Dicionário De Jesus E Dos Evangelhos

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Dicionário De Jesus E Dos Evangelhos Dicionário de Jesus e dos Evangelhos César Vidal Manzanares Dicionário de Jesus e dos Evangelhos EDITORA SANTUÁRIO Aparecida-SP Dados Internacionais de Catalogação na Publicação (CIP) (Câmara Brasileira do Livro, SP, Brasil) Manzanares, César Vidal, 1958- Dicionário de Jesus e dos evangelhos / César Vidal Manzanares; | tradução de Fátima Barbosa de Mello Simon |. — Aparecida, SP: Editora Santuário, 1997. Título original: Diccionario de Jesús y los evangelios. Bibliografia. ISBN 85-7200-479-3 1. Bíblia - Dicionários 2. Jesus Cristo I. Título. 97-2199 CDD-220.3 Índices para catálogo sistemático: 1. Bíblia: Dicionários 220.3 Título original: Diccionario de Jesús y los Evangelios © Editorial Verbo Divino, 1995 ISBN: 84-8169-037-6 Tradução de Fátima Barbosa de Mello Simon Ilustração da Capa: Pinxit G. A. Lomuscio Foto: Giorgio Vasari Todos os direitos em língua portuguesa reservados à EDITORA SANTUÁRIO - 1997 Composição, impressão e acabamento: EDITORA SANTUÁRIO - Rua Padre Claro Monteiro, 342 Fone: (012) 565-2140 — 12570-000 — Aparecida-SP. Ano: 2003 2002 2001 Edição: 7 6 5 4 3 2 Apresentação Talvez seja lugar-comum dizer que poucas obras, no decorrer da história da humanidade, têm desfrutado de uma influência tão ampla como os Evangelhos. Talvez, mas não por isso a afirma- ção é menos correta. Mesmo que se abstraia seu conteúdo espiritual — questão que raia ao im- possível — pouco se duvida que os Evangelhos e seu protagonista indiscutível, Jesus de Nazaré, continuam sendo, há praticamente dois mil anos, um poderosíssimo referente social, artístico e éti- co. Boa prova disso é que até mesmo aqueles que se definem como supostamente não afetados pelo fenômeno espiritual continuam, de maneira ex- plícita, envolvidos em uma dialética de negação ou confrontação direta com a pregação evangéli- ca, atitude sem paralelos em relação a outras men- sagens de conteúdo espiritual. Essa característi- ca, incontestável ponto de referência, tem difi- cultado — sejamos sinceros em reconhecê-lo — a aproximação das diversas disciplinas aos Evan- gelhos no decorrer dos séculos. No corpo da presente obra, faz-se referência concreta a aspectos como a exegese, as datas de redação ou o conteúdo de cada Evangelho, e se- ria inútil reiterar aqui os pontos de vista expostos em diferentes vozes. Nas linhas seguintes, por- tanto, faremos referência a questões não tratadas de maneira específica, mas que são de especial importância para abordar o estudo dos Evange- lhos e a leitura das páginas que seguem. Refiro- me aos Evangelhos, considerando-os como gê- nero, como história e, “last but not least”, como Boa Nova. 6 / Apresentação Os Evangelhos como gênero literário A problemática relacionada com o gênero li- terário a que pertencem os Evangelhos constitui, na realidade, um debate contemporâneo ligado à moderna investigação sobre o Novo Testamento. Em 1915, C. W. Votaw destacava que os Evange- lhos podiam ser enquadrados na literatura biográ- fica greco-romana, o que não iniciaria, mas im- pulsionaria, de maneira decisiva, a discussão so- bre esse tema1. Em 1923, a posição de Votaw se- ria questionada radicalmente por K. L. Schmidt2. Este autor sustentava que os Evangelhos eram um tipo específico de literatura cristã primitiva não relacionado com outros gêneros da Antigüidade. As teses de Schmidt repercutiram e, de fato, con- verteram-se em uma espécie de dogma durante as décadas posteriores, para o que colaborou a forma com que aquelas eram tributárias das con- tribuições do novecentista F. Overbeck3 e da crí- tica das formas. Praticamente, até a década de setenta, no pre- sente século, existia um consenso quase genera- lizado que os Evangelhos constituíam um gênero literário “per se”, no âmbito do mundo greco-ro- mano, e que careciam de semelhança com outras obras do contexto cultural, a não ser que nos re- feríssemos a relatos do tipo fabuloso e irreal. Essa postura começou a ser questionada há mais de duas décadas e atualmente está superada. O novo enfoque partia, na realidade, de uma nova apro- ximação aos Evangelhos (iniciada nos anos 50) que questionava a crítica das formas e a crítica da redação como teorias válidas para explicarem a origem dos mesmos e analisarem seu conteúdo. 1 C. W. Votaw, “The Gospels and Contemporary Biographies in the Greco-Roman World”, em AJT, 19, 1915, pp. 45-73 e 217- 249. 2 K. L. Schmidt, “Die Stellung der Evangelien in der allgemeinen Literaturgeschichte”, em H. Schmidt (ed), Eucharisteion, Gotinga 1923, pp. 50-134. 3 F. Overbeck, “Über die Aufänge der pratistichen Literatur”, em HZ, 12, 1882, pp. 417-472. Apresentação / 7 As alternativas propostas deixaram, não obstante, de resultar sempre acertadas. Pretendeu- se mesmo identificar os Evangelhos com o gêne- ro da “aretologia”, um suposto gênero para nar- rar a vida dos homens divinos da Antigüidade. Mesmo que algum autor ainda sustente esse pon- to de vista, hoje em dia o mesmo é majoritaria- mente refutado pelos especialistas4 porque, na realidade, não dispomos de base sólida para crer que o mencionado gênero existiria como tal nes- se período histórico. Em termos gerais, os auto- res que ainda consideram que os Evangelhos po- dem ser enquadrados nos gêneros greco-romanos fazem-no no âmbito da biografia, da história ou da novela. O certo, entretanto, é que a questão está muito longe de ser facilmente resolvida. Ve- jamos o porquê. Em primeiro lugar, deve-se assinalar que os Evangelhos — e nisso não se diferenciam, como veremos mais adiante, de outras fontes históricas da Antigüidade — não são escritos imparciais, mesmo que não caiam nos excessos lendários dos Evangelhos apócrifos. Além disso, como muito acertadamente D. E. Aune5 salientou, recordam consideravelmente o gênero de biografias popu- lares típico da literatura greco-romana, seguindo inclusive convenções literárias como a que en- contramos em Lc 1,1-4. Contudo, os Evangelhos guardam distâncias do mundo greco-romano em alguns aspectos de não pouca importância. As- sim, por exemplo, têm uma especial predileção pelas referências ao Antigo Testamento e, eviden- temente, pelas crenças cristãs primitivas a respeito de Jesus. Em outras palavras, os evangelistas se- guiram alguns procedimentos literários greco-ro- manos, porém não foram servis em relação a eles, podendo-se perceber também uma transcendental influência judia facilmente explicável. Sem dú- 4 Ver a respeito: H. C. Kee, “Aretalogies, Hellenistic Lives and the Sources of Mark”, em Colloquy 12, Berkeley 1975. 5 D. E. Aune, The New Testament in Its Literary Environment, Filadélfia 1987, pp. 17-76. 8 / Apresentação vida, neles deverá influir a popularidade que en- tão o gênero biográfico tinha no mundo greco- romano, como também o desejo de colocar em forma escrita os relatos orais e coleções previa- mente relacionadas à vida, ensinamento, morte e ressurreição de Jesus, a quem as comunidades cristãs viam como Senhor e Messias6. Os mes- mos evangelistas não se viam, portanto, como autores de uma obra literária, mas como trans- missores de um testemunho de conseqüências transcendentais para todo ser humano. O traba- lho deles não era de criação, mas de “servos (hyperetai) da Palavra” (Lc 1,2). Por isso, dife- rentemente dos relatos hagiográficos da época, não buscaram retratar as qualidades de Jesus ou contar seus louvores de caráter moral. Na reali- dade, os textos caracterizam-se por uma espanto- sa escassez de detalhes sobre Jesus como indiví- duo. O que interessava nele é que era o cumpri- mento das profecias messiânicas confiadas a Is- rael durante séculos; que sua morte expiatória oferecia o caminho de salvação para a humanida- de e que seu chamado universal dirigia-se não só para assegurar a felicidade, mas também, e de maneira irrefutável, para permitir que Deus ope- rasse uma mudança radical da pessoa aqui e ago- ra, para que esta se convertesse verdadeiramente a seu Rei. Esses aspectos são ainda mais óbvios quando descemos ao terreno concreto de cada um dos Evangelhos. Marcos parece mostrar a influência do gênero biográfico7 (também se destaca seu paralelismo com outros8) seja este consciente ou 6 Nesse mesmo sentido, ver G. N. Stanton, Jesus of Nazareth in New Testament Preaching, Cambridge 1974. 7 Nesse mesmo sentido, ver P. Cox, Biography in Late Antiquity, Berkeley 1983, e A. Momigliano, The Development of Greek Biography, Cambridge 1971. 8 G. G. Bilezikian, The Liberated Gospel of Mark and Greek Tragedy, Grand Rapids 1977, e B. Standaert, L’ Evangile selon Marc: Composition et genre litteraire, Brujas 1978, compararam a estru- tura de Marcos com a tragédia grega. Como acertadamente desta- cou D. E. Aune, o. c., pp. 48-49, as semelhanças mais parecem mera coincidência. Apresentação / 9 não. Mateus também permite traçar paralelismos com biografias antigas, porém — por sua vez e de forma predominante — é evidente nele o em- prego preponderante de elementos procedentes do judaísmo e do cristianismo primitivo. A isso se deve acrescentar que os destinatários de sua obra eram não somente as pessoas de fora como as de dentro; não somente os não-convertidos como os discípulos. Lucas, sem dúvida, é o que apresenta maior paralelismo com os gêneros literários greco- romanos, e assim tem sido tratado pelos especia- listas. Para Aune, por exemplo, Lucas e Atos são um claro exemplo de historiografia greco-roma- na9; e, para Talbert, tratar-se-ia antes de uma bio- grafia10. São inegáveis, contudo, os elementos judeus que participaram de maneira decisiva da obra de Lucas. Finalmente, João — levando em conta as suas diferenças com os outros Evange- lhos — assemelha-se mais a isso do que a qual- quer outra obra, e assim tem sido revelado por diversos estudiosos que o consideram uma fonte histórica (Talbert, J. A. T. Robinson). Concebi- dos os quatro, em grande parte, para o uso inter- no (Mateus, Marcos), resulta também óbvia sua finalidade externa (Lc 1,1-4; Jo 21,30-31). Em termos gerais, portanto, podemos afirmar que os Evangelhos canônicos encaixam-se no gênero biográfico-histórico existente na literatu- ra greco-romana, gênero, por outro lado, muito diferente da novela, da hagiografia, da biografia lendária ou do relato mitológico.
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