Sumer and the Sumerians Harriet Crawford Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 0521825962 - Sumer and the Sumerians Harriet Crawford Index More information

Index

Abu (god), votive statue 206 decline in Ur III period 35 Abu Salabikh 24, 38, 45 economic surplus 15, 17--18 bowls as grave goods 143 harvesting 55 domestic buildings 110, 112 labour for 57, 59 ﬂint sickles 57 manuring 55 Jemdat Nasr pottery at 19 pastoralism 7, 11, 12--13, 17, 57--9, 93 pottery kilns 166, 167 rain-fed 7, 115 scribes at 12 settled farmers 12--13 town plan 63 tools 56--7 Adab, city of 28, 44, 45, 47, 220 see also irrigation Agade period temple 82 Akkad, river port 15 Adams, R. McC. 5, 37, 40 Akkad, kingdom of 8, 26 administration 16, 33, 216 Urkesh and 126 civil service at Ur 35 see also Agade increasing sophistication 100, 203, Akkadian language 13 217 alabaster Upper Mesopotamia (middle Uruk) 119 Nippur votive statue 207 see also palace; temple Uruk vase 55, 204 afterlife 140, 157, 214 alloys in Sumerian texts 135 bronze 17, 167 Agade, city of 15, 33 copper arsenic 168 see also Akkad, kingdom of electrum 139, 139, 167 Agade dynasty 33--4, 189 true tin bronze 168, 171, 190 see also Naram-Sin; Sargon Altyn Tepe, Turkmenia, ziggurat 88 Agade period 21--2 Amar-Sin (Bur-Sin), king of Ur 83, 156 end of 133 Amarna archives 197 historical dating 24 Amorites 23, 35, 219 metallurgy 171--3 Anatolia public buildings 100--3 copper from 11 radiocarbon dating 24 gold beads from 187 seal impressions 202--3, 203 links with Upper Mesopotamia 8, 115 settlement patterns 45--7 megaron buildings 82 stelae 210 obsidian from 139 temples 82--3 raw materials from 180 trade 189--90 Sumerian conquests in 33 agate 175 trade with 182, 184 agriculture 52--9, 218 Uruk sites 23 arable (cereals) 6, 7, 54--7 Anu (sky god), at Uruk 28 crops 53, 55, 55--6 Arabia dairy 57, 58 copper from 11

234

Index 235

stearite/chlorite from 185 Asimah, Arabia 188 trade with 184 Assur (Ashur) 2 Ubaid pottery ﬁnds 182 Ishtar temple 79, 189 see also Dilmun; Magan; Meluhha Assyrian kingdom 35 Arabian Gulf Atij,ë site 121 position of head of 9--10, 38, 48 trade routes 15, 181--3 Babylon 2, 219 Aratta, lord of 184 Bad Tibira 45 archaeological dating 16 Badakshan, lapis lazuli from 139, 180 historical 24 Baghdad 1, 54 radiocarbon dating 16, 23--5 Bahrain archaeological interpretation Barbar temples 191 of buildings 30--1, 75, 89--90, 98, City II (Ur III period) 190, 191 105--6, 117 as entrepotˆ 182, 187 of funerary evidence 136, 137, 157 see also Dilmun archaeological techniques Banat 127 German 3 White monuments 154 modern 4--5 Banks, E. J. 3 surveying 5, 37--9, 41 map, 42 map, 43 barley, as currency 159 map basketry 160 use of computers 5, 39, 221 beads archaeology carnelian 175, 178, 181, 186 costs 4, 5 on clothing 161, 161 and destruction of sites 38 gold 187 early 1--2, 2 map grave goods 139, 145 effect of salt on sites 38 pottery 138 modern Iraq 4, 220--1 Bell, Gertrude 4 architects 69, 70 Beydar (Nabada) architecture Kranzhugel town 125, 125--6, 133 circular structures 93, 92--6, 183 seal impression 126 corbel vault 36, 69 Bi’a, stone tomb 154 dome 36, 69 bitumen 6, 7 Early Dynastic 19, 96 as mortar megaron buildings 82, 117--18, 118 boat building 160 pillars 69 boats true arch 36, 69 barges for transport 15 Ur III period 22 model 152, 153 see also buildings; domestic buildings; Botta, Emile´ 2 palaces; public buildings; Bouqras, stamp seal 198 temples Brak see Tell Brak armies see warfare bricks Arparchiyah, Syria, pottery 164 baked 66--7 Arslantepe/Malatya, Anatolia 178, 180 name stamps on 82, 103 art, Ur III period 22 plano-convex, Early Dynastic 19, 66, art objects 213, 219 67 see also pottery; seals; statuary; stelae; unbaked mudbricks 66 stone objects British School of Archaeology in Iraq 4

236 Index

bronze 17, 167 linked with Euphrates 47 arsenical 168 for transport and communication 14 true tin 168, 171, 190 see also irrigation Buckingham, J. S. 1 Carchemish, route from 14 building materials 66--9 carnelian baked bricks 66--7 from Aratta 184 mortar 67 beads 175, 178, 181, 186 mudbrick (unbaked) 66 grave goods 139, 145 plaster 67 stamp seals 199 roof timbers 68 carts 15, 153 surveying equipment 68 burials (Kish) 143--5 tools 68, 68 Çatal Huy¨ uk,¨ Anatolia, clay tokens 193 building plans 69 cattle 55, 58 see also house plans; temple plans cemeteries buildings extramural 135, 155 floors 67 Kheit Qasim 136, 140--1, 142 roofs 67--8, 106 Shahdad 187 upper storeys 97--8, 114, 132 Tepe Gawra 137--40 windows 106 Ur (Jemdat Nasr) 141--2 see also architecture; domestic see also Kish; Ur, Jemdat Nasr buildings; house plans; public cemetery; Ur, Royal Cemetery buildings; temple plans cereal cultivation see agriculture bulla (clay ball), enclosing tokens 193 chapels, private 113--14, 155 Bur-Sin see Amar-Sin chlorite see steatite/chlorite bureaucracy see administration; officials cire perdue (lost wax) casting of metals burials 167 body position 141, 154 cities bone preservation 142, 148 and satellite towns 10 cart (Kish) 143--5 Sumerian plain 27 map of children 135, 138, 140, 147 see also town plans; towns funerary evidence 136, 157 citizens, assemblies of 30 inhumations 137, 138, 140, 142, 147 city-states multiple 95, 145, 147, 153 as political concept 20 retinues (Ur) 154, 156 small 126 pisé 137, 138 Upper Mesopotamia 217 rituals and ideology 142, 143, 154, Uruk period 16, 28 155, 156 clay and social status 32, 138, 142, 157 for tools (sickles) 57 vessel 138, 140 see also plaques; tablets within private houses 110, 113, 155 climate fluctuation 6, 17, 221 see also cemeteries; graves; tombs end of Agade period 133 climate zones 7 map, 6--9, 17 calendar clothing 149 Sargon’s reform of 33 decoration (embroidery) 161, 161 year-names 24 evidence from royal graves at Ur 148--9 camel 59 head-dresses 149, 161 canals on statues 149, 150, 160--2, 207 building and maintenance 54 see also textiles

Index 237

colours 74--5 showing ziggurats 86, 86 pigments 6 subject-matter on 200--1, 203--4 communications 14 map see also seal impressions east--west routes 13--14 hollow ways (Upper Mesopotamia) date palm 52, 53 115, 124 cultivated 52--3 north--south routes 14--15, 50 Death of Gilgamesh, text 135, 156 waterways 61 Death of Ur-Nammu, text 135, 156 see also trade routes deer 7, 58 cone mosaics see mosaics deforestation 6 copper 6, 11, 13, 167 diet Arabia 182, 184, 188, 191 evidence from bones 148 imported 173, 180, 181 evidence from graves 150 to price exchanges 159 see also food and drink for tools 56 Dilmun (Bahrain) see also alloys timber imported from 68, 187 copper objects trade with 15, 53, 182 ﬁgurines 169 diorite, black 182, 184 lattice-work stand (grave good) 144 for royal statuary 21, 189, 190, 207 in public buildings (Tell Asmar) 100 diplomatic links statuary (Agade period) 21, 171, 172, marriages 177, 216 171--3 and trade 177, 191 cosmetics 149 Diqdiqqa, artisans’ quarter (Ur) 64 councils, of citizens 30 divination 58 counting system, sexagesimal 36, 139 Diyala valley 8 craftsmen 158 domestic buildings 110 apprenticeship system 69 Early Dynastic sites 19 private enterprise 159, 166 Jemdat Nasr sites 19 state employees 173 settlement pattern 49--50, 51 tools 158, 174 see also Eshnunna; Kheit Qasim crops 53, 55, 55--6 dogs 58, 59 harvesting 55 domestic buildings 106--14 cuneiform writing 195, 196, 197--8, chapels 113--14, 155 215 compared with modern traditional cylinder seals 17, 199--204, 215 houses 106, 132 agricultural scenes 56, 200, 201 Early Dynastic period 110--12 at Bahrain 190 elite houses 118, 119 banquet scenes 150, 152, 202, 204 as evidence of social status 32 combat scenes 202, 202, 203, 204 hearths and ovens 107, 108, 111, 112 drilled 201 kitchens 111 in graves 141, 144, 147 resemblance to temple plans 77--9, Jemdat Nasr 18, 92 109--10 Ninevite V 121 room functions 107--8 north Mesopotamia 120, 134 tombs within 110, 113, 135, 155 Piedmont style 183, 183, 201 Ur III period 113--14 regional styles 201 Uruk period 109--10 ritual scenes on 200 village houses 107, 107 scenes of pottery making 165 see also house plans

238 Index

donkeys 58, 59, 153 and cylinder seals 201 draught animals at Tepe Gawra 118 cattle 180 Enheduanna, daughter of Sargon 155, donkeys 153 197, 197, 216 oxen 59, 153 Enki (god of Eridu) 48 dreams, interpretation of 31 Enkidu 135 Enlil (god, patron of Sumer) 28, 33 Ea (god of Eridu) 28 Enmerkar, myth of 184 on seal impressions Entemena of Lagash 163 and The Flood 28 Entu priestesses, at Ur 83 Eannatum of Lagash, stele 209, Erbil 60 219 Ergani Maden, copper production 13 Early Dynastic (ED) period 19--21 Eridu, city of 28, 48--9 domestic buildings 110--12 Portico building 91 north--south divergence 28 Priests’ house 90, 91, 110 political power 30, 33 public buildings 96, 99 public buildings 96--100, 105 tripartite temple plan 69 radiocarbon dating 24 Ubaid period 52 settlement patterns 41 map, 42 map, Eshnunna, Diyala valley 35, 50, 51, 217 44, 45, 50 law code 159, 170 temple plans 76--82 Shu-Sin shrine 83, 85 trade (exports) 187--9 ethnography, for modern comparisons urbanisation 45 5, 60, 106 votive statues 207 Euphrates 152 see also Jemdat Nasr; Ninevite canal links 47 V period course changes 9, 48 Ebla/Mardikh, Syria 33 as trade route 14, 179 palace 98, 213 exchange system 159 economy prices 159 agricultural surplus 15, 17--18 Failaka island, Arabian Gulf 191 control of 31--2 family exchange system 159 extended 32, 59, 116 and external trade 46 nuclear 32, 111 market forces and prices 159 see also households surpluses traded 159 Farmer’s Instructions (Sumerian text) see also industry; trade 55, 56 Edin, uncultivated land 57 festivals 152 Egypt 181, 221 figurines Elam copper 169 cedarwood from 68 Ur III period 22 and cuneiform script 197 fish 11, 153 Sargon’s attack on 33 fishing and fishermen 151, 160, 212 electrum (natural alloy), wolf’s head flint 139, 139, 167 for blades 170 elite groups 216 sickles 57 burials (Upper Mesopotamia) 154 Flood, story of 28, 36

Index 239

ﬂooding grave goods and arable farming 54 with cart burials (Kish) 143 lower Mesopotamian plain 10 as evidence for everyday life 135, and salinisation 47 136--7, 214 food and drink 53, 150 precious materials 127, 139, 143 feasts 152 and social status 118, 140--1, 150, 157 see also diet graves France, archaeology in Iraq 2, 3 ‘burnt’ (Ur) 147 Frankfort, Henri 19, 60 cist 127, 138 fuel as evidence of social status 32 dung as 57 mass (Tell Gubba) 95 scrub and thorn for 11 shaft 127 for smelting 167 sidewall 140 funerary monuments, Upper under houses (Khafaje) 142--3 Mesopotamia 127--8 grazing land 57--9 funerary offerings, on platforms 141 middle zone 7 furniture southern zone 11 evidence from royal graves at Ur Great Britain, and Ottoman empire 1 149--50 Great Zab river 8 model 23 Gudea, prince of Lagash 34, 47, 70, 207, 209 Gabristan, Iran 168 and trade 68, 190 game 11, 58 Gungunum, king of Larsa 190 gaming boards and gaming pieces 152 Guti tribes (hordes of Gutium), Garden of Eden 1, 8 overthrow of Agade kings 21, 34, gardens 52--4 133, 219 Gawra see Tepe Gawra gazelle, as food supply 58 Habuba Kabira, Syria 62, 109, 120 Germany, archaeology in Iraq 2 abandoned 182 Gilgamesh, mythical ruler of Uruk 30, cylinder seals 201 36, 135 Uruk colony town 61, 75, 179, 180 Girsu, text 173 Habur valley 120 Godin Tepe, Iran 49, 180 Kranzhugel towns 122--6 gods 28 Hacinebi Tepe, Turkey, middle Uruk site portrayed on seals 203 16, 164, 179, 180 temples as homes of 79 Halaf period 215 see also Abu; Anu; Ea; Enki; Enlil; stamp seals 198 Ishtar/Inanna; Marduk; Hammurabi of Babylon 25, 35, 211 Nannar/Sin; Ningirsu Hamrin valley 8 gold 167 circular structures 92--6, 183 beads 187 route through 14, 183 grave goods 127, 139 settlement patterns 50--1 at Tepe Gawra 167 Ubaid houses 109 tumblers 163, 163 Harappan culture gold leaf, for plaster inlay 67, 173 decline 191 Goltepe,¨ Anatolia 190 trading contacts 190 Grai Resh, Uruk site 119 harbours, Ur 61

240 Index

Hassek Huyuk, Uruk site 75, 120, 179, individuals, influence of 17, 221 180 Indus valley Hassuna period 162 archaeological dates 25, 145 Hatra 220 carnelian beads from 186 route through 14 Intercultural style chlorite finds helmets 170, 210 187 Herodotus, descriptions of ziggurats 85, see also Harappan culture 219 industry al-Hiba see Lagash cottage industries 111, 158 Hili 8 site 187, 190 specialised production 158 historical dating standardisation of utilitarian goods King Lists 24 158 Sumerian King List 24 within public buildings 98, 102 Hit--Samarra line (zone boundary) 6, 26, workshops 102, 111, 158, 162 115 see also raw materials; tools horses 59 inscriptions wild 58 for dating 24 house plans 106, 135, 218 royal 24, 47 compounds (Tell Taya) 130, 131, on statues 207 131 from Urkesh 126 courtyard type 110, 112, 114 Iran 6, 8, 215 modern compound 107 metals from 11, 93, 168 T-shaped 109 routes to 49 tripartite 110, 114 turquoise from 139 see also domestic buildings ziggurats 88 household objects, reused 135 see also Tepe Yahya households Iraq 2, 6 composition of 107 British mandate 3 extended families 59, 116 effect of second Gulf war 220 see also family; house plans modern archaeology 4 human sacrifice, evidence for 145, 154, Iraq National Museum 156, 157, 217 antiquities laws 4 Hurrian peoples 219 looting from 171, 220 iron-working 168 Ibbi-Sin, last king of Ur 35, 159, irrigation 17, 47, 215 219 and flooding 54 ideology, and Intercultural decoration methods of 54 185 middle zone 7, 115 Imdugud (lion-headed eagle) 163 and salinisation 6, 35, 47 Imdugud relief 81 and settlement patterns 40, 47 imported goods southern zone 10 metals 167, 173, 178, 180, 181 see also canals stone 175, 178, 180 Ishqi-Mari (Lagmi-Mari), king of timber 11, 68, 180, 187 Mari 207 Inanna see Ishtar/Inanna (goddess) Ishtar/Inanna (goddess) 28, 135 India, introduced crops and cattle from and Sargon of Agade 29 55 on Uruk vase 204

Index 241

Isin Temple Oval 64, 80, 80, 82 city of 35, 47, 220 votive statue 205 leather-working 159 Kheit Qasim, Diyala valley 96 Isin-Larsa period cemetery 136, 140--1, 142 statues 161 Ubaid houses 110, 119--20 tablet at Bahrain 190 Khorsabad, French archaeology at 2 ‘itinnu’ (‘builder’) 69 kilns, lime (Khafaje) 90 Ituria of Tell Asmar 104 kilns, pottery 92, 158, 165 ivory, grave goods 139 domed 165 domestic 166 Jarmo, Kurdistan, clay tokens Eridu 90 193 two-storey 162 jasper, red, pebbles 139 ‘King of the Four Quarters’, title of 29, Jazira region 120 34 Jebel Aruda 75, 120, 179 ‘King of Kish’, title of 30 cylinder seals 18 King Lists 99, 196 houses 109, 109--10 and dating 24 lapis ﬁnds at 180, 181 Sumerian 24 Jebel Hamrin hills 8 kings 201, 216--17, 221 see also Hamrin valley assumption of divine status 21, 34, 89, Jebel Sinjar hills 6, 88 155, 217 Jemdat Nasr period 18--19 as military commanders 21, 216 public buildings 91--6, 105 relations with religious power 89--90, radiocarbon dating 24 216--18 settlement pattern 44--5, 50 Kish 26, 28 temple plans 75--6 A cemetery 136, 166 trade routes 182--4 Palace A 97, 98, 213, 218 trading colonies 182 Plano-Convex Brick building 98 see also pottery public buildings 96 Jemdat Nasr, site 91--2 wall plaque 213 jewellery Y cemetery (cart burials) 143--5 agate necklace 173 ziggurats 86 as grave goods 151, 154 Kranzhugel towns, Habur valley 125, see also beads 122--6, 133 Jezirah, Roman province 6--8 labour Karrana 3 site 120 for agriculture 57, 59 grain storage 121 for building 69 Keith, Sir Arthur 148 for irrigation 47 Kerma, site 121 Lagash 10, 28, 99 Kestel, Anatolia 190 date gardens 52 Khafaje 60, 63 Inanna temple 80 Abu temple 82 as independent state 34, 47 graves (under houses) 142--3, 144 rivalry with Umma 30, 45 House D 90 slave trade 159 Nintu temple 82 Lagash dynasty 24, 29 Sin temple 76, 77, 78, 186 see also Gudea; Ur-Nanshe

242 Index

land Mari 12, 121 grants to craftsmen 159 Ishtarat temple 77, 78, 186 grants to officials 57, 218 Ninni-Zaza temple 77, 186 unused 57 plaque from 160, 160, 213 land ownership pottery at 184 by palace 31 priestesses of 161 private 32, 57, 218 public buildings (EDpalace) 98, 99 languages see Akkadian; proto-Elamite; steatite/chlorite finds 185 Semitic; Sumerian; writing town plan 64 lapis lazuli 175 votive statues 207 grave goods 127, 128, 139 marriage traded 180--1, 184, 188 diplomatic (dynastic) 177, 216 Larsa, city of 28, 35, 45, 47, 220 sacred 85--6, 154 ‘lavatories’ marshes in domestic buildings (Tell Asmar) 112 modern drainage 38 in public buildings (Tell Asmar) 100, Shatt-el-Arab 9, 10, 11 101 Maysar, Arabia 188, 190 law codes, Eshnunna 159, 170 measurements see weights and Layard, Austen Henry 1, 2 measures lead 167, 180 Mediterranean vessels 163 as boundary of Sumerian empire 33 leather-working 58, 159, 162 routes to 13, 14, 181 Lebanon, cedarwood from 11, 68 megaron buildings lists Anatolia 82 King Lists 24, 99, 196 Tepe Gawra 82, 117--18 lexical 194 Meluhha, trade with 15, 68, 184, 189, Professions 27, 32 191 literacy, and inscriptions on seals 203 merchants 191--2, 217, 218 Little Zab river 8 and supply of copper 173 ‘lugal’, term for king 29 Meshed (Mashhad) 180 Lugalzagesi of Uruk 33 Mesilim, king of Kish 30, 170 Lullubi people, Naram-Sin’s victory over Meskalamdug, tomb of 148, 210 34 Mesopotamia, greater defined 6 maceheads geographical zones 7 map, 6--9, 17 as grave goods 140 see also Mesopotamia, Upper metal 170 Mesopotamia, Upper 116 map, 115--34, stone 170, 175 217 Magan circular settlements 92--6, 183 Naram-Sin’s conquest of 34, 189 decline (at end of Agade period) trade with 15, 68, 184, 188, 190 133 Mallowan, Sir Max 8, 122 geography 115 Mandeville, Sir John 1 Kranzhugel towns 123--6, 133 Manishtusu, king of Agade, statues of Ninevite V period 120--32 161, 207 urbanisation 119 marble, votive statue (Tell Asmar) 206 see also Hamrin valley; Tell Brak; Tell Marduk (god) 56, 85 Leilan; Tepe Gawra

Index 243

Mesopotamian plain copper figure of 171, 171, 172, 220 lack of natural drainage 47--8 name stamp on bricks 82, 103 problems of surveying 38, 41 map, stelae 21, 34, 210 42 map, 43 map and Tell Brak 190 metal-working 167--75, 215 Near East, Western interest in 1--4 ‘assay office’ 173 Nebuchadnezzar I, temenos at Ur cire perdue (lost wax) casting 167, 168 155 smelting 167 Neolithic period, stamp seals 198 techniques 167, 175, 215 Nimrud 4, 220 tools 170, 174, 175 Nineveh 2, 8, 13, 180 Uruk period 17 Ninevite V period, Upper Mesopotamia metals 120--32 all imported 167, 173, 178, 180, 181 cylinder seals 201 from Iran 11, 93, 168 Kranzhugel towns 122--4 recycled 170 pottery 121, 120--1 see also alloys; bronze; copper; see also Early Dynastic (ED) period electrum; gold; lead; silver; tin Ningirsu (god of battle) 210, 219 metalwork Nippur 3, 19, 28, 45, 47 decorative techniques 168 Enlil temple 83 pins and hooks 167 and Euphrates 9 Puabi’s ‘diadem’ 169 Inanna temple 77, 186 Tepe Gawra 93 North temple 82 vessels 163 radiocarbon dates 24 micromorphology 112 Sargon’s temple at 33, 34, 82 models scribal quarter 64 boats (grave goods) 152, 153 votive statues 151, 207 clay (Ur III period) 23 ziggurat 86 see also figurines Nippur/Uruk waterway 47 Mohenjodaro, Sumerian finds 187 nomads, pastoralists 12--13 money 159 numerical system, sexagesimal 36, 139 mosaics, cone 69, 72, 74, 75 stone flowers 81 obsidian, grave goods 139 Mosul 13 officials 215, 219 Mozan (ancient Urkesh) 127, 126--7, 133 land grants to 57, 218 Mundigak, Afghanistan, ziggurat 88 named on seals 203 musical instruments 151, 213 Oman, Jemdat Nasr pottery in 19, 182 myths and stories omens, interpretation of 31 as evidence for councils of citizens 30 onager 7, 58 Inanna 135 in ritual deposits (Brak) 129 in Intercultural stylistic decoration Ottoman Empire 1 185 overgrazing 6 see also Flood; Gilgamesh oxen, draught animals 59, 153

Nannar/Sin (moon god), at Ur 28, 34 palace Naram-Sin, king of Agade 22, 33--4, 46, ﬁnance for trade 191 126, 217 as landowner 31, 218 conquest of Magan 34, 189 see also kings; rulers; temple

244 Index

palaces local production 163 use of term 89 Ninevite V ware 121, 120--1 see also Kish; public buildings; Tell pilgrim ﬂask (ED) 19 Asmar; temples; Ur scarlet-washed (EDI) 19, 20, 92, 184 Palmyra, route to 14 solid-footed goblets 143, 165, 166 paving (with sherds) specialist (for export) 164 in domestic buildings 111 stamped (Tepe Gawra) 116, 117 streets 61, 64, 112 storage jars 92 pictograms 17, 194, 194 transitional Ubaid/Uruk ware, Tepe pig, wild 7, 11 Gawra 116 pigments 6 see also stone bowls colours 74--5 pottery making 162--7 cosmetic 149 fast wheel 17, 162, 215 plants mass production 163, 164, 165--6 cereals 55--6 shown on cylinder seals 165 garden crops 53 slow wheel 165, 215 prosopis 48, 56, 57 see also kilns pulses 55 pottery ornaments, as grave goods 138 plaques, clay power, balance of mass-produced 213 between religious and secular 89--90, Ur III period 22 216--18 as wall decoration 75, 81 shifts between cities 33 plaques, stone 212, 211--13 see also rulers inlaid 211 pre-Halaf period, stamp seals 198 plaster, mud or lime 67 priests inlaid decoration 67, 81 administrative responsibilities 100 painted 67, 74 power of 28, 31 ploughs 56, 57 relations with secular power 89 poems see texts private enterprise 32, 159, 166, 191--2 population and private wealth 32, 191, 218 decrease (northern plain) 44 private houses see domestic buildings derived from domestic buildings private landownership 32, 57, 218 108--9 professions 217 increase (Uruk period) 16, 17 architects/builders 69 and settlement patterns 39 smiths 167, 173 potters’ marks 193 see also ofﬁcials pottery Professions List (late Uruk) 27, 32 Agade period 46 proto-Elamite language 180, 197 bevelled rim bowls 120, 164--5, 180 proxemics, study of living space bowls, as grave goods 138, 143 requirements 108 burnished wares 162, 164 Puabi, the lady decline in quality 162 burial at Ur 53, 147, 148, 149, 163, 163 fruitstands (EDIII) 19 ‘diadem’ 169 Habur ware 133 public buildings 89--106, 218 jars 19, 92, 165 Agade period 100--3 Jemdat Nasr painted wares 19, 92, circular structures 92--6 121, 166, 182 drainage 100

Index 245

Early Dynastic period 96--100, 105, Rich, Claudius, British Resident in 218 Baghdad 1 industrial activities within 98, 102 Rimush, king of Agade 210 interpretation of functions 30--1, rivers 89--90, 98, 105--6 and control of water supply 45 interpreted as temples 75, 117 ports and harbours 15, 61 multi-purpose 98 and settlement patterns 10 ritual sectors in 98 shifting courses 5, 9 storage areas 98, 102 see also canals; Euphrates; Tigris; Zab Ur III period 103--5, 106 royal titles 29, 34, 154 Uruk period 90--1 rulers see also domestic buildings; palaces; administrative responsibilities 100 temples Early Dynastic city-states 20, 28 Purushkanda, Anatolia 33, 190 economic constraints on 31--2 priests’ control over 31 Qalinj Agha 61, 119 secular 16, 27, 28, 216 pottery production 163 as war leaders 21, 216 Quetta, Pakistan, lapis mines near 181 words for 29--30 see also kings; palace; power, balance radiocarbon dating 16, 23--5 of; priests; temple Raidau Sharqi, site 60 rainfall Sabi Abyad, Burnt Village 198 lower Mesopotamian plain 10 sacriﬁce, animal 31, 58 upper Mesopotamia 115 Saddam Hussein, draining of marshes 11 Raqa’i, site 121 Sakheri Saghir, site 60 Ras al-Amiya, Ubaid site 38 salinisation Ras al-Junayz, site 189 and ﬂooding 47 Ras Shamra, stamp seal 198 and irrigation 6, 35, 47 rations remedies for 48 for agricultural labourers 57 saluki, hunting dog 58, 59 bevelled rim bowls for 164 Samarra period 178, 215 for craftsmen 173 Sammelfund hoard, metal objects 168 for industrial workers 159 Sana’a, Yemen 132 for temple workers 150 Sargon of Agade 17, 29, 33, 216, 221 raw materials 214, 221 adoptive father of 53 for artefacts 158 bronze head of 171 imported 178, 192 and evidence for trading contacts northern zone 6 189--90 southern zone 11 name stamp on bricks 82 see also industry; metals; stone; stele 210 timber; trade Sarzec, M. de 3 razors, blades 149 scribal schools 35, 69 Razuk, circular building 183 scribes 196 recycling, of usable materials 135, 170, at Abu Salabikh 12 214 centralised training 195, 197 reeds, marsh 11, 15 female 197 Reforms of Uruinimgina 89 seafarers 192

246 Index

seal impressions excavation of 60 Abu Salabikh 167 fortified houses 51 Agade period 203, 202--3 gardens 52--4 agricultural scenes 56, 200, 201 hierarchy (Uruk period) 16, 44 banquet scenes 150, 152, 202, 204 modern comparisons 60 from Beydar (northern style) 125, small rural 46--7 126 see also cities; town plans; towns; Brocade style villages on bullae 193 shaduf, for irrigation 54 combat scenes 202, 202, 203, 204 Shahdad, cemetery 187 on containers 198 Shahr-i-Sokhta 180 depiction of crafts 162, 162, 165 Shamshi-Adad, first king of Assyria on doors 128, 198 35 Piedmont style 183, 183, 201 Shamshu-Iluna of Babylon 113 ritual scenes 200 Sharkallisharri, king of Agade 103 Susa 165 sharru, ‘king’ (Akkadian) 27, 29 from Tell Chuera 124 Shatt-el-Arab waterway 9, 15 from Urkesh 126 sheep and goats 11, 57, 58 see also cylinder seals Sheikh Hassan seals middle Uruk site 16 collective (Jemdat Nasr) 92 Uruk colony site 120, 179 as dating tool 200 shells functions of 199 for decoration 11, 213 Harappan (Indus valley) 189, 189 inlay in plaques 212, 213 personal 154 Shu-Sin, king of Ur 35, 104 Uruk 180 Shulgi, king of Ur 35, 58, 83, 103 see also cylinder seals; stamp seals mausoleum 83, 155, 156 Semites 11, 26, 28 Shurrupak, city of 44 personal names 12, 26 Silk Road 8, 180 Semitic languages 13, 26, 197 silt deposition 38 settlement patterns 37--52 silver 180 Agade period 45--7 as currency 159 agriculture and 59 vessels (votive jar) 163 archaeology and 37--9 ‘simug’ (smith) 173 Early Dynastic period 41 map, Sippar, nomadic camps near 12 42 map, 44, 45 skeletons, evidence from 11, 148, 157 Jemdat Nasr period 44--5, 50 slaves 32, 57 linear (on waterways) 10, 40, 45 trade in 159 and population 39 sledge, for transport 153 Upper Mesopotamia 115 Sleimah 96 Ur III period 43 map circular building 183 Uruk period 40--4, 48--9, 50 social system variations in 51--2 development of 9, 217 settlements evidence from burials 32, 136, 138, agricultural hinterlands 52 142 correlation of size with importance 39 stratified 16, 18, 32--3, 217, 218 erosion after abandonment 46 see also elite groups

Index 247

soil erosion 6, 10, 38 steatite/chlorite 175, 182 see also flooding supplies (northern zone) 6, 68 soil fertility, southern zone 10 for tools 56 specialisation 217 see also statuary and statues; stelae; of material production 18, 158 stone bowls; stone objects sports, wrestling 152, 153 stone bowls 175, 184 stamp seals 198, 198--9, 215 decoration 185--6 designs 199 grave goods 141 Jemdat Nasr 92 hut pots 185, 186 materials for 199 Intercultural style 184, 185 Tepe Gawra 116, 198 steatite/chlorite 175, 183, 184--6 stamps stone objects 175 on mudbrick 82, 103 blades 170 on pottery 116, 117 maceheads 170, 175 standardisation 203 plaques 212, 211--13 of scripts 82 Uruk vase 55, 204 of temple plans 82 vase (EDIII) 52, 53 of units of measurement 68 see also seals; statuary and statues of utilitarian goods 158 stone-working 175--6 statuary and statues 175, 204--8, storage and storehouses 215 Hamrin valley 93 Agade period 21 in public buildings 98, 102 animal figures 204 Upper Mesopotamia 121 copper 21, 171, 172, 171--3 stylus 195 metal insets 176 and cuneiform writing 195 naturalism 206, 207, 208 sulphur 7 nude male figures 187, 188, 204 Sumer, kingdom of 8 royal (black diorite) 21, 176, 189, 190, cultural legacy 36, 219--20 207 fall of 35--6 in shrines 78 outline history 25--36 votive 161, 175, 184, 204, 205--7 Sumerian language 11, 12, 25 Warka head (mask of woman’s head) no longer spoken 13, 26, 35 204, 205, 220 syllabic 195 see also figurines; stelae written (cuneiform) 196, 197 steatite/chlorite (stone) 182 Sumerians 11, 214 bowls 175, 183, 184--6 personal names 12, 26 stelae 210, 209--11, 215 surveying (archaeological) 5, 37--9, Eannatum of Lagash 209, 219 41 map, 42 map, 43 map Hammurabi 211 air photographs 5, 37 Lion Hunt 178, 179, 209 satellite imaging 5, 37 Naram-Sin 21, 34, 210 surveying (Sumerian) 69 Sargon 210 equipment 68 Ur-Nammu 211 Susa 165, 180, 181, 184 of the Vultures 209, 219 black diorite statues 207 stone depiction of pot 165 diorite 21, 182, 189, 190 proto-Elamite tablets 197 imported 175, 178, 180 steatite/chlorite from 185

248 Index

Syria 6, 25, 219 Square temple 78, 83, 106, 206 links with 51 votive statues 205--6 trade with 184 Tell Brak, Syria 128--9, 133 Uruk sites 23 and Beydar 126 systems theory, in archaeology 221 clay tablets at 194 ‘Eye’ idols 122, 123 tablets, clay 17, 194--6 Eye temple 122, 128, 173 as evidence of administrative centres middle Uruk site 16, 119, 120, 99 122 Jemdat Nasr 19, 92 Naram-Sin palace 102--3, 129, 190 layout of 195 Ninevite V pottery 128 numerical signs on 194 seal impressions 120, 202 pictograms on 19, 194, 194 Ur III period 35 superseding tokens 193 Tell Chuera, Syria at Ur (Isin-Larsa period) 103 Kleine Antentempel 81, 124 from Urkesh 126 Kranzhugel town 124--5 Uruk-type 180 votive statues 184, 188 see also texts; writing Tell edh Dhiba’i, old Babylonian site 174, taboos 136 175 Tarut (island) 185, 187--8 Tell es-Sawwan 178 statue 187, 188 Tell esh-Shoke 95 Taurus mountains 6 Tell Gubba 51 Taylor, J. E. 3 circular building 93, 94, 94--5, Tchoga Zambil, Iran, ziggurat 88 183 technology, Uruk period 17, 215 scarlet ware vase 20 Tell Abada Tell Hawa 122 pottery kiln 163 Tell Leilan 122, 133 Ubaid houses 110, 119 abandoned 133 Tell Abraq, port 188 acropolis 132 Tell Abu Qasim, circular building Tell Maddhur, circular building 183 183 Tell Ouelli, Ubaid period 52 Tell Adhaim 95 Tell Rimah 4 Tell Agrab ziggurat 88 copper ﬁgure 169 Tell Rubeidheh 180 Shara temple 77 pottery kiln 166 Tell Asmar Tell Taya 107, 130, 129--32 Arch house 112, 111--12 abandoned 133 Archaic shrine 76 citadel 129 domestic buildings 111--12 house plan (compound) 130, 131, Early Dynastic town 60 131 forge 175 pottery kiln 166 Nintu temple 176 tomb (rock-cut) 132 Northern palace (Agade) 101, 101--2, Tell Uqair 40, 74, 75, 91 162 Tell-i-Iblis, Iran 168 Northern palace (earlier) 100 Telloh 3, 169, 170 Palace of Rulers (Ur III period) 104, Maison des Fruits 76 104--5 votive statue 206, 206

Index 249

tells 61 felt 161 Assyria 8 weaving 160, 162, 162 formed by disintegrating workshops 102, 162 mudbrick 66 see also clothing temple texts 177, 196 as centre of government 216 Death of Gilgamesh 135, ﬁnance for trade 191 156 as landowner 21, 32, 218 Death of Ur-Nammu 135, power of in city-states 21, 27, 30 156 temple plans 76, 78 descriptions of afterlife 135 Agade period 82--3 dictionaries 196 compared with domestic buildings evidence of date palms 53 77--9, 82 evidence of manufacturing Early Dynastic 76--82 158 Jemdat Nasr (third millennium) 75--6 historical 196 megaron (Tepe Gawra) 82, 117--18 lamentation 46 T-shaped 73, 73 poems on destruction of Ur 23 Temple Ovals 76, 80, 79--81 reference to copper imports 181 tripartite 69, 73, 117 treatises 196 Upper Mesopotamia 124 see also poems Ur III period 83--5 Tigris temples course changes 9, 45 multiple shrines 77, 79 as trade route 14 position of altars 82, 104 Til Barsib, stone tomb 127, 154 as ‘public buildings’ (interpretation) timber 6 30--1, 75 imported 11, 68, 180, 187 raised platforms 85 tin as self-contained unit 77 supplies of 190 Uruk period 69--75 see also bronze see also palaces; public buildings; tokens, clay, accounting 139, 193, temple plans 194 Tepe Gawra 60, 75, 116--19 tombs burials 137--40, 142 libn (Tepe Gawra) 118, 138--9 lapis ﬁnds at 180 mausoleum at Umm al-Marra 128, megaron buildings 82, 118, 117--18 128, 154 non-urban settlement 132 multi-chambered 127 pottery 164 prestige (Tepe Gawra) 118 Round house 92, 116, 117, 137--8 rock-cut (Tell Taya) 132 stamp seals 58, 198 Shulgi’s mausoleum 83, 155, 156, watch-tower 116 173 wells 64 superstructures 141, 147, 155 wolf’s head (electrum) 139, 139, vaulted (Khafaje) 142--3 167 vaulted (Ur) 156 Tepe Hissar 180 within domestic buildings 110, 113, Tepe Yahya, Iran 68, 180, 184, 185 135, 155 textiles 18, 57, 160--2 see also burials; cemeteries; grave evidence from royal graves at Ur 148--9 goods; graves

250 Index

tools al-Ubaid 58 agricultural 56--7, 92 graves 145 for building 68, 68 Ninhursag temple 80--1 craftsmen’s 158, 174 wall plaque 81, 212, 213 ﬂint 166 Ubaid period 18 as grave goods 150 pottery 215 smiths’ 170, 174, 175 settlement patterns 40, 48, 49, 50 town plans 60--6 stamp seals 198 Habuba Kabira 61, 62 standard units of measurement 68 Kranzhugel 125, 123--6, 133 Uch Tepe 51 Tell Taya 130 circular building 96, 95--6 Ur (Ur III period) 61--2, 63, 65 Umm al-Aqarib, temple plan 82 see also building materials Umm al-Jir 107 towns Umm al-Marra, stone mausoleum 128, administrative quarters 61 128, 154 artisans’ quarters 64 Umm an-Nar 187, 188, 190 drains 64 Umma 45, 47, 220 functional areas 64 rivalry with Lagash 30, 45 public spaces 64 votive statue 206 rubbish disposal 64 United States, early archaeology in Iraq streets (paved with sherds) 61, 64, 3 112 Ur III period 22--3, 34--5 suburbs 63 domestic buildings 113--14 Toynbee theory (‘stimulus and historical dating 25 response’) 9 public buildings 103--5 trade 9, 17, 46, 177--92, 214 radiocarbon dating 24 Agade period 189--90 seal impressions 203--4 internal 18, 159 temple plans 83--5 in manufactured goods Ur 3, 10, 28, 48--9 mechanisms of 179 city layout 61--2, 63, 64, 65 metals 167, 173 domestic buildings 113, 113--14 north Mesopotamia 134 early (ED) ziggurat 86 pottery 164 Ehursag (Ur-Nammu palace) 103 private 32, 191--2 Enunmah temple 83 Uruk period 178--82 extramural cemetery 155 world systems theory 178 fall and destruction of city 23, 35, see also raw materials 219 trade routes 8, 181 map Gigparku chapels 83 Arabian Gulf 15, 181--3 Giparu palace 162 for lapis lazuli 180--1 Isin-Larsa merchant’s house 173 see also communications Jemdat Nasr cemetery 141--2, 184, trading colonies, Uruk 120, 178, 179 186 transport Nannar/Sin (moon god) at 28, 34 animal-power 153, 180 Ningal temple 192 by water (for bulk goods) 14, 59, pottery production 165 179 private graves (in houses) 155 turquoise, grave goods 139 residential quarter 113

Index 251

Royal Cemetery 137, 146, 145--52, size of 44 153--7, 218 Stampflehmgebaude¨ 97 cylinder seals 203 Steingebaüde 76 dating of graves 25 Stone Mosaic temple 69, 71, 72, 168 the lady Puabi 53, 147, 148, 149, Temple A 72, 73 163, 163 Temple B 72 Meskalamdug 148, 210 Temple C 73, 74, 90 metalwork finds 153, 168 Temple D 73 royal graves 155--7 White temple 74, 76 Sargonid period 154--5 ziggurat 86, 168 skeletal evidence from 11, 142, 148 Uruk colony sites 120, 178, 179 Ur III period 83, 84, 155--7 abandoned 44, 182 Ur standard 213 see also Habuba Kabira; Sheikh Hassan Shulgi’s mausoleum 83, 155, 156, Uruk period 16--18, 27 173 cylinder seals 200--1 wall against Amorites 35 discontinuities at end of 182 ziggurat 61, 67, 87, 87--8 domestic buildings 109--10 Ur-Nammu of Ur 135, 155, 190, 217 public buildings 90--1 builder of ziggurats 87 radiocarbon dating 23 founder of Ur III dynasty 22, 34, 83 settlement patterns 40--4, 48--9, 50 stele 211 standard units of measurement 68 use of baked bricks 67 syllabic writing 195 Ur-Nanshe, singer 207, 208 technological innovation 17, 215 Ur-Nanshe of Lagash 29, 187 temples 69--75 plaque 211 trade 178--82 Ur-Zababa, king of Kish 33 Utnapishtim of Shurrupak 28 urbanisation 51 Utuhegal of Uruk 34, 49 Early Dynastic period 45 factors in (Uruk period) 17 Venus, astronomical observations Upper Mesopotamia 119 of 25 Urkesh 126--7, 133 villages Urkesh dynasty (Akkadian) 126, 127 in archaeological record 10 ‘uru’, city (Sumerian) 60 use of space in 60 Uruinimgina, ruler of Lagash 89 votive statues 161, 175, 204, 205--7, Uruk, city of 28, 45 215 Eanna III compound 92, 99 commissioned by officials 219 Eanna precinct IV 73, 72--3, 90, 165, named 207 194 at Tell Chuera 184 Eanna precinct V/VI 71, 69--73, 218 Hall of Pillars 31 Wadi Batin, trade route 15 interpretation of ‘temples’ 30 wall decorations Ishtar/Inanna (goddess) at 28 clay plaques 75, 81, 213 Limestone temple 69, 71, 72 frescoes 74, 75 Palace E 31 Shulgi’s tomb 156 public buildings 72 see also mosaics Red temple 72 walls, city 35, 62, 64, 132 Riemchengebaude 76 wand, ceremonial 139, 140

252 Index

warfare 170 wood depicted on stelae 210, 210--11 for roof timbers 68 Early Dynastic period 202 for tools 56 Uruk period 17, 18 wood-working 160 Warka see Uruk wool 18, 57 Warka head (mask of woman’s head) Woolley, C. L., on ziggurats 87 204, 205, 220 world systems theory of trade 178 water supplies 45, 64 writing wealth cuneiform 195, 196, 197--8, 215 distribution of 18, 218 development of 182, 215 private 32, 191, 218 early recording system (tokens) 139, weapons 193, 194 as grave goods 140, 151 lexical lists 194 metal 163, 170 standardisation of signs 195 weights and measures 35, 68 syllabic 195 sila bowls (Leilan) 132 use of stylus 195 wells and cisterns 64 see also pictograms; scribes; tablets; wheel, ﬁrst use of 36, 180 texts wheels solid (cart) 15, 153 Yemen, modern 132 see also pottery making Wilaya, public buildings (ED) 96, Zab rivers 8 99 Zagros mountains 6 women funerary rites 141 diplomatic marriages 177, ziggurats 86, 85--8 216 concept of 88 as landowners 32 origins in Early Dynastic period 20, 86 priestesses 83, 161 Ur 61, 67, 87, 87--8 as scribes 197 Ziusudra (Sumerian equivalent of Noah) as weavers 160, 160 36