The Dynamics of a Cultural Struggle in Academia: the Case of New Age

New Age Music Research

The Dynamics of a Cultural regarding the values it represents, the Struggle in Academia: The way it is marketed, and its artistic value. When we began studying the cultural Case of New Age Music conflict being waged around NAM, we 1 Research discovered that the emotions, ideologies, politics, and balances of power that Omri Ruah-Midbar characterize this struggle are also reflected Netanya Academic College, in the arena of academic study. Academic Zefat Academic College, research is perceived as neutral, objective, and as providing only scholarly analysis. Israel However, academia is actually an additional arena for the cultural struggle, Marianna Ruah-Midbar echoing the same claims. Zefat Academic College, In this article, academia is the object University of Haifa, of the research. We examine the way an Israel academic struggle is conducted over a cultural issue, and highlight the processes Abstract that form norms, standards, and truths. Music is not just about sounds. It is a political We focus on the characteristics of the act. Likewise, the academic discourse about music struggle, namely preferred values, plays a role in cultural polemics. This paper deals manners of thought, and ways of with the characteristics and dynamics of the expression—both for NAM’s defenders academic struggle over a research topic that is the subject of a cultural conflict—New Age music. An and opponents. A unique challenge in in-depth analysis of the academic discourse and conducting such a study is keeping in its polemic dynamics leads to an identification of mind that we the authors belong to the the struggle strategies, and a distinction between field being examined. different dispositions and paradigms among the We will begin with a presentation researchers. Our conclusions demonstrate the of NAM and the broad cultural context penetrability of the academic sphere by cultural from which it emerged—New Age fashions, as it is not rational considerations and culture. Later, we will address the various factual findings, but rather trends, habits, socio- academic discourses that are at the core cultural or professional affiliations, and ideologies 2 that motivate and “advance” research. of our study (see Fig. 1 ): research of New Age culture and of popular music, and cultural criticism. The latter constitutes Introduction a theoretical infrastructure for this n recent years New Age music article, as will be elaborated on in the (NAM) has become a widespread and methodological paragraph. The main familiar musical category—on radio body of the article is a description and stations,I in music stores, at festivals and analysis of the academic discourse about at musical performances. Along with NAM. Finally, we will summarize the the massive inculcation of NAM into the findings and discuss their implications. cultural market, a lively debate has arisen

Age is listed among twenty one musical super-categories (such as Rock, Jazz, and Classic),4 with twenty four “subgenres and styles.”5 NAM’s widespread cultural presence is expressed in extensive marketing activity, festivals and performances, on websites and in databases that feature music and video-clips. For example, the Amazon website features a NAM category among twenty categories such as Rock, Classical, Jazz, Opera, and Vocal music. While the New Age category contains 86,358 items, Blues contains 85,946 items, Classical 382,311, and World Fig. 1: New Age music research as it 6 relates to relevant academic discourses music 600,680. Among the many NAM singers and artists, suffice it to mention a few New Age Music central examples. Enya is one of the most NAM is a vocal and instrumental musi- famous New Age artists and singers. cal style, which developed in the second She began to become famous in the mid- half of the twentieth century as minimal- 1980s as a performer and composer of ist music meant to create a particular World music and Irish music, through atmosphere, usually tranquil and medi- the documentary series The Celts, which tative. Among its first harbingers one was broadcast in Great Britain by the may recall Brian Eno (Hibbet 2010, 299), BBC, and which traced Celtic culture Mike Oldfield, and Wendy Carlos -(Ber in Europe (a popular subject of interest man 1998, 256, 259). In the 1980s NAM in New Age culture). Enya’s success entered public awareness and began to grew in the 1990s, and her album A Day be an accepted category in the market- Without Rain sold 15 million copies in ing language of record companies. In the 2000. In the 1990s, her albums were rated early 1990s some people identified NAM several times by Billboard, a magazine as the one of the most significant compo- that bases its ratings on sales and radio nents of the music industry, although it broadcasting in the U.S.A., in their list of also became the most disputed musical the 200 albums of the year.7 In 2001, she genre (Zrzavy 1990, 33). was awarded the annual international NAM is a super-category that includes prize in Monaco at the World Music 3 many musical sub-categories such as Awards by the International Federation ethnic, World, Trance, ambience, space, of the Phonographic Industry, where she healing, meditation, nature, minimalist, was declared the singer whose sales had Muzak, environmental, and so on. For been the highest in the world that year.8 instance, at AllMusic Internet site, a well- Enya won many more awards, including known online music guide service, New four Grammies and the esteemed

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Academy Award nomination from the As part of the struggle surrounding American Academy of Motion Picture NAM’s cultural status, some researchers Arts and Sciences in Hollywood. and artists deny that NAM is a musical Another example of a New Age genre. Thus, in the New Age Encyclo- musician who achieved international pedia, NAM is presented as a “market- acclaim is Yanni, a pianist who plays ing slogan,” and it is explicitly indicated NAM (of the Classical sub-category). He that it is “not a musical category” (Aidan publicized a video-clip of a performance 1990). The musician Wendy Carlos, who of his in Athens in 1993, Yanni Live at the tends to be identified as the creator of the Acropolis, which was very successful, and first New Age album (Sonic Seasonings), was considered one of the bestselling uttered the same claims (Berman 1988, music videos of all time. Yanni was 259). awarded many platinum and gold The current study does not deal with albums, and performed in dozens of the question regarding the existence of countries in the world for millions of the musical genre called NAM, nor trace fans. Billboard rated Yanni’s concert its historical roots, nor judge the quality tour, following the release of his album of the music. We accept the existence of Ethnicity in 2003, as the fourth largest the phenomenon as a cultural fact: there concert tour in the world that year. In are musicians who create NAM; there February 2011 Yanni’s album ranked 91st are companies that market it; there is in the world on the Billboard 200 list. an audience that consumes it; there are Ryan Farish is an American producer artists associated with it. In our view, as and Disc Jockey of electronic NAM. One such a cultural phenomenon it is worthy of the peaks of his career was when a of research. Furthermore, the denial of fifteen-year-old girl made a video-clip for NAM being worthy of research is what soldiers in Iraq to his composition Pacific especially stimulates our study. Wind, which she entitled “Remember Me.” The clip had 30 million views and New Age Culture th was rated 48 in April 2008, in the search One cannot write about NAM and the category of “most watched YouTube dispute that surrounds it, or its social 9 video of all times.” and ideological characteristics, without These examples indicate the success describing its broader context as part of of NAM and its penetration into the the New Age movement. The New Age mainstream of contemporary popular movement emerged through a range of music. Notwithstanding its great counterculture phenomena in a continu- distribution, NAM has remained ous process that came of age in the 1970s, controversial in almost all its aspects. such as alternative medicine, medita- Which artists are New Age artists? What tion, Far East doctrines and practices, are the musical attributes of the genre? admiration of indigenous cultures, neo- Is it even worthy of being defined as a shamanism and neo-paganism, spiritual musical genre? What are its historical feminism, consciousness and self-help roots? Is it music of high quality? What is groups, spiritual psychotherapies, and the secret of its success? channeling (Hanegraaff 1998; Heelas

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2008; Roof 1999; Sutcliffe and Bowman to the upper middle-class sector, and 2000). are characterized by relatively higher Along with external factors such education (Kemp 2003). as fashion accoutrements, the New Among the most established main- Age movement is characterized as a stream institutions is academia, with rich world of ideas and values, and as which the New Age has a complicated having a typical discourse (Ruah-Midbar relationship. New Age culture is ambiva- 2006). Inter alia, it is characterized by lent towards Western science, whereas sanctification of the self and a call for full on the one hand, it opposes knowledge realization of human potential, a holistic authorities that are external to the indi- approach, opposition to authorities and vidual (Hammer 2001), but, on the other institutions including modern Western hand, it is interested in creating a bridge science, preference for experiential between science and religion by means of epistemology over rationalism, an presenting holistic worldviews that use encouragement of the externalization pseudo-scientific terminology (Hane- of emotional expression, an accent graaff 1998). Thus, for New Agers, mod- on healing, expectation of planetary ern Western science is a “significant oth- transformation as well as encouraging er” (Hammer 2001), as is also reflected in personal transformation, desire for their extended level of education (Kemp closeness to nature, admiration of 2003). femininity, an interest in mysticism, and This constitutes some of the the “perennialist” philosophy ascribing background of the academic discourse a common source of all religions (Heelas regarding New Age, which has been 1996; Hammer 2001; Hanegraaff 1998). characterized by a sharp polarization The emphasis on music in New Age between those who would caution culture is part of its special interest in against contemporary spiritualities’ creativity and art in general (Weissler dangers, and those “apologists” who 2007). Music plays a role in New would defend their research objects Age culture in various ways, from its (Zablocki and Robbins 2001). ceremonial context to its therapeutic The academic debate as to New Age uses. phenomenon found expression also Although the New Age movement outside academia—in the media, in started out as part of the counterculture courts of law, and so on (see for example, with the “drop out” slogan, it gradually Lewis and Melton 1992)—attesting to the was integrated into mainstream ideological background that motivates institutions, including medicine, the dispute. In addition to the academic education, economics, religion, and even struggle, New Age is criticized in various the military (Heelas 1996; Heelas and contexts: economy (for example, some Seel 2003; Puttick 2000; Ruah-Midbar and people blame the New Age for extreme Zaidman 2013). The current sociological encouragement of a capitalistic attitude— profile of New Agers fits the updated see Carrette and King 2005), religion inclination of the New Age Movement (since the New Age draws adherents towards the mainstream: they belong from different religious communities

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–see Saliba 1999), and professional discourses: a critical-cultural discourse contexts (such as in the case of the mental in different academic disciplines, and health profession –see Shupe and Darnell academic studies of New Age culture, as 2006). well as of popular music. Those polemic Thus, NAM is a cultural product of academic discourses are parallel to—and a broader disputed phenomenon, in occasionally affect—one another. which academia is an interested party. In anthropology, an emerging critical Expectedly, some of the “fire” that is approach perceived scientific research aimed at NAM stems from the larger as an active part of colonial expansion context of the dispute. Actually, NAM (Hymes 1969; Asad 1973). This new contends with double marginality in anthropological approach featured the academic discourse, the marginality reflexivity as a substitute for the positivist of New Age culture and that of popular approach that aspired to verified music genres (see Fig. 2, and the next knowledge (Geertz 1968; Pratt 1986). section). This problematic cultural Reflexive anthropology asserts that in the positioning also places NAM in the eye process of research, cultures that possess of the storm of scientific debate. different value and language systems intersect: the researcher’s culture, and that of the phenomenon being studied (Garriott 2006). Similarly, anthropologists began to promote the method of participant observation (Urry 1984) as an expression of a reflexive position that is aware of the relativity of the researcher’s point of view, and the influence of her presence and interpretation (Fontana 1994, 211-218). Fig. 2: New Age music as a cultural- Since the mid-1990s, scholarly artistic phenomenon voices that were empathetic to the New Age increased, opposing the anti-cult Academic Discourses on New Age movement and its academic patrons. Culture and Popular Music: Debates, Taking part in the empathetic wave were Trends and Cultural Criticism researchers such as Elizabeth Puttick, The cultural struggles related to New Steven Sutcliffe, and Joanne Pearson, who Age culture surface in a period overlap- were active in the arena of contemporary ping similar controversies about popular spirituality and still partially identify music, and new social movements, and with it, thus expressing the participant coinciding with the rise of the postmod- observation approach. Paradoxically, ernist discourse, beginning in the late- this research, which had been influenced 1960s and early-1970s, parallel to the by critical academic trends, was more counter-culture movement (Roof 1999). empathetic—and less critical—toward These cultural phenomena were gradu- the research object. The longer the ally reflected in new emerging academic controversy goes on, the more it exposes

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the value system of researchers: research cultural one—between classical (“high”) questions ostensibly presented as and popular (“low”)—as popular music technical, are revealed as questions that research struggles to be granted the are actually politically charged (Ruah- recognition and appreciation accorded to Midbar 2006; Sutcliffe 2006; Zablocki and classical musicology. Robbins 2001). Within the field of popular music, It is insightful to acknowledge that a similar controversy exists between the critical-empathetic discourse among various styles of popular music, such the researchers of the New Age is part as Country, Rock, and Jazz. In order to of a broader trend, which promotes portray itself as “authentic,” each genre new realms of research—popular, attempts to distinguish itself from the marginal, eschewed phenomena. Those modern music industry (Wall 2003). All researchers commit a political act merely participants in these struggles—artists, by engaging in this research (likewise the industry, consumers, and of course in the choice of research queries and the academics—use evaluation criteria methods), expressing subversive self- of the musical genres as a means to consciousness. overpower (Negus 1996, 162). Another In the research of popular music, tool in the dispute is expressed through the political agenda is to undermine, the label of a musical genre. or question, the basic assumption The stylistic label has a great deal of of classical musicology, mainly the importance in popular music, for the distinction between “high” music and marketing companies as well as for the “low” music (McClary and Walser consumers. Just like truth claims, which 1988, 240). Middleton summarizes the camouflage power struggles in the guise contrast between classical musicology of knowledge, experts, and facts (Foucault and popular music research, by denoting 1980, 88), in the musical context, the three aspects that characterize the labeling of a phenomenon as a “genre” former: terminology (musicological gives it status and power. Various language is specialized and ideologically researchers have noted the importance charged), methodology (focusing on the of assigning a musical product to a genre musical “text,” namely notes, rather than as a tool that provides an entry ticket performance), and ideology (perceiving into the marketing department of the music as autonomous, transcendental, record companies (Frith 1996, 74; Shuker and true, and focusing on the artist, 2002). Types of music that have not been rather than on the social enjoyment of labeled as a “genre” in shops and on the listeners) (Middleton 1990, 103-126). websites, such as music on the telephone Popular music expresses alternate and on television, are not found in the values and requires completely different catalogues of the record companies, and research methods. Thus, the subversive they do not exist in cultural or academic research is usually committed not by discourse (Kassabian 1999, 113). musicologists, but by sociologists and Ascribing musical product to a culture researchers. Here again, we see specific genre influences, in turn, their how the academic struggle reflects the industrial organization, namely their

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social-cultural function, position, and between the reality being studied and the ability to produce and distribute the scientists, and about the manner of them. In addition, the identification scientific advancement. Karl Popper with a genre mediates, fashions, enables, claimed that the natural sciences cannot and limits the consumers’ musical achieve truth, but can only choose from experience (Negus 1999, 17). The genre theories about reality (Popper 1963). is also a tool for the government to Thomas Kuhn turned to a critical path regulate musical fields. It makes possible of a different sort, when he identified the regimentation, or canonization, of the cultural influences on the scientific musical education processes by means “paradigm”: accepted scientific beliefs, of allocation of funds, censorship, and customary rules of research (in a certain so forth (Holt 2007, 3). Consequently, the discipline), and accepted resolutions. creation of conventions, that is, criteria, Kuhn also related to the conditions that according to which music is assigned a allow for deviating from these norms and specific genre, is not just a result of the generating a “paradigm shift” in science analysis of musical parameters but also (Kuhn 1962). of the discourse of artists, consumers, Using critical tools to analyze an arena and authorities (ibid, 23). that is in itself perceived as critical, the In light of the great importance of academic arena—might be complicated. recognizing music as a genre, it is not Various critical approaches have been surprising that the debate surrounding our beacons in our analysis of the cultural NAM focuses on the question of genre. and social mechanisms in which NAM Consequently, researchers discuss researchers function. questions such as: Is NAM a musical As researchers, we belong to the genre? What are its boundaries? Is this community that is being researched, a new genre, and what are its historical namely to the battlefield within academia. roots? These questions, which are relevant We are aware that our research will for every popular genre, become even also contribute its part to the academic more acute with regard to NAM because politics around the New Age. It therefore of its eclectic nature. These questions behooves us to recognize the part our become crucial, since the denial of NAM position plays in the formation of this as a genre ostensibly “justified” its research. Keeping in mind that each exclusion from academic discourse. researcher—us included—is biased, we strive to be reflexive and aware of our Methodology: Reflexive Research predispositions. As the end of this paper Methods and the Research Field is enhanced reflexivity and disclosure of Reflexivity grants the cultural researcher the politics of academia—be it concealed an opportunity to achieve “objectivity” in of revealed—some biographical notes cases where her involvement in the field seem required. of research is significant (Davies 2008, Our position is a result of our personal 10). The reflexive glance at academia choices as well as our academic training. arose with postmodern discourse, In Omri’s undergraduate studies in raising questions about the relationship music, along with acquiring classical

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musical skills he also absorbed disdain Academic Discourse on New Age for popular music: the professors, Music the study program, the methods of The first academic study about NAM, evaluation, and also the extra-curricular from the late-1980s, asserted the events echoed the same conservative importance of NAM as a reflection of a message. As he developed interest in belief system growing within Western technology in his graduate studies, he society (Garneau 1987). Garneau’s gradually found himself opening up to study could have served as a catalyst new worlds of knowledge, in a multi- for subsequent studies analyzing the disciplinary program that emphasized reflection of New Age beliefs and values cultural and critical aspects of technology in music, but the majority of the studies and science, which he applied to the published since then curbed this direction musical world. He became interested in of research. Instead, most researchers of popular musical phenomena, and more NAM addressed fundamental questions. suspicious towards the classical dogma. Writing in an argumentative manner, Marianna wrote a doctoral dissertation they mirrored the cultural struggle on the on the topic of New Age culture. Since questions of the quality and legitimacy in Israel there was no study of New Age of NAM. at that time, this area was suspicious for Presentation of the research studies academics, especially in Judaic Studies, derive from a chronological point of view, where she originated. Her training in but will be based on analytical divisions. critical theories encouraged her to notice The primary division is between those the politics and discursive acts behind that negate NAM and those that affirm it, the academic criticism of New Age. where the first group is the larger one.11 It became her goal to make this field legitimate to study. Part of this project was her establishment and co-chairing of Opponents of New Age Music: ICSCS—the annual Israeli Conference for Negation of the Music the Study of Current Spiritualities, where Leslie Berman, a music critic, curator invited scholars from abroad featured, and president of various musical establishing the status of research on New organizations, openly describes the Age and alternative spiritualities. Our change that began for her regarding meeting led to some research questions NAM, from “simplistic dismissal” to that fascinate us both with regard to “debate” (Berman 1988, 253). The question NAM. about the quality of the music is at the Our field of research includes the center of Berman’s writing, in which she academic publications explicitly referring notes that its rise was “offering a forum to NAM—about two dozen research for increasing numbers of mediocre studies from 1987 to 2010 (see appendix).10 musicians and half-baked knock-offs In these studies, NAM constitutes the of more successful and imaginative central topic and occasionally appears in purveyors” (ibid., 265). In which case, the title. We will start with a survey of all according to her hierarchal perception those studies, followed by an analysis. of music, Berman places NAM in a low position.

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The inferior value of NAM has The question of New Age’s rather continued to echo in later academic enigmatic cohesion, despite its works. The journalist and critic Mark obvious musical identity crisis, thus Prendergast, for instance, describes cannot be answered without taking into account the wider context of the NAM in his book Ambience Century12 as targeting, packaging and marketing of a music that is perceived as inferior, and the product. for the most part “emotionally shallow,” although he gives it credit for promoting He completes his paper expressing a wish minimalist music (Prendergast 2000, 144, that NAM continued in existence not on 147). account of its packaging but on account It is noteworthy that similar remarks of its other features, as it consolidates on quality appear in researches of New (ibid., 51). His sincere investigation of Age cultural products in general. For the reasons of the scholarly neglect of the instance, Hanegraaff, a prominent field might have place him as a supporter researcher of the field, writes about one of the phenomenon, however, in fact he of the New Age books he analyses, that it reproduces the view that in order to be is worthy of academic investigation the genre must be musically coherent, and […] an appallingly shallow piece reassures that it is not. Consequently, of writing, produced by an author without an ounce of literary talent and since in his opinion, the coherence of whose “insights” evince a remarkable NAM derives only from marketing forces lack of profundity or originality […] rather than musical ones, he categorizes it as lacking in quality. He further explains that the book is Appearing in the New Age “important” in order to understand New Encyclopedia are the entries “Music and Age “not because of its qualitative merits the New Age” and “Music, Channeled” but in spite of their absence” (Hanegraaff written by Kelly Aidan. Aidan mentions 2000, 289). the interests found at the very basis Helfried Zrzavy raises the question of NAM—its composition, marketing of why academic research has neglected and distribution—claiming they are NAM (Zrzavy 1990, 35). His main not derived from purely artistic or conclusion is that the cause is its lack ideological motivations. Although he of coherence and eclectic character. His does mention the characteristics of the analysis leads to the conclusion that the music and its uses, such as “background only aspect of this phenomenon that music for meditation for attaining some indicates coherence is the graphic design change in the state of consciousness” of the record covers. He also mentions the (Aidan 1990, 296), he notes, however, high quality of those albums’ pressing. In like Zrzavy, that it is a “marketing slogan other words, not musical, but economic and not a musical category” (ibid., 295). and marketing interests, make-up this He notes, in the context of the economic genre (ibid., 37): interests that motivate the production and distribution of the music, that “a major reason for the popularity of NAM

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among radio stations is that it enables The latter argument—that there is no station owners to operate stations with real religious philosophy, and therefore virtually no paid staff” (ibid., 299).13 no movement of New Age—echoes the Aidan is one of the leaders of Wicca. As claims for the lack of coherence in NAM, an academic who is also involved in the suggesting that it is not a real musical spiritual field, one would expect him to genre. avoid being critical of NAM. However, A different route of judgment of since neo-Pagans are especially stringent NAM is in terms of authenticity and in dissociating with the New Age label cultural appropriation. Jennifer Bain, and being differentiated from that group a musicologist who specializes in (Pearson 1998; Pike 2004), it is perhaps medieval music, claims that it is because not surprising that the ideological- of NAM that the musical compositions sociological adversity between neo- of Hildegard von Bingen from the Paganism and the New Age would find twelfth century have penetrated public expression in academic writings. awareness. Nevertheless, she says that Criticism in the marketing-economic “what made Hildegard famous may area is very typical of academic writing prove to be her demise,” whereas her about New Age culture, also in the commodification generated products that broader context beyond the musical were not faithful to the source nor to the aspect (see, for example, Carrette and cultural-historical context in which they King 2005). Thus, Zrzavy’s and Aidan’s were created (Bain 2004). This accusation analyses of NAM recall the findings of echoes similar claims against other cases another researcher on the emergence of of cultural appropriation by New Age the New Age movement in Germany, Adherents (see, for example, Aldred Christoph Bochinger, who claimed that 2000). the term “New Age” is Another claim that has to do with historical—and even more generally, […] nothing but a label, which was scientific—fidelity is that of Lisa Summer, “pasted on” the new religious scene a researcher of music and therapy, and of by the publishers, the secondary Joseph Summer, a composer and expert literature and a few protagonists: in in acoustics and musical technology. In the German-speaking domain, “New Age” has never lived, and even less is their study, they severely condemn using it a social movement which might be NAM for healing, and the approaches described in the singular (Bochinger, and beliefs that underlie this practice. as sited in the translation of Hanegraaff Although they both approve of therapy 1998, 377). by means of music (and although Lisa herself works in this kind of therapy) Bochinger argues that “there is no such they oppose doing it by means of thing as ‘New Age Movement,’” and that NAM. For this purpose, they present the term “was actually produced by the a historic dynasty of charlatanism and application of marketing principles to the false pseudo-scientific claims, starting religious domain,” denying that it has in the late-19th century with Madame any coherent worldview (ibid., 377-378). Blavatsky and continuing with Rudolf

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Steiner, theosophical thinkers who shared paradigms are committed to the deeply influenced New Age. The authors same rules and standards for scientific explain that important criticism of New practice” (Kuhn 1962, 11), and in our Age therapists is avoided mostly because case the standard is that NAM is not of the feeling that their intentions are perceived as an important or even as a good, even though their explanations worthy research topic. about therapeutic advantage have no The following examples illustrate the clarity or logic (Summer 1996). power of silence with regard to NAM. The article by Gordon Lynch, a researcher Exclusion of the Music of religions who focuses on the sociology Whereas the studies recounted above are of secularism, deals with popular and actively opposed to NAM, part of the spiritual music, but the phrase “New academic discourse expresses passive Age Music” is not mentioned at all in the opposition. This opposition ranges from body of his work, and similarly not in minimum mention of the term “New the literature with which he corresponds Age” to absolute avoidance of relating (Lynch 2006). Penelope Gouk, an historian to it academically. The avoidance of who edited an anthology of research academic discourse about NAM means studies on healing music and its cultural avoidance of creating knowledge about contexts (Gouk 2000), does not mention it. As knowledge equals power, the NAM, either in the introduction to the absence of intensive research in this book or within the framework of the field constitutes a tool of weakening studies she included in it, although the it in the struggle against it, a means of use of this genre is ubiquitous in music nullifying the power of groups interested therapy methods, so much so that it is in distribution or consumption of this sometimes hard to distinguish between music (Foucault 1980, especially 52). healing music and NAM (Summer and Even if it is not possible to indicate a Summer 1996, 8). conscious choice, interest or direct action In many research studies that deal to avoid academic study of NAM, the with sub-genres of NAM, the term is absence of a significant body of research hardly ever mentioned by name, or it on such a prevalent and influential is mentioned as marginally as possible, phenomenon constitutes a political act of as though it were not significant for exclusion. This is an actual execution or the purposes of the research. Thus, reproduction of the opposition. for example, Anthony D’Andrea, an Another similar act is the treatment of anthropologist and cultural researcher, cultural phenomena directly and closely demonstrates in his book about Trance connected to NAM without mentioning music (D’Andrea 2007) a profound this connection explicitly, which weakens familiarity with the New Age scene. the cultural visibility of this music. Not However, even though he is dealing with far from this is the act of marginal and Trance music, which is a sub-category slight mention of the genre, where it is of NAM, and even though the concept necessary to expand on this connection. “New Age” appears in the title of his Academics “whose research is based on book, Global Nomads: Techno and New

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Age as Transnational Countercultures Music, tells in his book about Minimalist in Ibiza and Goa, the term “NAM” is music the story of the founders of that mentioned minimally, only twice. The musical style. Even though he focuses first time in an offhand manner, within on four composers also considered to a biographical description that does not be among the progenitors of NAM, this contribute directly to the content of the genre is never mentioned in the book research, and again in noting that NAM (Potter 2000). is the super-category that includes Trance Vilas Bohlman, a composer and Music, the subject of the book’s research. researcher of Jewish music and A single mention of NAM can also Modernism, writes in his book about be found in the collection of articles World music, that the record industry on Psytrance, which was compiled by amused itself with different names Graham St. John, a cultural anthropologist for this genre in the 1980s, and only in who deals with new cultural and religious the 1990s did the term “World music” movements as well as electronic dance become established. Among the names music culture (St. John 2010). Out of 17 that came up, he notes “music of the New articles, only one of them mentions NAM Age,” which has no place beyond this in incidentally. A few more articles mention the whole book (Bohlman 2002). the term “New Age” once or twice, but While Bohlman recognizes the not the music of that culture, usually as connection between NAM and World one of the factors in a system of many music, Richard Nidel, a lawyer who contexts and influences. published a book about World music Whereas some scholars recognize the in an academic publication, denies this. connection between Trance music and NAM is mentioned only once in his the New Age, in the book about Trance book, where he claims unequivocally music in Goa by Saldanha Arun (cultural that World music is not New Age music geographer), NAM has no reference, (Nidel 2005, 2). while the New Age culture appears only Obviously, we cannot survey all the once: cases of exclusion of NAM from those The concept of trance-dance was studies in which it could or should have popular in the early nineties to capture naturally occurred. the strong religious undertones of electronic dance culture, having developed alongside and sometimes Supporters of the Music interwoven with New Age philosophy The academic discourse that expresses and dance therapies (Arun 2007). a position in support of NAM is The study of Bryan Meadan on the culture varied: ranging from the presentation of Trance music goes one step further. It of clearly positive views regarding the does not mention NAM or New Age at phenomenon, to the neutral stance in all (Meadan 2001). which one may see a relatively positive Keith Potter, a researcher of outlook, considering the pervasive contemporary music, and a founding exclusion and criticism of NAM in member of the Society for Minimalist academic discourse. We will begin with the outright supporters and then present

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the “neutrals.” The group of supporters appreciation for the phenomenon. Hall is smaller than that of opposers, as we expands passionately on the secret of the shall presently see. appeal of NAM and concludes that it is a phenomenon that must be understood Approval of the Music in the context of American popular culture, whereas the listeners respond in The article by Dennis Hall expresses accordance with the cultural mentality definite solidarity with NAM. Like they have acquired (Hall S. G. 1994, 24, those who disapprove of the genre, 32). he too notes the difficulty in defining the phenomenon, but his sympathetic writing style uses this fact in favor of Inclusion of the Music the music and its unique characteristics. The “neutral” positions regarding He continues in this vein further on in NAM assume that NAM is a genre the article, where he characterizes NAM and a legitimate cultural phenomenon, as designed to be heard on the edges and make no value judgments on the of listening or as postmodern music: phenomenon, for better or worse. The eclectic in its components; “seeks to inclusion of NAM in research studies is confuse boundaries” between genres not at all perceived as problematic, and and hierarchies; playful and ironic; does not necessitate, in the eyes of these uses quotes extensively; expresses anti- writers, any discussion as to the esthetic intellectualism, and so on. He does not or qualitative good or bad in NAM. It is see these attributes as problematic or treated as any other legitimate field of deficient. On the contrary, he connects research. these attributes, which he sees as Three academics, who specialize in the complimentary, to his thesis that NAM psychology of music and its applications is exposing “the building blocks of in education and in society, used NAM the culture,” and contributing “to the in order to study gender bias related formations demanded by the condition to music (Colley 2003; North 2003). of postmodernity.” The culmination of Selecting NAM as a tool for testing the this writing may be seen in an advertising issue of gender bias, without expressing quote of NAM producers with which he any undertone of apology, attests to identifies, since, in his opinion, it clarifies the approach that it is not problematic and reinforces his thesis that this music is music, which may assist in studying “a haven from the demands of the world the psychological characteristics of around us” (Hall D. 1994, 18-20). listeners. A similar “neutral” approach An article by Susan Grove Hall, also appeared in other empirical studies “An Analysis of an Ecstasy,” declares (which compare results of listening to her position in the presentation of the NAM or classical music)—one in the field research query: “What is entrancing all of music therapy (Mead 1991) and the these listeners, myself included?” and other in the field of researching states of this personal, positive, bold undertone consciousness (Joyce 2003; Smith 2004). is maintained throughout the article. The research of Ryan Hibbet, a The entire article expresses great researcher of English literature and

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popular music, entitled “The New different types: those who approve of Age Taboo,” focuses on characterizing or negate the phenomenon express an the position that opposes NAM. This overt confl ict, while those who exclude critical study examines the widespread or include it express a covert confl ict (see declaration of consumers and suppliers the chart below). of assorted kinds of music—“This is not The two groups of overt confl ict NAM” (Hibbet 2010). The understanding express a direct and pronounced at the basis of the research is that the argument for or against NAM, an suggested objection to NAM as embodied explicit ideological position, and are in this manner of speaking indicates a mostly aware of the confl ict. In contrast, mental and ideological stance that is the two secondary groups, of covert and worthy of investigation. Although it does indirect confl ict, express a pragmatic not present any personal value judgment position that is a practical realization of with regard to the music, nor with regard the ideology. They seemingly act on the to the opposition to it, the very choice of basis of a given discourse (of exclusion or the research query indicates a position inclusion of NAM), without being aware that is not entirely “neutral,” because of of the existing confl ict and the ideology the problematization it creates regarding latent in their choice. Their academic opposition to NAM. Since he does not work reproduces the ideology, and thus express overt support for NAM, we take passive part in the confl ict. have placed Hibbet in the category of Beyond these divisions, we wish “inclusion,” although he takes a step to characterize the criteria and values beyond inclusion of the music, in creating that underlie the academic position, i.e., a problematization of NAM’s criticism. the arguments and reasons for opposition or support. This content addresses the Analysis and Discussion: Research researcher’s choice, and uncovers her Paradigms and Types of Academic predisposition. Thus, the following Struggle remarks relate to studies that contain a Investigating the academic controversy direct struggle, and which explicitly raise around NAM, we found two directions— criteria as part of this confl ict. opposition to the phenomenon and In striving to endorse or nullify NAM, support for it. Each direction is split in its researchers indicate different scientifi c two groups that express struggles of evaluation criteria such as eclecticism or

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authenticity that are supposed to decide distinct from other styles and possessing NAM’s quality and status. Since the clear boundaries, and the quality of the criteria are value charged, it is significant music is measured by a clear hierarchy. to inspect them when analyzing the Ideal music is perceived as high-quality academic polemic. Some criteria are and intellectual, therefore understandable accepted by all researchers, while others by the elite, as opposed to inferior music are identified with a certain group. consumed by the masses, and concurs For instance, it is agreed that NAM is with a scientific approach. Its presence eclectic, except that some see eclecticism is at the center of the listener’s attention, as a blessing while others expect a genre as opposed to ambience music, which is to be coherent. In the case of historical played in the background and is on the authenticity—the mere criterion periphery of one’s attention.15 “High- indicates an opposition to NAM. Thus, quality” music is unique, and it does the controversy over the music’s quality not try to imitate other musical works; does not necessarily lie in disputed facts, its stylistic and cultural affiliation is but in the evaluation of those facts. clear, and there is clarity as concerns We would suggest sorting the values its composer. There is mutual feedback and criteria into two groups, one of them between appreciation for the producer expressing a modernist paradigm and of the music and for her products, with the other expressing a postmodernist emphasis on the product, according to paradigm (Butler 2010; Jameson 1991; the quality with which the producer is Lyotard 1984; Pericles 2007).14 While the esteemed. “Pure” music is a product of opponents of NAM, who are the majority, mere artistic expression, as opposed to write in a modernist style, its supporters functional music, which has underlying use a postmodernist one. non-artistic intents. Both paradigms—modernist and The postmodernist paradigm upholds postmodernist—are actually the different values than those noted above. framework within which the debate Whereas the modernist seeks authenticity, around NAM takes place. Each of the the postmodernist denies the possibility paradigms relates differently to musical of attaining it. In lieu of modernist tradition, to aesthetics, and to science. research that tracks historical sources in Each of them upholds different values the past, the postmodernist prefers to and therefore raises different criteria focus on the cultural context at present. for evaluation, while imputing varying Whereas the modernist would laud the importance to each of them. Needless stylistic coherence derived from defined to say, this dynamic—which actually boundaries, the postmodernist would determines the research’s conclusions as praise the eclecticism of the sources and to NAM—occurs behind the scenes. It is the stylistic diversity. Instead of the quality not present in the text, and may even be of the music, the postmodernist would derived from values of which the writers seek its utility. Instead of focusing on themselves are not aware. composers and compositions or “depth” According to the modernist paradigm, and “authenticity,” the postmodernist a musical genre is perceived as coherent, would focus on consumers and on the

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composition’s effect on them; “surface” etical terms chosen are crucial in dictating and “death of the composer.” Instead of the research’s outcome, since an etical dealing with philosophical questions, term that is too distant or different from the postmodernist prefers to focus on the emic discourse might portray the social and utilitarian (e.g. therapeutic) research object as negative, incoherent, questions. Intellectualism is substituted, irrational, and unworthy. On the other for the postmodernist, by an accent on hand, etic categories that too closely emotion and experience. echo the emic discourse might lead to an An interesting case that exemplifies apologetic non-critical research that lacks the paradigm’s power is a negating fertile and significant insights. research study (Summer 1996) that deals Therefore, the end of the studies is with music therapy. While one might determined at their beginning. Since all expect a discussion on therapeutic utility researchers would agree that NAM is a (a typical postmodern criterion), in postmodernist phenomenon, the salient actuality the authors deal with questions unsuitability between the conservative of authenticity and scientific truth, which etic discourse of the modernist paradigm stem from their modernist paradigm. and their research object, necessarily Even when opponents of NAM present leads to the conclusion that it is an its positive sides, these are also derived unworthy phenomenon. On the other from judgment according to modernist hand, postmodernist researchers find criteria. For example, Prendergast, an NAM to be a true manifestation of opponent of NAM, who describes it the paradigm they hold, since their as inferior in quality, gives it credit for etic discourse is inspired by the emic advancing minimalist music of “genuine discourse of postmodern phenomena, quality,” i.e., he attributes positive value and in a no less predictable manner they to it in accordance with modernist criteria, view it favorably. which distinguish between qualities that Actually, each researcher puts together are “genuine” and “false” (Prendergast some putative facts into a narrative, using 2000, 144). All in all, the opposition can different etic categories that reflect her be summed up as concentrated on the values. Some issues that are shared by all claim that NAM does not measure up to the researchers—such as the eclecticism modernist criteria. and widespread distribution of NAM— It would serve the discussion to add are understood by modernist researchers the conceptualization that distinguishes (e.g. Zrzavy 1990) as incoherency that between an etic and an emic discourse prevents the music from being recognized (Headland, Pike, and Harris 1990). In as a real genre, and thus appealing only Anthropology, an etical discourse includes to the laity. The parallel postmodernist the scientific terminology and categories account (e.g. Hall D. 1994) of the music stemming from the researchers’ view (e.g. portrays it as hybrid, subversively the term “inconsistent” or “agency”), blurring boundaries between genres and whereas an emic discourse stands for classes, and thus a sophisticated mirror the language of the adherents/believers of our culture, which rightfully appeals being studied (e.g. “flow”, “sacred”). The to the masses.

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The proximity between New Age Epilogue: Dynamics of the Cultural phenomena and postmodernism is not Struggle in New Age Music Research confined to the music, as has been noted by Music is not just about sounds. It is a several researchers. Among the common political act. Composition and marketing, values of New Age and postmodernism, broadcasting and consumption, one could mention criticism of Western exclusion and silencing, disapproval and rationalism, an emphasis on experiential approval—these actions in the artistic epistemology, a preference for utility over field are culturally, morally, and socially truth and the blurring of boundaries (see, charged. The academic discourse about for example, Huss 2007; Lyon 1993). An music, we claim, is part of a cultural example of the proximity between New polemic of this sort. Moreover, the Age and postmodernism might be found research of NAM contributes to the in a central research study of the field identification and understanding of describing New Age adherents as cultural ideas that make their way to the mainstream. a manifestation par excellence of The academic discourse about NAM postmodern consumer society, the members of which use, recycle, started with an unusual article by Garneau, combine and adapt existing religious in 1987, which did not have the nature of ideas and practices as they see fit a debate, and which suggested examining (Hanegraaff 2002, 249-250). the characteristics of the phenomenon in light of its widespread cultural context, The characteristics of New Age i.e., learning about the system of beliefs culture mentioned in this citation (e.g., growing in Western society through eclecticism, the costumer’s/adherent’s the new music being created in the empowerment) were reiterated in New Age arena. The ongoing academic academic descriptions of NAM. discourse on this subject, did not follow In summation, the cultural and value- the trail blazed by Garneau. It seems to related distance between researchers us that the ongoing controversy in the of NAM and the object of their studies academic arena has reached a point of produces predictable results for exhaustion (similar to the one portrayed their research. Bourdieu taught that by Zablocki and Robbins 2001), at which controversies in the social court are it is worthwhile to go back and examine in fact struggles about the rules of the Garneau’s suggestion, and proceed game, including the conditions for being from there toward a constructive way of allowed entry into the court, acceptance dealing with the field of NAM beyond a of presumptions upon entry and so discussion of good or bad. forth. Likewise, one can see the conflict Concomitantly after the publication between the two paradigms in the field of Garneau’s article, an academic debate of NAM research as a struggle, that seeks was embarked upon in two double stages to conquer the cultural arena by means (see fig. 3). The first stage was ideological, of an attempt to determine the principles and it started with overt opposition, of the game, by deciding between which began with three research studies modernist and postmodernist discourse in the years 1988–1990: Berman, Zrzavy, (Bourdieu 1995, 7274).

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and Aidan, and soon afterwards there have seen that a sincere internal dialogue appeared support and defense in two between the different studies has never studies in 1994: Hall D., and Hall S.G., taken place. The research studies do not followed by more opposing voices in only disregard Garneau’s suggestion four research endeavors, conducted but avoid reliance on conclusions or between 1996 and 2004. In the second findings of others. There is no real stage, the conflict was translated onto a attempt to convince or to be convinced, pragmatic plane, in research studies done to reject claims or to test them. Mention by those who excluded it, beginning with of previous research on the topic of NAM studies published since 2000, and those in the studies reviewed is minimal and who included it after an exceptional marginal. Every researcher presents an predecessor in 1991. Four appeared in the ideological position based on her own years 2003–2004, and one in 2010, which criteria, or implements her taken-for- accompanied the ideological conflict as granted internalized stance. There is a back end conflict, with a sense of not at no stage any reflection on the basic being completely aware of being part of assumptions. a battleground. Consequently, whereas We found, that when the academic the first stage was overt and ideological, discourse expresses values, it is motivated the second was covert and practical, by ideological presumptions, and when and, whereas opposition appeared it does not express them, it is motivated first in every stage, defense appeared by habits and fashions. Neither of them afterwards. It might be the risk in taking constitutes rational consideration, but NAM’s side in a hostile professional these are the actual generators of the arena that brought fewer researchers to dynamic of the polemic. take the supporters’ side Even though the researchers are Ostensibly, this progression creates an not conducting a dialogue among impression of rationalism, a progression themselves, they raise similar questions, that advances in accordance with the such as the extent of NAM’s coherence as Western scientific ethos—from premise to proof of its quality. These questions, one conclusion, from finding to finding, from might guess, are derived from the lively claim to claim. However, in actuality, we public discourse surrounding NAM.

Fig. 3: The chronological course of research of New Age Music

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This indicates how much the academic 5www.allmusic.com/genre/new-age- discourse is nourished by public ma0000002745. discourse and its prevalent fashions, 6www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_ more, in fact, than it is nourished by noss?url=search-alias%3Dpopular&field- internal, analytical causality. We are keywords=. thus apprised of the permeability of the 7 www.billboard.com/charts#/charts. academic realm. It is neither an isolated and autonomous field, as purported to 8www.theonering.net/ be, nor coherent and continual. torwp/2002/03/08/14783-enya-wins-bestselling-female-at-world- music-awards. In this study we have dealt with the dynamic of a cultural struggle as it is 9www.youtube.com/ reflected in the academic arena. Dealing watch?v=ervaMPt4Ha0. with a controversial research object 10 Research studies that are not part of the facilitates characterizing the course of the academic arena (for example, if they have academic debate. It enabled us to examine been published by a publishing company or academia’s isolation from the other in a journal that is not academic), are not in- cultural arenas versus its penetrability cluded in this review. Although they often see by cultural fashions, and its rationality themselves as researches (e.g., if the authors have a Ph.D.), they are not actually taking (in accordance with the Western scientific part in the academic discourse, and are not ethos) versus motives and ideologies that players in this arena. An interesting example affect its current. The penetrability of the might be a manual for healing using NAM, academic sphere by cultural fashions, one co-authored by a Ph.D. holder, which was not might ponder, increases the likelihood published in an academic press (Watson and that as the postmodernist discourse Druri 1987). It is also worth mentioning that advances, so shall the research of NAM since research about NAM does not always flourish. include this term (as we will explain further in the discussion about the “excluders”), we Notes could not locate all the researches, and the 1 Acknowledgement: This paper was sup- cases brought forward should be seen as rep- ported by Zefat Academic College and resentative examples. Netanya Academic College. 11 In very few of the cases, the research dis- 2 Cultural criticism is actually not just a sepa- cussed presents views in both directions, but rate research circle, but a research approach we organized the classification according to that influences and penetrates other circles in the weight of the claims that contribute to- the illustration. For the sake of simplicity, the wards the legitimization and the value of the categories are presented in the illustration in music. an inaccurate way, as noted. 12 We include this book within the academic 3 It is interesting to note that the sub-categories of the New Age genre are occasionally discourse, because of the style in which it displayed without being identified as New is written as well as because it is used as a Age but as independent genres, such as mere source by researchers (for example, St. John “World music.” 2010, 97). 13 The economic aspect is mentioned in 4 www.allmusic.com/genres. (All the links the definition that appears in the Grove in this paper, and their data, were accessed Dictionary of Music, too, where it says that on 18/02/2013).

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Watson, Andrew, and Nevill Drury. 1988. Appendix Healing Music. Bridport, Dorset, A list of the studies included in the England: Prism Press. paper (according to the order being Weissler, Chava. 2007. “‘Art is Spiritu- mentioned) ality!’: Practice, Play, and Expe- Garneau 1987 riential Learning in the Jewish Opponents of New Age Music Renewal Movement.” Material Religion: The Journal of Objects, Art Negation of the Music and Belief, 3(3) 354–79. Berman 1988 Zablocki, Benjamin and Thomas Rob- Prendergast 2000 bins. Eds. 2001. Misunderstanding Zrzavy 1990 Cults—Searching for Objectivity in Aidan 1990 a Controversial Field. Canada: Uni- Schreiner 2001 versity of Toronto Press. Bain 2004 Zrzavy, Helfried C. 1990. “Issues of Inco- herence and Cohesion in NAM.” Summer and Summer 1996 The Journal of Popular Culture, Exclusion of the Music (only examples) 24(2):33-54. Lynch 2006 Gouk 2000 D’Andrea 2007 St. John 2010 Arun 2007 Meadan 2001 Potter 2000 Bohlman 2002 Nidel 2005 Supporters of the Music Approval of the Music Hall D. 1994 Hall S. G. 1994 Inclusion of the Music Colley, North and Hargreaves 2003; North, Colley and Hargreaves 2003 Joyce 2003; Smith and Joyce 2004 Mead, Cogan and Cox 1991 Smith and Joyce 2004 Hibbet 2010