks behind the veil of prophet. While the prophet speaks without the veil---that is without the meditation of another prophet.” (Arabi,1911,p:152)

Although the two classes share the common group- the stations of Divine realization- still the ascent of the prophet is through the fundamental light itself, is through what is providently granted by that light. (Sullivan,1999,p:99)

Ibn`Arabi, the great scholar started to write books at the age of 27, and continued to do this for the rest of his life. Based on the titles in two books that he left, it can be said Ibn`Arabi wrote over 350 volumes. However, the works wrote by him which are extant today number

between 75 and 100. Some of these are very long and some are short.(Sharif,1966,p:55). His best known works are following:

Fausul-al-hikam (The Ringtones of Wisdom)

This is considered to be the quintessence of IbnÀrabi`s spiritual teachings. It comprises 27 chapters, each dedicated to the spiritual meaning and the wisdom of a particular Prophet like Shith (Seth), Nuh (Noah), Idris, Abrahim (Ibrahim), Ishaq (Issac), Isma`l (Ishmael), Yaqub (Jacob), Yusuf (Joseph), Hud, Salih, Shuàyb, Lut (Lot), Uzayr (Ezra), Isa (Jesus), Sulyman (Soloman), Daùd (David), Yunus (Jonah), Ayub (Job), Yahya (John the Baptist), Zakriyya (Tachariah), Ilyas (Elijah), Luqman (lokman), Harun (Aaron), Musa (Moses), Khalid, Muhammad (S.A.W.W).

By discussing all the prophets at the end, Ibn`Arabi concludes that the most complete and last Prophet (S.A.W.W) is the leader in every aspect and the emperor of all prophets by all means.

Al-Futuhat al-Makkiya (The Meccan Opening)

This is a vast compendium of metaphysics, cosmology, spiritual anthropology, psychology and jurisprudence. Topics include the inner meanings of the Islamic rituals, the journey to God and in God, the nature of cosmic hierarchy, the spiritual and ontological meaning of letters of the Arabic alphabets, the sciences embraced by each of the ninety-nine names of God and the significance of the differing messages of various Prophets. This work was written over a twenty-year period as Ibn`Arabi travelled in the near east and revised in a second recession during the time he lived in Damascus. (Arabi,1994,p:135)

Tarjuman-al-Ashwaq (The Interpreter of Yearnings)

This short collection of poetry was inspired by his meeting during his first pilgrimage to Mecca of a great scholar from Isfahan. He later wrote a long commentary on the poems to prove to his critics that they in fact deal with spiritual truths and not profane love. It was the first of Ibn`Arabi’s works to be translated into English. (Arabi,1911, P:12).

Moreover the unlimited Mercifier Mashahid al-asar-qudsiyya written in 1194 (590) in Alusia, Al-Tadbirat-al-ilahiyya (written in space of four days), Kitab-al-Isra (written in

1198,(594), Mawaqi-al-Najum (written in 11 days in 1199), Mishkat-al-anwar etc are his famous books that illuminated the whole world.

So there is no doubt in confessing that Ibn`al Arabi was a real jewel of Sufi world who preached love and tried to increase faith in human beings, who wrote poetry, preaching peace.

“My heart has become capable of every form,

It is a pasture for

Gazelles and a convent for Christian Monks.

And a temple for idols and the pilgrims’ Ka’ba and the tables of the Tora and the book of the Koran,

I follow the religion of Love.

Whatever way Love’s camel take,

That is my religion and my faith.”

(Arabi,1911, p:22)

Thus all the readers, followers and scholars rightly claimed for him that Ibn’ al Arabi is said to have claimed that he was the seal of the saints as Muhammad (S.A.W.W) was the seal of the prophets. (Arabi,1911, p:13)

6.10 Maulana Rumi

Jalal-ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi is known as Jalal-ad-Din Muhammad Rumi, Mevlana or Mawlawi (meaning my master), Mevlevi or Mawlawi and more popularly in the English speaking world as Rumi (30th September 1207-17 December 1273) was a 13th century Persian poet, theologian, jurist, thinker, philosopher, sufi mystic, teacher, narrator, preacher and friend of God who communicated something through his writing that has attracted spiritual seekers from almost every religion in the world, for hundreds of years. Even this day, Rumi was sought out by merchants and kings, devout worshippers and rebellious seekers, famous scholars and common peasants, men and women. At his funeral, Muslims, Christians, Jews, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Hindus and Romans honored him.

“Come, come whoever you are, Wanderer, Worshipper, lover of leaving. It doesn’t matter. Ours is not a caravan of despair. Come, even if you have broken your vow a hundred times. Come, yet again, come, come. (Rumi,1990,p:37). Rumi’s love and honor for all religious traditions was not always popular in his day, and often provoked criticism from the more dogmatic. A story is told that one such public challenge came from a Muslim dignity, Quonavi, who confronted Rumi before an audience.

“You claim to be at once with 72 religious sects,” said Quonavi, “but the Jews cannot agree with the Christians, and the Christians cannot agree with Muslims. If they cannot agree with each other, how could you agree with all of them?”

To this Rumi answered,

“Yes you are right, I agree with you too”.

The greatest message, in fact one of it is that Rumi preached peace, love and contentment in all sects. As he says,

“ I am neither Christian nor Jew, neither Magian nor Muslim, I am not from east or west, not from land or sea, not from the shafts of nature nor from the sphere of firmament,

Not of the earth, not of water, not of air, not of fire, I am not from the highest heaven, not from this world, not from existence, not from being”.

Although kings were his followers, Rumi’s critics could never understand why Rumi’s greatest love and dedication went to what they called, the tailors, the cloth sellers and the petty shopkeepers- uncouth and uncultured ruffians. Yet even amongst his dearest companions, Rumi allowed no vanity because he firmly believed that;

“There is no reality but God, says the completely surrendered Sheikh, who is an ocean for all beings”.

(Rumi, 1997, ch:4, p:44.)

In each and every word of Rumi, there is some wise advice hidden. A story is told that one day, while Rumi was in complete contemplation, surrounded by his disciples, a drunken walked in shouting and stumbling. The man staggered toward Rumi and then fell on him. To Rumi’s followers such a disgrace of their spiritual teacher was intolerable and they rose as one to rush ignorant fool. Rumi stopped them with his raised hand saying, “I thought this intruder was the one who was intoxicated, but now I see it is not he, but my own students who are drunk.” How it is possible that a sage saint who strongly believes in human piety and equality does not give education to his students to respect the people. He was of the view that God dwells in every human being and only those can see Him who has eyes to see. (Liebert,1981, p:45)

“If in thrust you drink a cup of water from a cup, you see God in it. Those who are not in love in God see only their own faces in it”. (Fadman and Frager, 1997, p;73)

Rumi believed that the essence of God is love and the Sufi path is the path of love. Love is to see what is good or beautiful.

“Are you fleeing from Love because of a single humiliation?

What do you know of Love except the name?

Love has a hundred forms of pride and disdain,

And is gained by a hundred means of persuasion.

Since love is loyal, it purchases one who is loyal”

(Rumi,1996, ch:3, p:302-5)

Rumi was of the view that by love and observing surrounding of man and especially looking inward makes man to know what is good and beautiful in everything it is to learn from everything, to see the gifts of God and the generosity of God in everything. It is to be thankful for all of God’s bounties. This is the first step on the road to the love of God. As Jalal-ad-Din Rumi says;

“That which God said to the rore, and caused it to laugh in full blown beauty,

He said to my heart,

And made it a hundred times more beautiful.”

(Rumi,1996, ch:3, p:4129)

Rumi knew that knowledge alone is not enough in life. A person also put his knowledge especially about religion into practice by demonstrating care for other people. Rumi’s mystical poetry also uses the language of love to describe a person’s relationship with Almighty Allah. God is called the beloved and the seeker is called or designated as the lover. According to Bark Coleman, Shams Tabriz and Rumi are real. They gave the ever best shots to the human condition. The reason for the world wide fame of Rumi’s poetry is that it records the friendship. (Bark Coleman, 2003, p:17). In short Rumi has written a lot of grand and worthy works like Fihi ma Fihi (Discourses of Rumi), the greatest book Masnawi, Divani Shams Tabriz etc.

Rumi’s greatest work Diwan-i- Shams- Tabriz which is a tribute written by Rumi for his fast friend and a source of inspiration and the Dervish Shams’ honor, which comprises some 40,000 verses. The Diwan is made up of some 3230 ghazals, totaling 3500 verses, 44 tarjiat, poems composed of two or more ghazals, a total of 1700 verse and 2000 rubaiyat or quatrains.

It is surely his unique style and powerful messages in his writings that he is evergreen writer. As Tell, Carol says that one of the most famous and best selling poets in U.S.A. is the 13th century persian poet and sufi mystic Jalal-ad-din Rumi. Though his spiritual verses have been reversed, yet they also ignited the imaginations of contemporary American readers of all faiths.

Rumi’s another work which is very famous in the whole world is “Masnavi Ma’anvi” (spiritual couplets), a six volume poem. It is a poetic collection of rambling ancedotes and stories derived from the Ai-Quran, Hadith sources and everyday tales. The Masnavi is series of six books of poetry that amount to about approximately 270 verses or 54000 lines. The title “Masnavi Ma`navi” means “Rhyming couplets of profound spiritual meaning”.

The Masnavi of Rumi is said to have been written in 43 years. Often whole nights were spent in composition, Jalal reciting and his friend Hasan copying it down and sometimes singing portion of verses in his beautiful voice. Masnavi is full of profound mystries and is a most

important book in the study of Sufism mysteries which must, for the most part, be left to the discernment of the reader. Rumi himself said that the great love is silent. It is in silence that we shall come to understand the supereme mystery of love that has no companian.

Rumi’s Masnavi is probably the longest mystical poem ever written by single author from any religious tradition. Although the content of each book is too rich and diverse to be neatly catagorized, one can none the less observer a logic to the selection and order of the major stories. For instance, those of book one seem to be presented in the order of the progression on the sufi path as far as the climax presented by the final story about Hazrat Ali (R.A.A).

To cut the matter short, it can be said Rumi was, no doubt, a great thinker, philosopher, theologian, researcher, guide, spiritual teacher and bacon of light that illuminated the world and is still making the whole world spell bound.

Rumi was a practicing Sufi, a branch of Islamic asceticism tht orignated in 8th century in Persia. Yet his great spiritual devotion led not to intolerance but to a greater feeling of unity among all living beings, disapproving all-too-common misperceptions of Islam as a monolithic fundamentalist faith. In profoundity of thought, inventions of image and triumphant mastery of language, one of his translator and biographers wrote that Rumi stands out as a supereme genius of Islamic mysticism.( Carol, 2002, p:2)

6.11 Al Kabir

Kabir (1440-1518) was undoubtedly leading spiritual saint, genius of India, the great poet and an outstanding iconoclastic personality revered by Hindus, Muslims and Sikh alike, widely renowned for his pithy couplets songs that connect life and spirituality in a simple yet powerful way. Kabir`s genius has been in that he has inspired the scholars and poets alike like Rabindranath Tagore and common masses. His words were in a universal language that, literally and figuratively, broke down all the barriers how strong and chronic they may be to experience the Divine.

“Kabir`s message is essentially to know the self, the eternal spirit that is the core of our being. It is our religious and spiritual duty to know who we really are, and remove ourselves from doubt and delusion” (Kabir, 2008, p: 13)

Kabir`s teachings have become important for people of all the religions because he preached impartiality. In one of his famous couplets, he writes,

“Kabir stands in the open market and seeks the welfare of all. He is neither friend nor enemy to anyone.”

His desire was to teach people a true religion of the heart. He wanted to turn people from the empty ritualism religion and tried to present before them the holy path that leads to Divine union. It is in fact a praiseworthy but too difficult task. In other words it can be said that legend spiritual saint of India taught self-realization and loving devotion to the formless divine that dwells within all.

“Kabir did not tolerate false piety, superstitions, and the externalities of religions. He exhorted to awaken to self-knowledge in this life and be free.” (Kabir, 2008, p: 13)

Once he wrote, “I went searching for the beautiful color of my Beloved, and then discovered the color manifesting everywhere. Even as I searched for it, I too had been colored by its beautiful hue.”

In another fantastic poem, the gigantic figure of Sufi world claims that, “uttering your name, I have become you; I have no individuality or ego left in me”

Asserted who he was:

“I am neither a Hindu nor a Muslim. I am a five element puppet in which Divine power plays.”

He in fact teaches a lot of trustworthy and beneficial lessons;

“We need to realize that we are never separate from God. He taught the equality of all, universal love and brotherhood, regardless of religion, cast or social status. In his poems he is always addressing the audience from a point of authority, yet he had no formal education. He spoke of what he realized.”(Kabir, 2008, p: 14).

Kabir was a fearless teacher. He spoke candidly to both religious and temporal authorities. He was aimed at guiding people to the truth of spirituality and the fakeness and uselessness of their apparent empty rituals and practices.

“Kabir`s songs seek nobody`s appreciation, they seek no sanction, ask for no approval, search for no popularity, invite no commendation, crave for no compliment.They stand independent of these considerations, and they constitute the most uninhibited literature, the freest of free writing ever produced by a saint……… banter, ridiculous, sarcasm, wit and humor- these are the weapons he wields Nor does he hesitate to hit straight from the shoulders, hitting hard, ceaselessly and without stop, till the face of false piety and hypocrisy is bettered out of shape and exposed to the view of the general public for general laughter.”(Ezekiel,1978, pp: 62-64)

The reason for Kabir`s forceful and fearless language is easily understood when we realize just how much influence priest craft had during his era. Religion had been reduced to a commercial activity, a means for priest to earn a living and following. It did not instruct the people in the true way of life that religion intended. They scorned people of the lower castes, forbade them from entering temples and from reading holy books. The priest themselves committed evil deeds and murder. They formulated elaborate rituals that had no meaning for the average person. Kabir observed this behavior in both of the major religions, Islam and Hinduism. He felt strongly that there was no place of this behavior in the spiritual life. He therefore spoke out, often in controversial and challenging language, trying to awaken people to the realization of their errors. He was famous for his contrary saying (ulta bani) which challenged the priests to see if they had the spiritual wisdom to supply the right answers.

Kabir`s teachings are now being taught in many schools and universities in India. Many people are now able to quote from him freely, including those who are not members of the Kabir`s path (Religious and mystical paths based on Kabir`s teachings). Many of his couplets are quoted as popular wisdom in all parts of India. Kabir had a piercing wit and clarity of thought which proved difficult to challenge. Many academic theses have been written on life and works of Kabir.

So it is clear that Kabir`s influence on the development of religious life of the people of India is quite substantial. He has been hailed as the father of Hindi poetry. Prior to Kabir`s spiritual teachings were generally in Sanskrit a language confirmed to scholars and priesthood and not understood by the people at large. Kabir conveyed his spiritual teachings in spoken language of the people so that everyone could understand. For this reason his couplets and songs are still sung by people all over India.

Kabir initiated “Sant Mat”, the practice of spending time in the company of saintly people. He admonished people to give up their egos and seek the company of spiritual and saintly people. There are now many branches of ’Sant Mat’ throughout the world. Another practice initiated by Kabir is “sahaj Yoga” or “Surat shabd Yoga”, the path of natural union with God. One then sees God manifesting everywhere through His Omni-presence. It is therefore easy to see why Kabir would conclude:

“Friend! What is paramount is a natural state of union with god!”

Among one of his most telling influence, kabir refined and clarified the devotional movement of Indian spirituality known as “Bhakti”. He founded “Nirguna Bhakti”, the practice of loving devotion to the formless Divine prior to Kabir. “Bhakti” had been practiced and understood through the sense of “Sarguna Bhakti’ or devotion to the multiple physical forms that the Divine took.

Kabir strongly emphasized vegetarianism so one would not inflict harm on other living creatures, since he argued; their lives are as dear to them as our lives are to us. He writes, “Do not take life, the same life force pervades all. The sin of such actions will not leave you, if you were to listen to millions of scriptures.”Again “Just as you know pain within yourself, realize other living being feels pain the same way”.

Another theme that recurred quite frequently in kabir`s poems is the need to realize the self or soul, the manifestation of the Divine in and all beings. The realization produces “Enlightenment” and releases one from clutches of “Maya” (the illusory power with in creation). Great teachings such as Kabir`s are a treasure for our development. They are like torch light in the way so we do not stumble on our journey. Kabir`s poetry is like a map showing directions in path of Divinity. It is up to us to pay attention. (Kabir, 2008, p:14)

100

CHAPTER-4

COMPARISON BETWEEN CHRISTIAN MYSTICISM & ISLAMIC MYSTICISM (SUFISM)

1. Introduction

Islam and Christianity are considered to be the world's largest religions. Both are closely related to each other as both of them revere Abraham and the other prophets as are mentioned in the Bible as their spiritual ancestors. The religious beliefs of both religions have some commonalites as well as differences too. As far as Mysticism is concerned, in Islam it is called Sufism or Tasawwuf and in Christianity it is taken as Mysticism or Spirituality. There are many things common in Islamic Sufism and Christian Mysticism. First of all both Islamic Sufism and Christian mysticism are firmly rooted in mystical view of God and Religion. Both of them depict the same mystical concept or experience of religion. Islamic Sufism and Christian mysticism consist of a subjective experience involving an interior journey of the spirit or soul to God, rather than an objective experience involving facts and figures. Both are based on imagination rather than reason. In both the experience does not come about automatically. It (experience) is something that is achieved by the mental and physical exercises. The main target of attention is to get a "Personal God" by something like meditation, imagination, chanting, dancing and music etc. (Richard,2011, pp:12-13).

2. Origin of Mysticism in Christianity and Islam

As far as the origin is concerned, it is a collective belief of Muslims that the Sufi tradition was first started with "Ali Ibn-e-Abi Talib", the cousin and son in law of the last Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W). He is taken as the great Leader, Sheikh of inner and deep principles and practices of Sufism which is not far from Islam. Even it is said that Islam shows the outer and apparent religion and Sufism depicts the deep and inner religion that is truer than true. It is also believed that Sufism is directly derived from Al-Quran which is regularly recited, meditated and followed practically in life. Even it is claimed that the lives of sufis are the practical sayings of Al-Quran. (Massignon,1994, pp:104-105). According to some Muslims, Sufism is in fact the strict amulation of the way of their great Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (S.A.W.W), by following His method, the connection of heart with Almighty strengthened.

101

As far as the Christian mysticism is concerned, it is believed that it was started with the 4 Avengliests or 12 Apostles who copied the Christ and then their writings and practices guided the other. (Nigosian, 2007, p:35). Even prior to that, Christian Mysticism is derived from Dionysius’ writings and later from Neoplatonism. The works of Greek writers and later translations influenced the mystic path of Christians. That’s why Christian mystical tradition has amalgamation of both Greek and Christian ideas. Then there is another issue. Since Christianity is guided by 12 Apostles so are the Mystics. The followers of one Apostle i-e John may not be believed or rather trusted by followers of another like Mathew. In contrast, Muslim Sufis of every order take the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W) as their model. All firmly believe in truthfulness of the sayings, deeds and experiences shared by Companions (R.A.A). Some great Sufi masters were proficient in Sharia and many of them were given the posts of Qadis or Sharia Law Judges. However, mystics have most often been criticized and condemned, by those who have orthodox views. However, the image of the Jesus of the Sermon on the Mount is repeatedly portrayted by the first generations of Sufis as well as the later Sufi poets. Jesus and Virgin Mary remained the exalted symbolic figures and served as the prototypes of the pure spiritual life. Jesus appeared as the ideal ascetic, the pure lover of God to the Sufis as he was the last Prophet before Muhammad (S.A.W.W). (Schimmel,2003,p:35) Jesus instructed the devout about the significance of humility, peace and charity, for “just as the seed does not grow but from dust, so the seed of wisdom does not grow but from a heart like dust”.(Makki,1892-93,p:274). Wearing of the woolen garment by the first Sufis from which their name is driven, might also be an adoption from the Christian ascetics. (Schimmel,2003,p:35) 3. Beliefs of both Traditions

In Muslim Sufism there are numerous beliefs such as “Oneness of God, Prophets, Revealed books, Angels, Predestinations, Day of Resurrection”. (Netton,2011, p:75).

Sufis believe that it is very much possible to draw closer to God and to embrace Almighty God’s presence in life. The chief aim of all sufis is to seek the pleasing of God by working to restore within them the primordial state of fitra that is beautifully described in Al- Quran. In this state nothing one does defies God and all is undertaken with the single motivation of love of God. To take guidance sufis firmly believe that Ali Bin Abi Talib is the Father of Sufism. (Hassan,2011, p:5).

102

There are many ideas in Sufism such as “Abdal, Baqaa, Dervesh, Dhawq, Fakir, Fana, Haal, Karamat, Haqiqa, Ihsan, irfan, Kashf, Lataif, Manzil, Marifa, Nafs, Noor, Qalander, Qutb, Silsila, Sufi cosmology, Sufi metaphysics, Sufi philosophy, Sulook, Tazkiah, Wali, and Yakeen” and also there are many practices like, “Anasheed, Dhikr, Hadra, Muraqaba, Sama, Whirling, and Ziyarat”. There are many sufi orders according to their way of prayers. But all are like chain to each other and link each other to the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W). (Bowker,2006, p:275). Although the lives and experiences of Christians Mystics are beyond doubt, yet we do not find their general acceptability. Even the idea propounded by one mystic is not wholly accepted and employed by another. That’s why the Christian Mystical terminology is not as much developed as we find Sufi terminology in Islam. In Christian mysticism, we find general religious terms like Unification, Salvation, Resurrection, Confession, Stoicism, Defication, and Transformation and so on. The popularity of Sufi terminology can easily be located even in West. But this is not the case with Christian Mystical terms. Similarly, there is no Christian Mystical Order or chain as we see a developed system of Sufi orders in Islamic Sufism. To talk about the beliefs of Christian mysticism, the mystic saints believe that God speaks to them directly and guides them through the Holy Spirit which is the one part of the Divine Trinity. They also believe in the existence of the Holy Spirit in every being which can speak to them through intution and dreams. Christians have Priests, Popes, Monks, Bishops and Ministers and other Clergy members to guide the people whereas Sufis have Sheikhs, leaders and wise men. (Berterd,1997, p: 65).

4. Metaphysical Experiences and contributions from both sides

Lets see first what is Metaphysics? ‘Metaphysics’ is a traditional branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of ‘Being’ and the world that encompasses it. It answers two basic questions in the broad terms, What is ultimately there? What is it like? (Geisler, 1999, p: 446). The word ‘Metaphysics’ goes back to Aristotalian philosophy. Aristotle was one of the early metaphysical philosophers. The Perennial topics in metaphysics are “Being, Existence and Reality, Objects and their properties, Cosmology, Cosmogony, Determinism, Free will, Identity and change, Mind and matter, Necessity and possibility, Religion and spirituality, Time and space” etc. ( Huston,2009, p:73.)

In Christianity the letters of Saint Paul and Gospel of John are thought to be the best metaphysical writings that influenced the Christian mystics. In Islamic Sufism, Al-Quran is the 103

only source of Sufism. Furthermore, writings of Muslim sufis as of Al-Hallaj,Al-Ghazalli Jalal- ad-Din Rumi, Sayed Ali Hijwiri etc are considered the influential spiritual writings.The spiritual experiences of each mystic are individual in nature and thus distinct from the other yet the underlying idea behind them is the same__the recognition of the Divine Reality ,the realization of man’s mortality ,the emphasis on universal brotherhood and mutual love.In Christianity, the Apostle Paul is taken next to Christ and he is clearly the most intriguing figure of 1st century in Christianity. His written letters are primary sources. The major effect that he left in Christianity after him was indeed through his letters, but in his own age, he perceived himself as a Prophet to the non-Jews, who had to bring message from Massiah and he did it in a very astonishing and extraordinary way. He used letters written in precise prose style as ancient world’s letters used to be. Indeed his understanding of Jesus’s life, death, Resurrection and his theological articulation of it in his letters that diligently forms the scriptural backbone of entire Christian religion. So Paul of Tarsus can be said to be the second founder of Christianity-after Jesus Christ. His letters are full of spiritual messages for Christian mystics and help to lead them near to Divine Bliss.(Ralph, 1905, p:111) Another metaphysical writing in Christian mysticism is the Gospel of John, one of the four canonical gospels in the Christian Bible. In present “New Testament” appears fourth after the synoptic gospels of Mathew, Mark and Luke. In his gospel, John has given a lot of Spiritual messages and explained the Christ esoterically. He explained Christ as the bread of life, the light of the world, the gate of the sheep, the good shepherd, the resurrection and the life, the way, the truth and the life and the vine.... In his gospel, he has focused on love as the central theme. Muslims talk about Allah as God but Muslim sufis as Rumi have always had other more esoteric concept “Allah Hu” is the “God beyond God”, a power or pre-existence reality that is “Beyond the Beyond”. John and his mystery school disciples or community were exactly in the same line of believers. He threw ample light on God, Christ, relation between God and Christ; the remaining messages left by Christ and explained it for the sake of humanity. (Muratorian, 1989, pp:10-11.

104

5. Fundamental Doctrines of Mysticism in the Bible &The Holy Quran

There are a number of different versions in the ancient Herbew language of the Jews book called the Torah (law) and it usually refers to Christianity as the Old Testament. Naturally, there have been many different translations to a great number of languages over the centuries. And no one could expect them to be identical in text or meaning. There is still a larger amount of these testaments or documents in English today. There are also different versions of the Gospel or what is commonly called “The New Testament”. It is available in many languages. The Catholic Bible (C. 325 A.D) contains 66 books although the newer (Protestant version) was derived from the Catholic Bible even then it does not match completely with each other. There is no common denominator for any of the many different versions of the Bible. (Riches, 2000, pp: 7-8). Whereas Al-Quran has only one version in Arabic language. Al-Quran is divided in 30 equal parts called “Juz” in Arabic. The arrangement of the parts is superbly commanded by the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W). (Sells,1999, p:35). The Bible is the collection of writings by different authors and translators; Al-Quran is a dictation or recitation. The speaker in Al-Quran in the first person is God Almighty Aallah Who talks to man directly. In Bible, there are many men writing about God and in the same place the word ‘God’ also speaking to men and still in other places some men simply writing or exchanging the information to one another. (Ex. Epistle of John 3). However both Books help in the seeking of God and are fundamental documents in the field of mysticism. (Hixen, 2003, pp:35-37.) Sufism is the branch of Islam which wholly takes its guideline from the Al-Quran, the religious Doctrine of Muslims.By combining adherence to Quranic themes with several carefully chosen hadith, Sufism is firmly rooted in the traditional sources of mainstream Islam. Instead of composing or seeking an alternate scripture, Sufism contains alternate readings of the Quran and literature about Holy Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.W) who is the Model of Al-Quran. (Vali-ud- din, 1991, pp:25-26) Sufism is called the internal knowledge foun in Al Quran. This inner meaning of Quran at greater level is taugt in Sufism. The Quran imples us to remain busy in Allah’s remembrance (dikhr) every moement. “And when you have finished the prayer, remember Allah, standing and sitting, and laying on your sides.” (Al-Quran 4:104). This dhikr ala dhawam is found adundantly in Sufi dhikr. The Sufis have practised Quranic teachings in their life. (Nasr, 1983,pp:56-58)

105

Like all Muslims, Sufis have looked to the scripture of Islam for inspiration and justification for their particular interpretation of how to practice religion. A number of verses in the Quran are cited by Sufis to illustrate the legitimacy of an esoteric interpretation of scripture.The famous "Light Verse" reads: "Allah is the Light of Heaven and Earth. His light may be compared to a niche in which there is a lamp; the lamp is in a glass; the glass is just as if it were a glittering star kindled from a blessed olive tree (that is) neither Eastern nor Western, whose oil will almost glow though fire has never touched it. Light upon light, Allah guides anyone He wishes to His light." (Al-Quran 24:35) Purifying the souls of people was one of the most important tasks of the great messengers including the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.W). Allah described Him (S.A.W) as,

"Similarly we have sent (Muhammad) of your own, reciting to you Our verses and sanctifying you, and teaching you the book and Al-Hikmah…" (Al-Quran, 2:151)

And

“Indeed he succeeds who purifies himself.” (Al-Quran, 91:9)

Sufism is an Islamic discipline which makes the character and inner life of the Muslims by imposing certain specific ordinances. The Prophet Muhammad was sent to “instruct” mankind “in Scripture and Wisdom and to sanctify them.”

The Sufis keep “instructions of Al-Quran” before their eyes and effort hard to perform what has been suggested for them to do; and to ignore what they are stopped for. God says;

“And those who fight strenuously for us we will surely guide them into our way.”

And

“Oh ye who believe! Do your duty to God, seek the means of approach unto Him and strive with might and main in His cause: that ye may prosper.”

Here is a verse that concisely pin points the Sufi goal of returning to and uniting with God is, "Verily we are for Allah, and verily unto Him we are returning."( Al-Quran, 2:16)

106

To suggest the close relationship between man and Creator, there is a verse in which God says of man:

"We are nearer to him than his jugular vein." (Al-Quran, 50:)

Sufism is not a sect but Sufism is a classical Islamic science of the understanding how the soul needs Allah through extra Ibadaah-worship and learning, better 'adaab-manners and Love in all our actions. It is the science of learning Ihsan-excellence in every moment and every action we do with the best of clean intentions to please Allah and not our egos to show off or to please others with our actions. On the other hand, Christian mysticism takes many resources that participated in its formulation. Yet the major resource is Christian doctrine, “The Bible”. However the Bible too has many versions, Old Testament, and New Testament etc. Anyhow it is tried to search the Biblical sayings about Mysticism. The term "Christian mystic" is an oxymoron. Mysticism is not the experience of a Christian. Whereas Christian doctrine states that God dwells in all Christians and that they can experience God directly through belief in Jesus. Christian mysticism aspires to apprehend spiritual truths that are not reachable through intellectual means, typically by emulation of Christ. The Bible says “Christ-likeness is achieved only by dying to self—not by self-effort at emulating anyone—and that spiritual truth is discerned through the intellect as guided by the indwelling Holy Spirit, who lives in all believers”. (John 16:13) Christian mysticism has its roots in Biblical spirituality. God favors love, sacrifice, devotion and morals and these entire things are taught by Christ. “For God is one and Jesus Christ is the mediator between God and men”.(John 2:8) Mysticism, according to its historical and psychological definitions, is the direct intuition or experience of God. And a true mystic can easily recognize God through direct experience. Bible guides mystic in this regard as, “Beloved, do not believe every spirit to see whether they are from God, for many false prophets have gone out into the world”. (John 4:1) Consciousness of God is part of the common definition of the mystic’s experience, but the only valid experience of this nature for the Christian is that which is allowed according to Scripture.

107

"The Spirit himself testifies with our spirit that we are God's children". (Romans 8:16) Christian Mystics believe that God will guide them through his near ones after Christ. In fact Jesus said about what the nature of the spiritual process would be after he had left this world: “But the Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said to you”. (John 14:26) The apostle Paul said this as following: “Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him.’ But God hath revealed them unto us by his Spirit: for the Spirit searcheth all things, yea, the deep things of God.” (1 Cor. 2:6-10) The Christian Mystics are believed to make prophecy, their, this quality is challenged by people but we see that the Bible advocates it by saying; “For no prophecy was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit”. (John 1:21)

6. Mystic Literature of Christianity and Islam

Literature offers an important record of Sufi teaching. Poems have been composed in perisan, Arabic, Punjabi, Turkish and Urdu.A common characteristic of mystical literature and especially of poetry is presence of a sense of Oneness, Wholeness or Completeness. We find unity of opposites in mystical experience and ‘Unifying vision of the One in the All’ and ‘The All in the One’.( Happold,1970, pp: 46-47).

William Blake (175-1827), the English poet, mystic, painter and printmaker elaborated this idea in his famous lines:

“To see the whole world in a grain of sand

And Heaven in a wild flower,

Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand

And Eternity in an hour.”

(Blake,1789,Songs of Innocence and Experience )

See one such verse by Rumi.

108

“The Religion of love is apart from all religions. The Lovers of God have no religion but God alone”. The Shephered’s Prayer (Math. III, 1720)

The mystical experience depicts the nature of ‘the true self’, cosmic self: the self that is beyond difference and duality, beyond life and death. The idea is present in mystical poetry of Christianity and Islam. However, imagery used by Christian mystics is different .Some of them call it ‘Spark of the Soul or the ground of the spirit’. (Lings, 2005, p:15).

John Ruysbroeck, a Catholic mystic during the 13th and 14th centuries, said:

“……the spark of the soul…. Is the inward and natural tendency of the soul towards its source? And here we receive the Holy Spirit; but in the act of receiving we become one spirit and one love with God”. (Happold, 1970 , p:48).

See an example from Tao Te Ching;

“My words are very easy to know, and very easy to practice; but there is no one in the world who is able to know and able to practice them.”

(Gibbs,1993, p:7)

Meister Eckhart, the 13th century German theologian and mystic says:

“The eye with which I see God is the same eye with which God sees me”.

( Blackney,1941, p:147).

Christian mystics also hold the idea of punishment in their writings.Clement of Alexanderia says: “Excellent souls are punished honorably by martyrdom; other kinds are purified by some other appropriate punishment”.(Bentely,1987, p:443)

Muslim scholars, who discuss the issue of mysticism and wish to promote love among the adherents of various faiths, leave their faith to their God. They cite the most cited saying of the Holy Prophet that:

“There are as many Paths to God as there are human souls”. (Bukhari,1987, Ch:15, N.30).

And also:

“Human beings are members in a body whole related, from a single essence are they all created” Shaykh Sa‘di(d.1292).

109

In Islamic history, the imagination of Rumi, Jami and Shabistari, the popular mystic poets of Persia, transcended the boundaries of orthodox traditions of Islam.

Let us see from Rumi first:

The sect of lovers is distinct from all others,

Lovers have a religion and a faith of their own…

(Rumi, Mathnavi, P:72).

If spiritual thought were equivalent of love of God, Outward forms of temples and prayers would not exist. (Rumi, Mathnavi, P:102).

The meditative mystics believe in theory of unity of being. For them all the visible created things demonstrate the dominant presence of one absolute Reality and hence there is nothing as absolute virtue and vice. When penetrating into the essence of being, the differences of creeds, doctrines and sects are revealed to be superficial. The following verses of Shabistari refer to the same fact:

“If “other” and “others” are before your eyes,

Then a mosque is no better than a Christian cloister;

But when the garment of “other” cast off by you, the cloister becomes a mosque.

(Shabistari,1992, pp:63-4).

See this verse of Jami also:

Thou movest under all the forms of truth, under the forms of all created things. (Jami,1984, P:36).

Ibn Hazm, a first rate moral psychologist suggests implicitly about the issue that:

Put your trust in a pious man, even if the religion that he practises is a different one from your own. Do not put your trust in anyone who scorns sacred things even if he claims to belong to your own religion. (Hazm,2006, P:15).

110

Having said this, human nature is the same every where but different customs and religious beliefs have created apparent difference. (Hazm,2006,P:29).

He also states that the Qur’ān and the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) “never foreclosed the channels of religious dialogue, nor of cordial interaction with non-Muslims at the socio- economic and cultural levels”. (Hazm,2006, P:15).

Ibn al –Arabi, known as al-Shaykh al-Akbar or the “Greatest Master”, is probably the most influential thinker of the second half of Islamic history. As a Sufi, he tried to offer a positive view of religious diversity. (Chittick, 2005, pp:1-3). He is also on the same track, as he states:

“God says, we never chastise, until we send forth a messenger. Note that he did not say, “until we send forth a preson”. Hence the message of the one who is sent must be established for the one to whom it is directed. There must be clear and manifest proofs established for each person to whom the messenger is sent, for many a sign(aya) has within it obscurity or equivocality such that some people perceive that what it proves. The clarity of the proof must be such that it establishes the person’s messengerhood for each person to whom he is sent. Only then, if the person refuses it, will he be taken to account. Hence, this verse has within it a tremendous mercy, because of the diversity of human dispositions that lead to a diversity of views. He who knows the all-inclusiveness of the divine mercy, which, God reports, embraces all things [7:156], knows that God did this only because of mercy toward his servants. (Arabi,1994, pp:156-157). Seyyed Hossein Nasr, too , has ascribed the similar approach to Ibnal-Arabi.(Nasr, 1988, P:116-118). He has also quoted these lines of al Hallaj: “I meditated upon religions, making great effort to understand them, And I came to realize that they are a unique principle with numerous ramifications”, as preamble of the ninth Chapter, of his book, Knowledge and Sacred.(Nasr, 1988, P:280).

So in their writings and teachings, the mystics of both sides often portray the world through a different perspective, using poetic expressions, parables and esoteric language to convey their message. The ideas shared in their works are not so comprehensible but encourage the reader to know the simple truth underlying the complex metaphor.

111

7. Originality of Sufism Sufism, in other words, Islamic mysticism, means that it is the major and most powerful part of the Revelation of Islam. Although it is totally dependent on Revelation, yet Sufism is totally independent of everything else. Believing in the Prophet’s saying: ‘Seek knowledge even if it be in China’, Sufis can pluck few flowers from gardens other then their own. That is why, while being self-sufficient, Sufism has very few ideas from other faiths. For example, since the establishment of Islam in the Sub-continent, Sufis have several changes with Brahmins. Eventually, Sufism adopted certain ideas and terms from Neoplatonism. But Sufism was founded long before parallel mystical influences. Even such non-Islamic elements touched only the surface. But this fact is not clear to those thousand Western men and women who claim to be ‘Sufis’. They consider Sufism independent of any religious tradition and think it has always existed. That is why they fail to reach its particular and therefore original impetus. (Lings, 2005, p:16).

7.1. Islam owes wholly- solely to Prophetic model

The Sufis claimed that the Sufism or Tasawwuf has its origin to the Prophet (S.A.W.W). They say that the Divine revelations received by Prophet (S.A.W.W) had two dimensions- one took the shape of Quranic words, the other remained within His heart as Divine inspiration. The former message was meant generally for all. The latter was given to chosen seeds and delivered directly to them from heart to heart. Thus ‘Book Knowledge’ Ilm-e-Safina was the knowledge of the words of the Quran and Hadith. And ilm-e-Safina was the “knowledge of the Heart”. Ulama or religious scholars became proficient in the knowledge of the Quran and Hadith, ‘The Knowledge of the heart’ was bound within the domain of those who were later called Sufis. The Sufis claim that Tasawwuf has its roots in the life of the Prophet (S.A.W.W) and Companions (R.A.A). They refer to Prophet’s extreme simplicity, rejection of all luxury, His charitableness, total submission to God’s will. The Prophet (S.A.W.W) fasted for months on the end and slept little preferring to spend major portion of the night in prayers. (Al-Quran; 73:20). Thus his life became an examplary model of knowledge and commitment to the theory and practice of Islam. The Sufis follow His footprints. The Sufis say that the Prophet (S.A.W.W) and His Companions (R.A.A) remained almost lost in their prayers every time. This is the sign of extreme love. Such extreme love resulting in

112

ecstacy is also testified by many Sufis for which they were tortured and even stoned to death. Such complete absorption in prayer is the very foundation of Tasawwuf. Sufism in Islam, in fact, is practiced by following the footsteps of Prophet (S.A.W.W) who is sent as a Perfect model. It is a collective firm belief of Muslim sufis that their Prophet (S.A.W.W) is a perfect example for them in every field. As a soldier, merchant, business man, ruler, king, brother, father, leader, preacher, teacher etc he can be followed easily. So whatever they see in their great model, they follow him and get the unlimited success. Sufis do not have to see to their Mosque’s Maulana for help because of the clear, lucid instructions of their Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W) and His followers. They are not bound to obey any outside authority like Clergy in Christian culture nor do they take any influence from others. In contrast, the Christian mysticism passed through many ups and downs in its way. It got the impact of every age and of philosophic movements such as Hellenism, Platonism, and Neoplatonism. Even in the West the materialistic inclinations affected their spiritual upgrading. It is thought today that if they want to uplift their ‘inner self’ they must look up to the East for it. (Soltes,2009, p:35). Tasawwuf adopt the method of meditation which is generally regarded as a deviation by religious scholars from the practice of real Islam. But Sufis say that the practice of meditation also existed during the days of Prophet (S.A.W.W) and His Companions (R.A.A) in the form of contemplation, reflection and pondering. However, the Sufis gave it the form of discipline.

7.2. Muslim Mystic’s Emphasis on Individual experience

Mystical experience is the situation that is felt or experienced beyond the walls of ordinary consciousness. Sometimes it is referred to a state of altered consciousness. This state can involve ineffable awareness of time, space, and physical reality. Mystical experiences mostly deny physical description, and can best be only hinted at. Such experiences are universal and share common characteristics, despite the culture or religion in which they occur. They are invariably spiritual, but it can be said that Sufism is the best area where an individual mystical shows itself in full bloom. The example of mystical experience can be found in the lives of sufis such as Jalal-ad-din Rumi, Ali Hijwiri, Kabir, Mansoor etc. Sufism devotedly seeks the fullness of the knowledge of God. It has been universally believed that such a search should be accompanied by outer manifestations. The aim will be gained when the worshipper sees God alone in all that he contemplates and at the same time experiences a complete and ecstatic sense of His presence. Sufism rests on the belief that when 113

the individual self is lost, the Universal Self is found, or, in religious language, that ecstasy affords the only means by which the soul can directly communicate and become united with God. (Nicholson ,1921, p.59). In Sufism, the ecstasy or trance-like 'state' is called a hal, though in Sufism proper a hal more strictly refers to the succession of illuminations, through experiencing which the Sufi progresses a further 'stage' (maqtam) towards the goal of spiritual perfection. (Trimingham, 1998, p:200.) For Sufis, such experience is not a hypnotic phenomenon to which the human spirit is susceptible in appropriate circumstances. In fact it is gift from God confirming the Sufi's striving for his presence. Each stage reached by the disciple is the result of his own effort, each experience is the sign of the divine favour upon the endeavour as it is said that the hal is a spiritual mood depending not upon the mystic but upon God. (Arberry,2007, p:75)

7.3. Muslim proponents of direct communion with God

In Sufism Muslims seek to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. Sufism is defined as the experience of mystical union or direct communion with ultimate reality, and the belief that direct knowledge of God, spiritual truth, or ultimate reality can be attained through subjective experience. The union of man’s soul with God (Wasl) is the most important theme in Sufism. Sufis believe that God does not live in mosques but in the mind and heart of human beings. Sufi longs for direct commune with God i.e, union of human soul with God through devotion. (Ragunath Rai ,2014,pp: 172-173) The most important relationship in Sufism is between God and human. Sufi assumes man as a lover and God as a beloved. When Sufi gets near to God through Dhikr and meditation God Himself comes down to bless him. Then a Sufi directly communes with God and God speaks by his tongue, God sees through his eyes, his hands move according to the will of God. (Dehlvi, 2009, p:86) The early Sufis were famous for their asceticism. Poverty was their ideal. They thought that it were the worldly pursuits were taboos in their communication with God. So, if they desisted from accumulating worldly things, they would be free from distraction, be able to achieve a high level of concentration and, as a result, their prayers would attain a special quality. And direct communion with God would be achieved. (Khanam ,2011, p;32)

114

When Sufi passes through all the stages courageously he becomes the one, who has fully realized his essential oneness with the Divine Being in whose likeness he is made. (Nicholson, 1914, p:78)

7.4. Renunciation of the world

The orthodox group of believers refer to the tradition that the Prophet (S.A.W.W) forbade people who spent all their time in worship and snubbed them for not taking part in worldly affairs. But Sufis do not take these Hadith very relevant. They link themselves to the Companions who stayed in the porch of the Mosque of Madinah and were Ashab-e-Saff .They totally devoted themselves to the Divine worship and had nothing to do with the worldly activities. And above all the Prophet (S.A.W.W) did not forbid them for doing so.

7.5. Fundamental principles of Sufism

The early Sufis renunciated the world and had no intense fear of God. They were ascetics in the real sense of the word. Ibn e Khaldun calls their way of life as the ‘way of Truth and Salvation’. He says that they were zealous to guard piety, kept away from every object of worldly attraction, like pleasure, power and wealth. They let society and led a life of absolute seclusion for the service of God. Ibn Khaldun considered these as the fundamental principals of Sufism that were practized by the companions and Muslims of early times. (Ibn Khaldun, 1900. P:46.)

7.6 Companions of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W)

The first Caliphs and many of the great Companions of the Prophet (S.A.W.W) must have been sanctified by the magnetic presence of the Messenger (S.A.W.W) Himself and thus of Divine interpretation. But it cannot be said same about the Christ’s Companions. As we find not more than of the two Saint Johns and Saint Peter---- to name only three---- were alive at the time of Christ. So Apostolic Age is the only age when the Christian believers found the ‘Gates of Heaven’ open to them. On the other hand the first community was directly open to mysticism in Islam, which might have continued the mission of the Prophet (S.A.W.W) throughout. Thus through the impact of miracles a multitude of souls must have been endowed with more certainty than the people of other ages who have been benefitted from the mystics. (Lings, 2005, p:102.)

115

9. Mysticism in the era of World Wars

Another tangible factor that contributed in the growth of interest in Mysticism is the phenomenon of Western Wars (most often called World Wars as they engulfed and affected the entire world). Disillusionment and chaos brought by the First world war (1914-1919) deeply infected the moral fibre. This worst scar on human spirituality worsened the situation further when World War II broke out in 1939. By the end of 2nd World War in 1945, belief in religious truthfulness was badly hit. Existencialist philosophers started debating the issue whether God existed or not. To overcome this sacreligiousness, the Western scholars tried to harmonize Man and God. For this they took help of mystical practices beyond their own. This gave birth to “coexistence of religious beliefs”. (Raji, 1998, pp:91-92). And a new interest in the domain of Mysticism was created internationally.

10. Interfaith studies and role of Mystics

Islam is generally thought of as a religion that hinders any type of development, a government of which is based solely on religious philosophy. This premise is absolutely flase. Modernizing elements are inherent in Islam. This is also true to Sufism. Sufis or the mystics of all faith enjoying a closer union with God can better tell how to face modern sectarianism. They welcome people of every faith and even people who pose to have no faith at all. There is fundamental misunderstanding between the West and the Islamic world in regards to spiritual thought and action. The West is unaware of the fact that Islam is able to transform from within to meet the changes occurring in the modern world. It is beyond comphrehension that Islam especially Sufism, has the innate ability to adapt itself. Sufis are the excellent examples of how the adherents of Islam are able to change from traditional religious affiliations into modern Muslims.

Dr. Maria Jaoudi asserts that Christian and Islamic Spirituality present the similar teachings on love and peace that characterize these two magnificent traditions. She speaks from her first hand knowledge as the has spent quite a few years of her life in the Middle East and has written this work in order to create a bridge between Christians and Muslims at the deepest level of prayer and growth in spirituality. She also expresses their mutual heritage that has always been of concern for a peaceful and healthy coexistence.

116

. There is also a ‘renaissance of religion’ that critically investigates all religions in order to utilize the spiritual resources within them for the establishment of a just society.

Sir Francis Younghusband’s attempt to organize the first meetings of all traditions which led to the formation of the World Congress of Faith, in 1936 was criticized on the basis that it aims at the juxtaposition or synthesis of all faiths. However, this organization now is favoured by the members of many faiths. The World Congress officially declares in every issue of its journal:

“It in no way attempts to exalt one faith at the expense of another nor does it seek to formulate a new amalgamated creed”.(Huston, P:385-386.)

11. Islamic Mysticism and Modern World

11.1. Sufism: an elixir in modern times

In the modern world everyone is busy in money making, acquisition of wealth and power, physical comforts and many more that happens are more valued than spiritual life. Our ego make us believe that we are the reason of action. It is the need of hour that man should control this vanity because if God can give He can also take it away in the blink of eyes. In this regard Sufism teaches that one can see beyond the veils of darkness that enclothes the belief system. If one sincerely devotes oneself to the Sufi training he `sees things as they truly are`. The importance of Sufism can well be seen if we observe what happens after 9/11. Sufism gives guide line to all human beings of all times and shall continue the same. Sufism has the medicine of all the internal illness of modern times.

11.2. Publication in Sufism.

It is said that Sufism has gained the precedent rise in popularity from last decade due to its deep roots. Publication of a large number of books in Sufism is the clear indication of its popularity. Especially the publication of that text that was available in the form of manuscripts. Some scholars have published editions of their writings intended for the broader public. Among them there are books such as biography of Rumi by Abdul Hassan Zarrikoob, treatise on Shams Tabriz and the eighth edition of Allamah Tabataba’s Lubb-i-lubab. The popularity of Sufi music is indicated by the revival of certain musicians as Muhammad Reza Lutfi, Shahram Nazeri,

117

Qawwali music of Nusrat Fath Ali Khan, videotaping of the majlis and the music of Mevlevi and khawati-jarrahi orders.

11.3. West and Sufism

Today Islam is most famous in the Western world in the form of Sufism, Islamic mystic path. The present interest in Sufism can be justified by discussing the same factors that are responsible for the popularity of mystical tradition in western world. These factors are (I) hunger for spiritual experience that transforms the life, (ii) attraction for saintly life. A famous orientalist says that a Buddhist, a Vendantist or a Taoist finds ‘a home from home’ in several aspects of Sufism that he could barely find in Christianity or Judaism.

Western writers contributed a lot in the developing an understanding of Islamic mysticism not only in the West but also in the East. Some have translated the original manuscripts while some wrote books drawing clear comparison and contrast between Christian and Muslim traditions.

11.5. World wide popularity of Muslim Mystics.

Islamic history bear witness to the fact that the spread of Muslim empire owes a great to the efforts of the Sufis. Their message of Love, Compassion, Companionship and Charitableness made Sufism popular in the medieval ages and made Islam acceptable to all. Thus in the era of political expansion of Islam, credit should be given to the Sufis who spread the spiritual spirit of Islam

The most superb example of popularity of Sufism in western society is the best selling poetry of Jalaluddin Rumi, the artistic performances of the Dervishes of Turkish Mevlevi tradition, popular Sufi music like the qawwali singers of Pakistan and famous books on Sufism such as Idries Shah. It seems that the willingness to participate in the commoditization of Sufism relates with the openness to western society positively, Sufism has rather become an established frame work within the New Esoteric/age market.(Markus Dressler, Ron Geaves, 2009,P:87)

Today Jalal-ulDin Rumi is worldwide famous. UNESCO announced 2007 as the international year of Rumi. 800th anniversary of the Persian Sufi was celebrated on 6 September

118

of the year. New translation of poetry of Rumi had topped the poetry best-seller charts in the Western world. (Dart,1981, part I-A.)

The role played by Sufi doctrine in the in the life of modern man can hardly be overstressed, the modern man who is over cerebral and thinks too much, often negative, the puzzle of antithetical concepts, ambiguities and intellectual vanities are the major taboos in the way of integration of mind and it can only be cured by the purifying effects of Sufi metaphysical doctrines that washes away the dross of contingency and multiplicity.

Sufi doctrines also describe the inner levels of existence between the corporeal world and God denying the Cartesian dualism of modern European Philosophy. (Nasr,1991,p:45)

Islam and Sufism have influenced many religious movements of India from 13th century onward. Like Buddhism and Siddism, Islam Sufism also influenced Sikhism on the side of its theoretical teachings. Sikh also join the congregation in Gurudwara twice a day , at sunset and sunrise. Like Al-Quran, Guru Granth Sahib is also wrapped in clothes. (Sher Singh, 1993,pp:114-15)

Influence of Sufism is so obvious in the teachings of Guru Nanak, Kabir, Dadu and other saints of Bhakti movement in medieval India. (Nizami K.A, 1978, p:217)

The positive effects of Sufism in mid -2nd c. H.G on Iranian society are, no doubt, immense. It sometimes affected it like a drug in Iranian world vein and blood and caused a kind of reactionary movement regarding Iranian society. So it can be said that Sufi thinking became the important part of Iranian thinking. The effects of Sufism in the historical life of Iranian nation are undeniable. (European Journal of Experimental Biology, Karamali Ghadamyari,2012, pp:6.8)

119

CHAPTER-5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The data collected and the analysis thereon has made few issues categorically clear.

In discussing mysticism, the first thing that we come across is that this phenomenon or rather experience is shared by almost all religious traditions. This is especially true to Christian and Muslim mysticism, where in spite of the cultural and geographical differences, mystics share similar ideas. Mystics of both religions propound similar notions about the truthful yearning of God’s love, the path of self-negation and even about ethics sometimes. Mysticism is an area that has attracted not only the scholars but also the common men who live in the world of secularization and liberalism. This development of “Religious Consciousness” on the part of modern man is furthered by the mystics of East and west. That is why scholars interested in comparative studies in religion have shown much fondness in studying mysticism. It becomes more urgent on academic level to research how mystical ideas emerge and how did they develop over the centuries. While exploring these issues side by side, the present study has taken up comparative analysis of the mystical approaches in Christianity and Islam. It will be a source of great interest to the people of both religions that in spite of religious diversities, the spiritual traditions resemble each other a lot.

Mysticism has spread throughout history among people of different cultures and religions and it has transcended the state boundaries. This made the comparative study of the mystical doctrines and practices more urgent and thus possible. The comparison becomes even more urgent and relevant between Islam and Christianity because both are revealed religions. Both consider prophets the sole agents of revelation. The teachings or major religious ideas propounded by Jesus Christ and Phrophet Muhammad (S.A.W.W) are the same in most of the cases the followers of both reglions not only recogonize but also respect each other. Moreover, conversion of graet number of Christians to Islam over the centuries is a clear indication that Sufism is a continuation and not a contradiction of the mystics’creed.

Mysticism in literal sense is living in close union with God e.g. Marry of Incarnation. However it is not mere mystery as mystery is totally based on an illusion or an idea. Sufism is Islamic Mysticism found in both Sunni and Shia sects. It is diffult to describe Sufism yet it can be called search for God. The divine revelation may be in different forms. But all the sufis claim to follow 120

strictly Muslim traditional Islam though there is no unity in Sufism as each master has his own practice yet Sufis believe that all existence come from Divine and the Universe is a shadow of God. They all affirm “Man is a Mirror which when polished reflects God”. The definition of mysticism from various resources of the east and west and the concept and practice of mysticism that has been carried out by various schools of thought in both Christianity and Islam are taken into consideration. Esoteric elements and their interpretations are taken account of from the primary resources i.e. core texts of the two religions. This will provide a sound basis for further comparison and the analysis thereon of the mystical approaches of the two religions and may be of all the world religions.

The exploration of the major schools of thought in the legacy of Islamic Mysticism and the rise of the sporadic mystical stances as well as doctrinal standpoints have been studied in the light of modern times as well. The discussion is multidimensional also as Christian mystical scholarship owes a lot to the Greco-Roman and agnostic mystical tradition and does not always link up itself with the prophetic model as we see in Islam. However the spiritual legacy that it has is thoroughly taken into account.

Analogous comparable dimensions of the numerous aspects of the two major religions are also focused for which a sufficient background has been provided in the beginning. This comparative study is done along the lines of doctrinal stances and the contributions from the two sides are adjudged in an unbiased manner. The underlying guiding principle does not show the superiority of one stance over the other but establishes maximum scope that the mystical writings can afford to human thought.

The crux of the entire research would help in establishing a point of view that may become the basis for further inquiry in the area. It is sincerely expected that the conclusions from the comparative mystical study thus drawn will open the possibility of cross religious discourse and facilitate the understanding of the mystical/religious fine distinctions.

The comparative study of two esoteric systems would facilitate the reading and understanding of a wide readership with various belief systems as two religions that have been focused upon profess to be the greatest religions as per the number of their followers, and the variety of metaphysical experiences that have been reported and documented is wide enough to allow a comparative and effective exploration of the fundamental doctrines.

121

However while comparing the mystical tradition of both, the study has also underlined the contrasting features of each, without un-mining the value of any one of the tradition.

The present study has unfolded a fact that mystical tradition in Islam is more established in process and technique than Christianity. Islamic mysticism is not derived from any outside tradition or culture like Christianity which owes to Greek and Jewish heritage. Christian Mysticism is less visible in Christain civilization where as Islamic Sufism is more persavasive in Islamic tradition. The term Sufism is preferred as it has it origine in Arabic. Mysitcism is considered negative as it relates super-normal or extrasensory experiences of a Mystic. It is reported by some historians that Tassawuf was renamed as Sufism in 9th centuary by western orientalists. That is why Sufism is famous in West. Tassawuf (as mentioned in The Quran) is preferable to Sufism. Tassawuf governs internal world to get rid of evil, so it is similar to Shariah which governs external world to get rid of evil.

Mythology of both traditions varies from each other. Yet the concept and objectives of the spiritual experiences of the mystics of both sides mark a deep stamp of similarities. Sufism deals with direct personal experience so is compareable to non Islamic-forms of Mysticism. Both Christianity and Islam shares mono-theistic mystical experience which distinguish them from Hiduism, Budhism and from religions in antiquity. In both, experiences are visionary, carrying vision the Divine. God is ultimately the only Reality and human soul is the Divine emanation. This furthered the universal significance and application of spiritual experiences of both traditions. Thus the study will be of remarkable value across the borders.

To reach the highest level of success in Sufism requires serving the teacher for a long period. This is not compulsory in Christian Mysticism. Sufism is anti-materialistic but not affirm monasticism as the latter is human invention, not prescribed by God (The Holy Quran, 57:27). The Holy Quran asks to observe physical world thus Alim is Scientist who teries to improve human condition to establish the Law of God (The Holy Quran 22:41). Again contrasted to Christianity, Islam gives central role to the books sent by God and revealed world becomes a source of revelution. In contast with the religions of the book, Christianity is based on the manifestation of God in the human form of Jesus. Christ imagination is constantly present. Old

122

and New Testament suggest a way to finding Thruth but thay do not contain Divine Presence. So a mystic becomes Christ.

There are raptures, no single what rather several experiences through which a Christian and Muslim Sufi passes, so it would be a great mistake to make any generalization. It is impossible to say that all forms of Msyticism are saying the same thing. Mystic are not stating something but are attempting to transmit the transformational experience of Being. So it is a profoundly a unique experience which cannot be expressed in usual terms. It should be studied with humility.

The comparative study has focused more on the points of agreement rather than disagreement between various religious and mystical view points and this required the study of relationships existing between available texts by means of direct quotations or indirect allusions. . The study will also help the reader in determining the mutual impact of various schools of thought in the field of mysticism. It is also expected that through it there would be an appraisal of the multidimensional esoteric literature in the field.

A cursory glance of the life-history and the teachings of the mystics/Sufis of both sides have also brought this fact to light that the mystics always spread the message of universal harmony, peace and love. Their view of existence is beyond the customary ritualism and they view humanity, for the most part, beyond caste, color and creed. Mystics of both Christian and Islamic traditions tried to rectify world by effacing themselves. The Christian link it to their Christ who redeemed the world of all its unholiness by accepting cruxification. The Muslims on the other hand observe and thus follow the holy practices set by the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W) who effaced himself, sacrificed his personal interest and thus redeemed the world at every step of his life. Hence the mystics followed the footsteps of their Prophets. It is earnestly hoped that this discourse will help the readers in putting into practice the didactic aspect of the lives of the mystics.

So the modern adherents of peace and universal harmony will definitely benefit from the study. And those who are searching for or in fact trying to establish World Religion or Universal Religion need not merge all religions into one. The study has brought this fact clearly to light that differences in faith and some of its tradition do not hinder peace and love. The lives and practices of mystics of both faiths have clarified the fact that variety in ways do not matter. What matters is the message of tolerance, forbearance, love and harmony. All this can be achieved

123

through this spirit of self-negation and self-sacrifice. However some modern Muslisms wrongly call Sufism superstitious that hinders Islamic achievement in science and technology. Mystics are criticies and mistrusted all over the world but they most often show respect for the privilidged.

Islam has 1400 years of experience in mystic communion between God and man. This long history of spirituality has provided a basis of all types of religious intercourse possible to huminaty. Sufis of every age have multi-shaded experience, speard the message of God’s benevolence. Thus they have managed to create an atmosphere of mutual harmony and love between the adherents of various religions. The present study seeks to establish the fact that the call for religious harmony that is current in the modern cosmopolitan world with an emphasis on ‘respect for faith other than one’s own’ has its origin in Islamic mysticism. As Sufis neither classified humanity into groups nor even declared them the sole believers of God. Their doors are open to all, so are their hearts and the messages they imbibe. Some Muslim Sufis like Bawa Muhyuddin, Inayt Khan, Javed Noor Bakhs and Idris Shah are currently working in West.

This study evaluates the reality of mysticism in Christianity and Islam both in history and in the present age. As a result, the modern man can discover the best way to communicate Divine Power by understanding the unseen face of Islam and by recognizing the “Power ministries” of Christianity. It is believed that this study seeks to contribute to a new paradigm to better understand the Christian mysticism and Muslim Sufism through the spectacles of spiritual experience.

Furthermore, it is expected that the study wil open new horizons for the successors in the field. The comparisons and contrasts drawn from the study will not only be interesting to read but also invoke the researchers and intellectuals to touch the untouched areas and to discover the undiscovered paths.The future researcher may take up any single area of comparison or contrast and may discuss the issues in detail which demands more discussion.Historical glimpses in the study may further be studied in detail from a different perspective.The brief biographical record of the chief mystics of both religions may further be explored on comparative basis.Thus the findings may pave a way for more research in the area of mysticism to satiate the unsatiated souls.And this of course is one of the objectives of the study.

On the basis of above conclusion, the recommendations for this study are as under:

124

1. It should be realized that mysticism is present in both Christianity and Islam. This study has shown that Islam acknowledges the historic existence of Christians. The Holy Quran explicitly recognizes this commonality of faith. (Al-Quran. 3:64 & 3: 113) Jesus appears prominently in Muslims traditions. So the mystical tendencies found in Christian traditions are also accepted. It is incumbent upon us to realize the significance of this newly- discovered aspect of religion. Mysticism should not be dealt as something super- natural. Mystical experiences in both religions reveal the passions of love, tolerance, peace. These impel us to establish mutual affinity and respect for each other. 2. Now time has taken a new turn. It demands a mystic’s open-mindedness and generosity to forget and forgive mutual differences. We should try to get closer to this Islamic teaching of Sufis that man is created to seek perfection and final spiritual beautitude through intellectual and spiritual growth, that man is man only when he seeks perfection (talib al-kamal) and attempts to go beyond himself. 3. As for as Islamic concept of mysticism is concerned, it should be clarified that Islamic mysticism is not based on mere super-natural experiences. It is Sufism, which carries more profoundity and religiousity and of course spirituality. A Muslim Sufi’s words and deeds (some vague and some clear) allude to only One Reality i.e Divine Reality. Revelation of Divine Reality on Sufi soul is so sweeping that it changes the outer and inner of a person. He becomes totally a new man, forgetting everything and forgiving everyone. He becomes God, his only beloved. Whatever the path he adopts, he reaches the same destination. Thus the final destination of every Sufi whether he is a Christian or a Muslim, is the same. They achieve the same goal after self-annihilation. 4. Thus the mystics of both sides invite the whole world to come to the table of dialogue and to solve mutual differences. All the modern day scholars and intellectuals are inspired by mustics to disseminate tolerance and peace all over world. The lives and teachings of the mystics teach us to de-value personal issues and to value impersonal. This approach will lead us towards final success. 5. It is incumbent upon Muslim scholars to study Sufism in a new way, to alter the ways of looking and judging others, to find out the queries of the modern minds about Sufism. In this they will be able to confront the challenges propounded by globalization. All this can be done only if they study the real spirit of Sufism in the light of Quran and Sunnah.

125