Toxic Site Identification Program in

Award: DCI-ENV/2015/371157

Prepared by: Judith St. Fort

Prepared for: UNIDO

Date: October 2018

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... I

LIST OF ANNEXES...... I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 1

BACKGROUND ...... 2

TOXIC SITE IDENTIFICATION PROGRAM (TSIP) ...... 3 TSIP TRAINING ...... 3

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY/COORDINATION WITH THE GOVERNMENT ...... 3 PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION ACTIVITIES ...... 4

SUMMARY OF SITES ASSESSED ...... 5

GEOGRAPHIC COVERAGE AND POLLUTANT COMPOSITION OF IDENTIFIED SITES...... 6

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF KEY POLLUTANTS IDENTIFIED ...... 7

SUMMARY OF KEY RESULTS ...... 9 HEALTH RISKS IDENTIFIED AND OTHER CONCERNS IDENTIFIED DURING SITES ASSESSMENTS ...... 9 POLLUTANTS, SOURCES AND HEALTH IMPACTS ...... 10 CHROMIUM ...... 10 LEAD ...... 10 ARSENIC ...... 10 MERCURY ...... 11

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT ...... 12

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

EC - European Commission ISS - Initial Site Screening LMICs - Low and Middle-Income Countries MoH - Ministry of Health MoM - Ministry of Mining NEMA - National Environment Management Authority PE - Pure Earth TSIP - Toxic Sites Identification Program ULAB - Used Lead-Acid Battery UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization WB - World Bank XRF - Alpha X-Ray Fluorescence

LIST OF ANNEXES

Annex 1: Annex 1- Lead Contamination in , Kenya- Abstract Annex 1A: Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER Annex 2: List of Pollutants Annex 3: List of TSIP Sites in Kenya

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This activities described in this report were supported by the European Commission and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization project "Mitigating Toxic Health Exposures in Low-and Middle-Income Countries: Global Alliance on Health and Pollution” (DCI-ENV/2015/371157).

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Pure Earth (PE) is an international not-for-profit organization dedicated to solving pollution problems in low and middle-income countries. Since 2009 PE has been implementing the Toxic Sites Identification Program (TSIP) in Kenya, which is an effort to identify and screen contaminated sites in low and middle-income countries where public health is at risk. TSIP has been supported by The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), European Commission (EC), Asian Development Bank (ADB), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), World Bank (WB), and Green Cross Switzerland.

The contaminated sites in Kenya were identified by trained investigators drawn from universities in Kenya, using the Initial Site Screening (ISS) protocol. The ISS identifies major elements of a contaminated site, including estimated population at risk, key pollutant information, human exposure pathway data and sampling data.

To date, a total of 132 sites located in 8 regions, namely Central, Coast, Eastern, Area, North-Eastern, Nyanza, Rift Valley, Western, have been identified using the ISS protocol. Investigators collected soil samples and measured levels of toxicity using an Alpha Xray Fluorescence (XRF) instrument. Sources of pollution included: mining, agriculture, used lead acid battery (ULAB) recycling, and dumpsites. Various key pollutants included lead, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, mercury, PCBs, pesticides, and VOCs. Of these pollutants, lead was found in 61% of the sites, arsenic in 19%, elemental mercury in 8%, chromium in 4%, cadmium in 3%, chromium (Hex) in 1%, VOCs in 1%, PCBs in 1%, pesticides in 1%, and other pollutants in 1%.

In partnership with UNIDO and the EC, of the 132 sites assessed to date, 15 initial site screenings were conducted in 2016 (See Table 3). The following pollutants were identified: lead (7); chromium (2); mercury (1); arsenic (5); estimated to put a total of 384,352 people at risk for exposure. The concentrations of lead at the sites ranged from 193 to 100,000 ppm, which translates to great risks to human health. Arsenic was present in 3 artisanal gold mining sites (2 in Rift Valley and 1 in Nyanza). In the Western region, lead concentrations Pure Earth 475 Riverside Drive, Suite 860 New York, NY, USA +1 212 647 8330 www.pureearth.org 1

ranged from 25,500 to 60,000 ppm, resulting in a Blacksmith Index score of 6 and 7 respectively, well above Blacksmith’s recommended standards. Chromium (Hex) was present at one site in Nairobi with concentrations ranging from 872 ppm to 4,021 ppm. Elemental mercury in Nyanza had concentrations of 4.3 and 5.49 ppm. These assessments showed that in addition to lead exposures from ULAB recycling operations, other sources of contamination also pose great risks to human health throughout the country.

This report provides the following recommendations to the Government of Kenya: • Conduct detailed assessments for sites displaying high concentrations of pollutants in order to better understand the distribution and magnitude of contamination, and to develop feasible and cost-effective remediation plans to address identified problems • Continue to use the ISS protocol to identify and assess additional sites in order to determine locations of contaminated sites in all seven regions of the country • Create a national assessment/inventory program based on the TSIP protocol • Continue to use the data in the existing TSIP database (www.contaminatedsites.org) to make informed decisions about solving the country’s pollution problems • Conduct needs assessments to determine internal capacity and to identify priority areas

BACKGROUND

Kenya has one of the most dynamic economies in Africa, yet it is facing a number of pressing economic, environmental, and social challenges. Natural resource depletion, environmental pollution, high poverty rates, and rising unemployment threaten the country’s ability to prosper. Human activities and settlements have brought unprecedented disruption to Kenya’s ecosystems. In addition, the sources of pollution from e-waste and industries that generate e- waste, such as manufacturers and distributors of electrical and electronic equipment, are increasing.

The country’s economy is highly dependent on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, hydroelectric energy generation, and tourism. The informal sector, which employs some eighty percent of the nation’s workers, is a primary contributor to the region’s pollution burden. Waste from these unregulated industries, including mercury from small-scale gold mining and lead from Used Lead-Acid Batteries (ULABs), is an under-recognized issue that can have negative health consequences for communities across the region.

Pure Earth began implementing the Toxic Sites Identification Program (TSIP) in Kenya in 2009. In 2016, with continued funding from the EC and in partnership with UNIDO, Pure Earth

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expanded its work in the country, aiming to identify and screen contaminated sites with potential human health impact.

The specific outputs planned for the activity included creating a regional inventory of sites, developing partnerships with local stakeholders and relevant agencies, and identifying possible priority interventions based on assessment of potential health risks.

TOXIC SITE IDENTIFICATION PROGRAM (TSIP)

The TSIP identifies active and abandoned hazardous waste sites resulting from both formal and informal industrial activities in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). It does not include exposure data from non-point sources such as vehicle traffic or sewage contaminated water. As part of a TSIP investigation, a “key pollutant” is identified and analyzed.

TSIP TRAINING

Pure Earth conducted a TSIP training in Kenya in September 2016 for a network of national experts comprised of researchers and students from environmental or health departments of national universities, government officials from the MoH, NEMA, and MoM, as well as for five investigators.

The TSIP training consisted of both theoretical and practical components. The theoretical training, conducted on day one, introduced participants to the work of Pure Earth, the health impacts of pollution, and the model of Pollution-Migration-Pathway-People. Participants were also taught how to use a hand-held Alpha Xray Fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer (a precise instrument that permits collection of real-time field data and is key to building in-country capacity to monitor and assess heavy metal contamination). During day two, the practical, field-based component of ISS training, participants visited a site for hands-on experience in using the ISS protocol. Participants then returned to the classroom to learn how to enter data into the TSIP database. Each participant practiced using the data collected during the morning field visit.

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY/COORDINATION WITH THE GOVERNMENT

In order to properly implement the project, coordination with government agencies at all stages of the project was essential. At the national level, PE’s work was supported by the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) and the Ministry of Health (MoH). Pure Earth’s investigators met regularly with government officials to share data and findings.

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As such, government officials and their respective community constituents gained a better understanding of the scope of toxic pollution and its impact on public health, economic growth, and sustainable development.

In some cases, government officials accompanied investigators during site assessments to learn about the process. This served to engage the government at a more nuanced level, which helped ensure the sustainability and effectiveness of the project.

PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION ACTIVITIES

• Introduction of the project to national and local government officials • Recruitment and hiring of researchers o 5 investigators with Master’s and/or PhD degrees in the environmental field were hired • Training in conducting of rapid site assessments using the ISS protocol o 17 Participants total - Pure Earth investigators, researchers, students, government officials • Coordination with national and local authorities on sites selection and priorities • Assessment of sites o Including site history, estimation of population at risk, creation of site map, and taking of photos • Collection of samples (water, soil or air) • Analysis by reputable laboratory when necessary • Entry of assessment information into existing TSIP database • Review of data collected for quality and consistency (performed by PE team in New York)

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SUMMARY OF SITES ASSESSED

From 2009 to date, Pure Earth investigators have assessed 132 sites located in 8 regions (Central, Coast, Eastern, Nairobi Area, North-Eastern, Nyanza, Rift Valley, Western) of the country. The major sources of pollution include: mining, agriculture, used lead acid battery (ULAB) recycling, and dumpsites (Table 1). From these pollution sources, several key pollutants were identified (Table 2). Their distribution is shown in Figure 1.

Table 1: The number of sites as categorized by pollution source assessed by Pure Earth’s investigators in the TSIP Database

Industry Number of Sites Agriculture 4 Artisanal Mining 28 Dye Industry 1 E-waste Recycling 2 Food Processing 2 Industrial Estate 9 Industrial/Municipal Dumpsite 25 Lead Battery Recycling 35 Lead Smelting (with ingot production) 1 Mining and Ore Processing 3 Multiple diverse Industries 6 Paper Mill 1 Power Plant (Coal or Oil) 1 Product Manufacturing (electronics, equipment, clothing) 1 Recycling/Recyclers (including salvage yards) 2 Ship-Breaking 1 Smelting (everything except lead) 1 Tannery Operations 2 Other 7 Total 132

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Table 2: Key pollutants identified in in Kenya during the TSIP program

Key Pollutant # of sites

Arsenic 25 Cadmium 4 Chromium (Hex) 2 Chromium (Total) 5 Lead 81 Mercury (Elemental) 10 PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls) 2 Pesticides 1 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 1 Other 1 Total 132

GEOGRAPHIC COVERAGE AND POLLUTANT COMPOSITION OF IDENTIFIED SITES

Chromium Pesticides VOCs (Hex) 1% Other 1% 1% 1% PCBs Cadmium 1% 3% Chromium (Total) 4%

Mercury (Elemental) 8%

Lead 61% Arsenic 19%

FIGURE 1 Pure Earth 475 Riverside Drive, Suite 860 New York, NY, USA +1 212 647 8330 www.pureearth.org 6

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF KEY POLLUTANTS IDENTIFIED

In partnership with UNIDO and EC, in 2016 Pure Earth’s investigators assessed a total of 15 sites as illustrated in Table 3 below.

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Table 3: List of Sites Assessed in 2016

Total Test Test Key Population Results Results Site ID Site Name Province Industry Group Pollutant at Risk 1 Units 2 Units Informal ULAB Recycling Operations, Eldoret Town, Uasin Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4979 Gishu County Rift Valley Recycling Lead 79500 8901 ppm 1397 ppm Ganesh Informal ULAB Recyclers, Nyamathi, Lead - Battery KE-4910 . Rift Valley Recycling Lead 3000 193 ppm 27000 ppm Jua Kali Informal Fabricating and Spray Painting Area, Gikomba, Nairobi Nairobi Chromium mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4978 County Area Other (Hex) 50000 872 ppm 4021 ppm Juakali Informal Used Lead-Acid Battery Recyling Operations, Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4911 City. Nyanza Recycling Lead 10000 100000 ppm 1100 ppm Kapsaos Artisinal Gold Mines, Nandi Hills, Artisanal Mining mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5000 Rift Valley (hand mining) Arsenic 25500 6068 ppm 5583 ppm Kariokor Electronic Cable and Tire Burning Nairobi mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4974 Area, Area E-waste recycling Lead 35000 457 ppm 284 ppm Kayole Informal ULAB Recycling Area, Kayole Nairobi Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4975 Slums, Nairobi County Area Recycling Lead 32000 13567 ppm 100000 ppm Kehancha Artisanal Goldmines, Kehancha, Artisanal Mining mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4912 Kuria. Nyanza (hand mining) Arsenic 25700 972 ppm 838 ppm Lead - Battery Chromium mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4894 Kiandutu slums Central Recycling (Total) 3350 0 ppm 0 ppm Maina kijiji dumpsite in Industrial/Municipal mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4935 Central Dump Site Lead 1700 501 ppm 36 ppm Masaba Artisanal Artisanal Mining mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4964 Goldmines, Kuria. Nyanza (hand mining) Arsenic 6450 992 ppm 2328 ppm

Pioneer jua kali Industrial Estate mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4913 Muranga Central (mixed industries) Lead 1150 640 ppm 432 ppm Prancis Artisanal Gold Artisanal Mining mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4907 Mines, County. Rift Valley (hand mining) Arsenic 60000 794 ppm 2670 ppm Rongo Artisanal Artisanal Mining Mercury - ug/l or ug/l or KE-4959 Goldmines Nyanza (hand mining) elemental 20000 4.3 ppb 5.49 ppb Viyalo Artisanal Gold Mines, Sabatia Sub Artisanal Mining mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4977 County, County Western (hand mining) Arsenic 31000 13600 ppm 3748 ppm

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SUMMARY OF KEY RESULTS

Investigators collected soil samples with the guidance of a sampling protocol provided by Pure Earth. Lead concentrations in soil were measured in the field using an XRF. When an XRF was not available, samples were sent to a local laboratory for analysis.

All sites had significant contamination values for toxic substances. Lead was present in 7 sites with concentrations ranging from 193 to 100,000 ppm. This translates to great risks to human health in all these areas.

The test results for arsenic in artisanal gold mining sites, 2 in Rift valley and Nyanza and 1 in the Western region, found considerable concentrations ranging from 25,500 to 60,000 ppm resulting in a Blacksmith Index of 6 and 7 respectively. This is above Blacksmith’s recommended standards.

Chromium (Hex) was present at a spray painting site in Nairobi with concentrations ranging between 872 ppm and 4,021 ppm. Elemental mercury was present in one artisanal gold mining site in the Nyanza region with sample concentrations at 4.3 and 5.49. These assessments show that in addition to lead contamination from ULAB recycling operations, other sources of contamination also pose risks to human health in throughout the country.

Health Risks Identified and Other Concerns Identified During Sites Assessments

During site visits, many exposure risks were identified by both the investigators and the workers at the sites. Some of the workers in these industries were aware of the health risks involved, while others were ignorant of the associations between pollution and health. In many cases, workers were experiencing symptoms that could potentially be linked to pollution.

Exposure risks identified included: Lack of protective equipment for the vast majority of workers – inhalation/ingestion of polluted air and dermal contact were the primary routes of exposure Lack of environmental controls – leaching of contaminants into ground and surface water (ie Lake Victoria) Incorrect disposal of waste water during lead recycling – especially dangerous in residential areas Lack of expertise by medical professionals in recognizing symptoms of pollution exposure (increasing rates of forbearance of protective measures)

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Lack of awareness of health hazards posed by chemical pollution

Health symptoms identified included: Memory loss, frequent headaches, miscarriages, lack of appetite and poor body coordination Hyperactivity - especially in lead contaminated sites Chest pains associated with respiratory challenges in pesticides contaminated sites Livestock falling ill and/or dying after drinking contaminated water from mining areas

It is noted that the symptoms identified are only a fraction of potential effects. As research continues to identify and confirm pollution linkages, and as further sites are identified (to more accurately measure the pollution burden in a region) it is likely that the list of pollution-related diseases will expand substantially.

Pollutants, Sources and Health Impacts

Chromium Chromium is a naturally occurring heavy metal that is commonly used in tanning, textiles, chromate pigment production, and dye manufacturing processes. Effluent containing chromium discharged into the environment can migrate to water- surface and groundwater; soil and food, and common pollutant pathways include ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Chromium is a known human carcinogen and the primary health impacts from it are damage to the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and immunological systems, as well as reproductive and developmental problems in exposed children.

Lead Lead pollution emanates from industrial estates that manufacture electrical/electronic equipment, contain lead-acid battery recycling activities, and lead smelters, among other sources. Lead accumulates in soil and can migrate to groundwater. The pathway to humans is mainly through dust inhalation and dermal contact from lead tailings and slag, as adults and children alike can come into contact with these disposed of wastes in the environment. Lead is a known neurotoxin that affects body systems both acutely and chronically. Unborn children and those under the age of 6 years are particularly susceptible to its health effects, which include hindered development of the brain and central nervous system, reproductive problems, kidney damage, stunted growth, learning disabilities and mental retardation, coma, blindness and even death.

Arsenic Arsenic is a naturally occurring, brittle, steel gray semi-metallic solid. Arsenic and its compounds are highly toxic. Arsenic in drinking water causes bladder, lung and skin cancer, and may cause kidney and liver cancer. Studies have also found that arsenic harms the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as heart and blood vessels, and causes serious skin problems. It also may cause birth defects and reproductive problems. Arsenic

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can be carcinogenic at very low levels and one-tenth of a gram accumulated over a two- month period can be fatal.

Mercury Mercury occurs naturally in the environment and exists in several forms that can be broadly categorized into metallic mercury (elemental mercury), organic (bound with carbon), and inorganic mercury (not bound with carbon). Inorganic mercury compounds occur when mercury combines with elements such as chlorine, sulfur, or oxygen. It is a dense, silvery white, shiny metal, which is liquid at room temperature in its elemental form. The most common organic form of mercury, methyl mercury, is of particular concern as it can accumulate in fish and thus get transferred through the food chain. In general, mercury affects the immune system, alters genetic and enzyme systems, and damages the nervous system, including coordination and the senses of touch, taste, and sight. Exposure to very small amounts of methyl mercury can result in devastating neurological damage or death. Mental retardation, blindness, and cerebral palsy have been observed in children born to women having high levels of methyl mercury exposure. Exposure could have a negative impact on their neurological development resulting in psychological abnormalities like deficits in short-term memory, irritability, and social withdrawal.

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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT

• Conduct detailed assessments for sites displaying high concentrations of pollutants in order to better understand the distribution and magnitude of contamination, and to develop feasible and cost-effective remediation plans to address identified problems • Continue to use the ISS protocol to identify and assess additional sites in order to determine locations of contaminated sites in all seven regions of the country • Create a national assessment/inventory program based on the TSIP protocol • Continue to use the data in the existing TSIP database (www.contaminatedsites.org) to make informed decisions about solving the country’s pollution problems • Conduct needs assessments to determine internal capacity and to identify priority areas

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Annex 1- Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya- Abstract

Original Research on Rapid Characterization of Soil Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya

Rapid Characterization of Soil Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya Bret Ericson1,2, Victor Odongo Otieno1,3, Cecelia Nganga1, Judith St. Fort and Mark Patrick Taylor2 Corresponding Author: Bret Ericson, Pure Earth, 475 Riverside Drive, Suite 860, New York, NY, USA; phone: +1 212 647 8330; email: [email protected]

11Pure Earth, 475 Riverside Drive, Suite 860, New York, NY, USA 10025 2Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia 31Department of Environment Science,, Pwani University, P. O. Box 195 - 80108, , Kenya

Acknowledgments This research was supported by the European Commission (DCI-ENV/2015/371157). BE is a recipient of an International Macquarie University Research Excellence Scholarship.

Annex 1- Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya- Abstract ABSTRACT

Lead smelting is a significant source of soil contamination globally. Environmental lead contamination globally was strongly associated with tetraethyl lead additives in petrol and lead based paints. In low and middle- income countries, major sources include traditional ceramic glazes and the manufacture and recycle of lead-acid batteries. In Kenya, elevated environmental and blood lead concentrations have been documented in occupational settings, however, insufficient environmental assessment has been carried out to determine the extent of contamination in the surrounding residential areas. The purpose of the study was to investigate the in situ surface soil lead contamination, soil lead concentrations from aerial emissions and estimation of blood lead levels (BLL) in children in Owino Uhuru Slums; an informal setting neighboring the Kenya Metal Refinery (KMR) in Mombasa, Kenya. The mean surface soil lead concentration was 224 mg/kg (95% CI: 15–434) with a median of 47 mg/kg. Four samples (7%) tested above 400 mg/kg, the USEPA screening level for bare soil where children play. Daily deposition rates within 750 meters of the KMR facility using van Alphen’s mean value of 18 mg/m2/day were .27 mg/kg. Current BLLs for 0 to 7 year olds were estimated to be from .7–1.5 µg/dL using the default ingestion values in the IEUBK and 2.5–5.1 µg/dL using the augmented values while in adults it was 1.5–1.6 µg/dL, depending on ingestion rate used. Lead contamination attributable to the KMR facility is not currently posing an apparent risk to the surrounding community. Surface soil lead concentrations are within international standards and lower than many urban areas globally. However, future use of the land should consider probable high contamination levels onsite.

Key words: lead acid batteries, lead smelting, soil lead contamination, blood lead levels, informal housing

Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER

Introduction Lead smelting is a significant source of soil contamination globally (McMichael et al., 1988; Pebe, et al., 2007; von Braun et al., 2002). Soil contamination in residential areas can result in exposure to humans through pica (hand-to-mouth) behavior and the ingestion of contaminated dust (Abrahams, 2002; Mielke & Reagan, 1998). Accordingly, blood lead levels (BLLs) have a well-documented positive relationship with lead concentrations in soil (US EPA, OSWER, 2016). Pediatric lead exposure can result in IQ decrement, decreased lifetime earnings and higher rates of aggravated assault, among other adverse outcomes (Lanphear, 2015; Howard W. Mielke & Zahran, 2012; Reuben et al., 2017; Taylor et al., 2016; Wright et al., 2008). Extreme acute exposures can result in lead induced encephalopathy and death (ATSDR, 2007). In adults, lead exposure can most significantly result in increased incidence of heart disease, accounting for 540,000 deaths globally in 2016 (ATSDR, 2007; IHME, 2017). There is currently no known safe level of exposure to lead (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017).

Over the course of the 20th century environmental lead contamination globally was most strongly associated with tetraethyl lead additives in petrol (Bollhöfer & Rosman, 2000, 2001; Flegal, Schaule, & Patterson, 1984; Véron et al., 1999). In the United States, lead-based paint was also a significant source of exposure (Needleman, 2004; Pirkle et al., 1998). Currently, major sources of lead exposure in low and middle-income countries include traditional ceramic glazes and the manufacture and recycle of lead-acid batteries, particularly when conducted in an informal setting (Caravanos et al., 2014; Ericson et al., 2016; Farías et al., 2014; van der Kuijp et al., 2013). Discrete poisoning episodes have also been identified at mining and smelting locations (Bose-O’Reilly et al., 2017; Jack Caravanos, Fuller, & Robinson, 2014; Pebe et al., 2008).

In Kenya, elevated environmental and blood lead concentrations have been documented in occupational settings (Were et al., 2012). Little is known about exposures in the home, though data collected as part of the Pure Earth (NY, NY) Toxic Sites Identification Program indicate that it may be significant (Ericson et al. 2013). A lead poisoning event in 2014

Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER centered around the Kenya Metal Refinery (KMR) smelter in the coastal city of Mombasa garnered international attention (Benards & Abraham, 2012; Daily Nation, 2014; Human Rights Watch, 2014; The Guardian, 2015; IPEN, 2017). Elevated blood lead levels (BLLs) and three deaths were reported in the worker population (Olingo, 2014). Elevated BLLs were also later found in Owino Uhuru, an informal settlement of approximately 3,000 residents with an area of 28,000 m2 bordering the northern wall of the facility. A 2010 study of three children found BLLs of 12, 17 and 23 µg/dL, while a later report of one child found a BLL of 32 µg/dL (Benards & Abraham, 2012; Olingo, 2014). A community leader in Owino Uhuru and former employee of KMR was awarded the prestigious Goldman Environmental Prize for her work in raising public awareness that would eventually lead to the closure of the facility in 2014 (Goldman Environmental Prize, 2015; The Guardian, 2015). The community subsequently filed a lawsuit against the national government for USD 1.5 million in compensation for its failure to monitor emissions from the smelter (Sanga, 2015).

Despite the significant political and media attention to the site, insufficient environmental assessment has been carried out to determine the extent of contamination in the surrounding residential area. A 2012 effort by a local NGO with support of the Strategic Approach for International Chemicals Management (SAICM) collected samples from a range of environmental media as well as from human and animal blood (Benards & Abraham, 2012). The report, however, suffers from a series of technical issues that limit the utility of the results. Significantly, analyses for soil, roof dust and wall dust are all reported in units of mg/L, or mass per volume. In the scientific literature, soil results are more commonly reported in mass per mass (e.g. ppm or mg/kg) while dust results are more commonly reported as mass per area (e.g. µg/cm2) (Boguski, 2006). Thus the conclusions presented in the study are not immediately comparable with human health guidelines (USEPA, 1998). The study finds a mean soil lead concentration at the site of 17.77 mg/L (range: 7.93 – 25.02) (Benards & Abraham, 2012). Assuming a mass of 1.4 grams/cm3 for the sandy haplic lixisol surface soil present at the site, these values would equate to approximately 5.7 mg/kg- 6 and 1.8 mg/kg-5, respectively, orders of magnitude below background levels globally (FAO, 2017; Hengl et al., 2017; Kabata-Pendias, 2010). Seven blood measurements were taken by

Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER the team and analyzed with atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). All samples fell below detection limit, which was not defined (IPEN, 2012).

Additionally, the Bernards and Abraham (2012) study does not adequately define the spatial distribution of the sample collection, thereby limiting their utility with regard to understanding exposure. In the context of the site’s high profile, it is particularly important to more fully understand the extent of contamination. To address this gap and provide the basis for designing a human health intervention, an assessment of surface soils was carried out in Owino Uhuru in June 2017. The results of this assessment are presented and a simple air deposition model was developed to estimate likely surface soil lead concentrations resulting from smelter emissions at the time of operation. Finally the results of these models are used to estimate BLLs in children and adults.

Methods In Situ Surface Soil Assessment Investigators from the NGO, Pure Earth (NY, NY, USA) carried out an assessment over the course of a single day with the assistance of community leaders. Fifty-nine in situ soil measurements were taken in a ~12,000 m2 section of the Owino Uhuru neighborhood closest to the facility using a portable InnovX Delta X-ray fluorescence instrument (pXRF) with a lower detection limit of 5 mg/kg (InnovX, 2016). Fifty-seven of the measurements were taken directly from surface soil, while two were taken at a depth of 5 cm. Two of the surface soil measurements were taken from enclaves in the perimeter wall unlikely to be accessed to humans and not indicative of community exposure. The instrument was calibrated before the assessment with a 316 steel clip and the calibration was assessed with a National Institute of Standards and Technology standard (2702: Inorganics in Marine Sediment) for accuracy (Gonzalez et al., 2016). Latitude and longitude for each sampling point were collected in WGS 1984 format using a Garmin eTrex 10 with an accuracy of <15 meters (Garmin, 2017). Spatial and statistical analyses were conducted using ArcMap 10.5 and Stata 15 (ESRI, 2015; LP., 2017). The inside of the facility was no accessible and was not assessed.

Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER

Aerial Deposition Model To determine the soil lead concentration resulting from aerial emissions, a simple algorithm was developed based on known deposition rates of lead smelters in different settings. To determine the extent, a Gaussian plume was modeled using the Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory Model (HYSPLIT) developed by the US Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Stein et al., 2015). Using contemporaneous metrological data and the inputs selected here, the HYSPLIT model indicates that deposition was uniform within a range of 750 m of the KMR smelter in all directions. The entire area of Owino Uhuru falls within 300 m of the KMR stack. Thus deposition was assumed to be uniform for the whole community.

To determine surface soil lead concentrations, the following equation was used:

depositionmg/m2 SoilPbmg/kg= x operationdays x operationyears soilvolumem3 x soilmasskg/m3 Where: SoilPbmg/kg = Surface soil lead concentration 2 풅풆풑풐풔풊풕풊풐풏풎품/풎ퟐ= deposition rate of lead in mg/m per day 풐풑풆풓풂풕풊풐풏풅풂풚풔= number of days of operation per year 풐풑풆풓풂풕풊풐풏풚풆풂풓풔= number of years of operation 3 풔풐풊풍풗풐풍풖풎풆풎ퟑ= relevant volume of soil in m 풔풐풊풍풎풂풔풔풌품/풎ퟑ= Mass in kilograms of one unit of soil

Deposition rate inputs were based on van Alphen’s (1999) study of an area surrounding a lead smelter in Port Pirie, New South Wales, Australia. This study found a mean deposition rate of 18.8 mg/m2/day within 600 m of the smelter and maximum deposition rate of 299 mg/m2/day (van Alphen, 1999). These values are higher than those documented elsewhere. Studies at lead smelters in Arnhem (the Netherlands), El Paso (Texas, USA), Hoboken (Belgium) and Missouri (USA) found deposition rates ranging from .51–17.5 mg/m2/day, for instance (Brunekreef et al., 1981; Dalton & Bates, 2005; Eylenbosch, van Sprundel, & Clara, 1984; Landrigan et al., 1975). There are no known studies of deposition rates at rudimentary

Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER smelters like the one operated by KMR, thus the selection of the highest deposition rates identified in the literature is intended to best approximate the poor conditions present at the facility.

Days of operation were assumed to be 260 days/year assuming 5 days of operation per week for 52 weeks. Years of operation was set to 7 based on news reports (Olingo, 2014). To determine the relevant mass of soil, a volume was calculated based on a likely penetration of deposited lead of 5 cm. The value is based on studies at a lead smelter in Boolaroo, Australia that found most deposited lead within 5 cm of depth, with 80% less lead in the lower 2.5 cm than the top 2.5 cm (Dalton & Bates, 2005). The soil type at the site is haplic lixisol with an approximate clay, silt and sand content of 18%, 27% and 55%, respectively and a mass of roughly 1.4 grams/cm3 (Hengl et al., 2017).

Blood Lead Level Assessment To estimate BLLs for children, the US EPA Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic model for children (IEUBK) was used (US EPA, OSWER, 2016). Lead from all exposure pathways was zeroed out and approximate soil concentrations at the time of the BLL testing were entered. The default ingestion rates are then adjusted upward to account for higher ingestion rates in LMICs (Kwong et al., 2017). Results are also calculated with the default values. For adults, the US EPA adult lead model (ALM) is used. Again, default ingestion values are both left intact and adjusted upward to account for increased rates of ingestion in LMICs. Additionally, exposure duration is increased to account for a residential setting, as the ALM’s default values are intended for occupational exposures. The IEUBK model was also used to estimate the likely environmental levels in air and soil required to for a hypothetical 4 year old child to have a BLL of µg/dL.

Results Results of Surface Soil Assessment The mean surface soil lead concentration in the areas assessed with the pXRF was 224 mg/kg (95% CI: 15–434). The median value was 47 mg/kg. Four samples (7%) tested above

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400 mg/kg, the USEPA screening level for bare soil where children play (USEPA, 1998). Those four samples had the following concentrations: 582, 871, 1456 and 5824 mg/kg. The highest and third highest samples (5824 and 871) were taken from an enclave in the perimeter wall of KMR that is unlikely to be regularly accessed by humans. Removing these from the likely exposure scenario results in a mean surface soil concentration of 110 mg/kg (95% CI: 54–168), below US Environmental Protection Agency the Environment Canada reference levels of 400 mg/kg and 140 mg/kg, respectively (Environment Canada, 1999; USEPA, 1998). Kenya has not yet developed its own reference level. Two samples were collected at a depth of 10 cm adjacent to the highest reading (5824 mg/kg). These readings were 43 and 72 mg/kg, indicating minimal migration of lead from surface soils.

Within the targeted 12,000 m2 area, samples were spaced an average of 9.4 m apart (95%CI: 7.8–11.2) (see fig. 1). A weak association was identified between proximity to the smelter and soil lead concentrations (p=0.08649). The mean soil lead concentration of the 8 samples taken within 3 m of the KMR perimeter wall was 1026 mg/kg (95% CI: -611–2663). The mean for the 8 samples taken from 3 m to 10 m was 231 mg/kg (95% CI: 183–646) and for the 43 samples taken beyond 10 m it was 66 mg/kg (95% CI: 47–86). The closest sample taken to the site was at the base of the perimeter wall, while the furthest was taken at a distance of 130 meters.

Results of Aerial Deposition Model Daily deposition rates within 750 meters of the KMR facility using van Alphen’s mean value of 18 mg/m2/day were .27 mg/kg. These rates would have resulted in a surface soil concentration of 489 mg/kg after 7 years of operation. To arrive at mean value identified in pXRF sampling of 108 mg/kg, a daily deposition rate of 4.16 mg/m2/day would be required.

Blood Lead Level Assessment Current BLLs for 0 to 7 year olds, the most vulnerable group were estimated to be from .7– 1.5 µg/dL using the default ingestion values in the IEUBK and 2.5–5.1 µg/dL using the augmented values. Current BLLs of adults were estimated to be 1.5–1.6 µg/dL, depending

Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER on ingestion rate used. For surface soil exposure to result in a BLL of 20 µg/dL in 2 year olds, an approximate surface soil concentration of ~2750 mg/kg would be required with default ingestion values and ~650 mg/kg with the augmented values. With regard to air concentrations a level of ~7.5 µg/m3 would be required for a 1 year old to have a BLL of 20 µg/dL, assuming a soil lead concentration of 110 mg/kg.

Discussion Soil lead exposure in Uhuru Owino seems to fall within internationally accepted guidelines, and at or below mean values in other cities globally. Abuja (Nigeria), Boston (USA), Brisbane (Australia), Glasgow (UK) and Stockholm (Sweden), for instance, have all been reported as having average city-wide soil concentrations exceeding 200 mg/kg (Ajmone- Marsan & Biasioli, 2010). In Owino Uhuru the average soil lead concentration in accessible areas was 108 mg/kg.

The surface soil lead levels currently present in Owino Uhuru are unlikely to produce elevated BLLs, though elevated BLLs were reported at the site during operation (Benards & Abraham, 2012; US EPA, OSWER, 2016). One possible explanation for the discrepancy would be a decline in surface level lead concentrations over time due to migration, meaning that current surface soil lead concentrations are not representative of soil lead concentrations while the smelter was operating. Importantly lead is generally immobile in most soils, taking perhaps 700 years to halve in concentration in certain soil types (Semlali et al., 2004). A number of factors can influence its mobility, including pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and texture (Kerr Environmental, McLean, Bledsoe, & Kovalick, 1992). Low cation exchange capacity (CEC) (<2 cmol(+) kg), low pH, and a sandy texture are all associated with increasing lead’s mobility (Cerqueira, Covelo, Andrade & Vega, 2011; Steinnes, 2013). However, even in locations where all or some of these conditions are present, very limited mobility of lead through soil profiles has been reported (de Matos, Fontes, da Costa, & Martinez, 2001; Lafuente, González, Quintana, Vázquez, & Romero, 2008; Teutsch, Erel, Halicz, & Banin, 2001). Teutsch, et al (2001) for example found similar lead contamination profiles at the same location 15 years apart, with measurable but very

Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER small amounts of lead migrating at a rate of up to 1 cm/year (Teutsch et al., 2001). The haplic lixisol in Owino Uhuru has an approximate CEC of 1.8 cmol (+) kg and a pH of 5.9 (Hengl et al., 2017). Its clay, silt and sand content are roughly 18%, 27% and 55%, respectively (Hengl et al., 2017). Thus, while these soils are more amenable to migration than others, migration is unlikely to account for any significant difference in surface soil concentration over the 10-year period between the opening of the smelter and the execution of this study.

A more likely explanation for the discrepancy between the past BLLs and the current environmental levels present is that the primary exposure pathway to the community while KMR was operating was the inhalation of airborne lead. Air lead concentrations would have declined quickly following the closing of the smelter. Reducing airborne sources of lead exposure near smelters has been strongly associated with declines in BLLs (Dalton & Bates, 2005; Kaul, Sandhu, Depratt, & Reyes, 1999; Kristensen, Taylor, & Flegal, 2017). No data are available on airborne concentrations at the site, either currently or while the smelter was operating. Given the limited data on the KMR smelter operations, it would have been beyond the scope this study to model those concentrations. Elsewhere, air lead levels exceeding 1 µg/m3 have been associated with BLL measurements above 10 µg/dL in children (Hilts, 2003). In Port Pirie, air lead concentrations were recorded at levels up to 21.44 μg/m3 (Mitchell, 2011).

A second likely source of exposure is associated with the workplace. Several residents with elevated BLLs were reported to have worked at KMR, and anecdotal evidence indicates that children spent time in the facility during work hours. Additionally, take-home risk, or workers’ inadvertent transporting of material on their person from the workplace to the home environment, could have also played a significant role as has been documented in multiple settings (Chiaradia, Gulson, & MacDonald, 1997; Chisolm, 1978; Knishkowy & Baker, 1986).

Given that the key sources of exposure were most likely associated with the operation of the KMR facility, there is no obvious compelling need for mitigation work in the Owino Uhuru.

Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER

The former KMR facility very probably contains severely high levels of lead on site. That contamination should be appropriately considered in any future land use plans.

Informal Housing There is a significant shortage of housing in urban areas in Kenya, with approximately 56 % of urban dwellers living in informal settlements (UN Habitat, 2016). These settlements are often located on marginal lands, including areas prone to flooding or landslides (UN Habitat, 2016). In the case of Owino Uhuru, the settlement is an area that is characterized by industrial uses (JICA, 2016). It is bordered on two of three sides by industrial facilities and is primarily accessed through industrial land. A master plan for the city currently under development envisions the reclamation of Owino Uhuru for industrial ends (JICA, 2016). Industrial activity can play a critical role in economic development in LMICs (Kniivilä, 2007). Siting residential areas sufficiently distanced from heavy industry could mitigate the most significant exposures. Here, inhibiting the likely illegal occupation of industrial land may have mitigated much of the adverse impacts.

Limitations A key limitation is the heavy reliance on pXRF measurements. The instrument was calibrated and accuracy was confirmed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. When conducted in sufficient quantity, pXRF measurements have been shown to closely approximate wet chemistry techniques (Rouillon & Taylor, 2016). However, no samples from this study were sent for laboratory analysis. To some extent, the deposition model provides important context for the pXRF measurements. Based on the highest deposition rates identified in the literature, four years of continual operation would have resulted in a surface soil concentration 489 mg/kg within 750 meters of the site. As noted above, a soil concentration of 650–3000 mg/kg would be required for a 2 year old child to have a BLL of 20 µg/dL.

It does not appear that the emissions from KMR resulted in significant soil contamination in Owino Uhuru during its seven years of operation. Thus there is minimal residential exposure

Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER

attributable to KMR in Owino Uhuru currently. The interior of the KMR facility by contrast likely contains very high levels of lead. Any redevelopment of the site should contemplate that contamination to avoid remobilization and contamination of surrounding areas.

Conclusion Lead contamination attributable to the KMR facility is not currently posing an apparent risk to the surrounding community. Surface soil lead concentrations are within international standards and lower than many urban areas globally. Accordingly there is no current compelling need for offsite exposure mitigation work. Proper occupational controls and better siting of the residential area would likely have mitigated the lead poisoning event. Future use of the land should consider probable high contamination levels onsite.

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The Guardian. (2015, April 19). East African Erin Brockovich wins prize for closing polluting lead smelter. The Guardian.

UN Habitat. (2016). World Cities Report 2016 - Urbanization and Development: Emerging Futures. International Journal. Nairobi. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-2751(03)00010-6

Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER

US EPA, OSWER, O. (2016). Lead at Superfund Sites: Software and Users’ Manuals. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/superfund/lead-superfund-sites-software-and-users- manuals

USEPA. Lead; Identification of Dangerous Levels of Lead, 63Federal Register (1998). Retrieved from https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-1998-06-03/pdf/98-14736.pdf van Alphen, M. (1999). Atmospheric heavy metal deposition plumes adjacent to a primary lead–zinc smelter. Science of The Total Environment, 236(1–3), 119–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00272-7 van der Kuijp, T. J., Huang, L., Cherry, C. R., Tsai, P., Hatfield, T., He, K., … Schmidt, C. (2013). Health hazards of China’s lead-acid battery industry: a review of its market drivers, production processes, and health impacts. Environmental Health, 12(1), 61. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-12-61

Véron, A., Flament, P., Bertho, M. L., Alleman, L., Flegal, R., & Hamelin, B. (1999). Isotopic evidence of pollutant lead sources in Northwestern France. Atmospheric Environment, 33(20), 3377–3388. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00376-8 von Braun, M. C., von Lindern, I. H., Khristoforova, N. K., Kachur, A. H., Yelpatyevsky, P. V., Elpatyevskaya, V. P., & Spalinger, S. M. (2002). Environmental Lead Contamination in the Rudnaya Pristan – Dalnegorsk Mining and Smelter District, Russian Far East. Environmental Research, 88(3), 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1006/ENRS.2002.4329

Were, F. H., Kamau, G. N., Shiundu, P. M., Wafula, G. A., & Moturi, C. M. (2012). Air and Blood Lead Levels in Lead Acid Battery Recycling and Manufacturing Plants in Kenya. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 9(5), 340–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2012.673458

Wright, J. P., Dietrich, K. N., Ris, M. D., Hornung, R. W., Wessel, S. D., Lanphear, B. P., … Rae, M. N. (2008). Association of Prenatal and Childhood Blood Lead Concentrations with Criminal Arrests in Early Adulthood. PLoS Medicine, 5(5), e101. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050101

Annex 1A - Lead Contamination in Mombasa, Kenya - DRAFT PAPER

Annex 2 - List of Pollutants

Description of Pollutants

Lead, Pb Lead is a bluish-gray metal that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. It has been used by humans for hundreds of years to produce pipes, and was widely used as a gasoline additive until the 1980’s, when a worldwide movement began to ban its usage in fuel.

Common Sources • Mining and smelting operations • Fossil fuel combustion from industries and vehicles • Industrial sources like battery production and recycling facilities, gun and ammunition factories, metal disposal and recycling facilities and electrical components manufacture • Domestic sources like flaking lead-based paint and water supply pipes

Human Exposure Pathways • Exposure to lead occurs mainly via inhalation or ingestion of lead dust. Lead can also be absorbed through the skin if present in dust or soil to which people come into routine contact • In areas near lead contamination sources, ingestion of contaminated dust or soil is often the pathway of most concern. Food on the ground or exposed to lead dust may become contaminated and then eaten, children may eat with contaminated hands after playing in contaminated areas. Children absorb about 50% of ingested lead • Humans can be exposed to lead through drinking water where contamination has occurred by the corrosion of old lead pipes

Human Health Effects • Neurological disorders such as lead encephalopathy • According to the WHO, children with blood lead concentrations of between 12 micrograms per deciliter (μg/dL) and 120μg/dL can suffer from lower IQ, shorter attention span, reading or learning disabilities, hyperactivity, impaired physical growth, hearing and visual problems or impaired motor skills

Mercury, Hg Mercury occurs naturally in the environment and exists in several forms that can be broadly categorized into metallic mercury (elemental mercury), organic (bound with carbon), and inorganic mercury (not bound with carbon). Inorganic mercury compounds occur when mercury combines with elements such as chlorine, sulfur, or oxygen. It is a dense, silvery white, shiny metal, which is liquid at room temperature in its elemental form. The most common organic form of mercury, methyl mercury, is of particular concern as it can accumulate in fish and thus get transferred through the food chain. There are three types of mercury: Methylmercury, Elemental Mercury.

Common Sources • Burning of fossil fuels (particularly coal-fired utilities) - the major source of mercury emissions to the atmosphere;

Annex 2 - List of Pollutants

• Smelting processes • Fungicides with inorganic mercury compounds • Copper and silver amalgams in tooth filling materials • Medical waste incinerators • Atmospheric deposition from chlor-alkali plants, metal processing, and mining of gold and mercury • Volcanoes, geologic deposits of mercury, and volatilization from the ocean, as sources of atmospheric mercury. • Local mineral occurrences and thermal springs can be naturally high in mercury • Bioaccumulation in fish, which can expose individuals with a high fish diet to high levels of mercury.

Human Exposure Pathways • The general population is commonly exposed to mercury primarily by consuming mercury-contaminated fish. • Common exposure also occurs via the release of elemental mercury from dental amalgams used in fillings. • Additional exposure may occur occupationally and in heavily polluted areas or in areas where mercury-containing fungicides are used extensively. • Elemental mercury can also be absorbed through the skin

Human Health Effects • In general, mercury affects the immune system, alters genetic and enzyme systems, and damages the nervous system, including coordination and the senses of touch, taste, and sight. • Exposure to very small amounts of methyl mercury can result in devastating neurological damage or death • Can also cause permanent damage to the brain and kidneys. • Symptoms of acute mercury poisoning include cough, chest tightness, trouble with breathing, and an upset stomach. Pneumonia can develop, which can be fatal • Mental retardation, blindness, and cerebral palsy have been observed in children born to women having high levels of methyl mercury exposure. Exposure could have a negative impact on their neurological development resulting in psychological abnormalities like deficits in short-term memory, irritability, and social withdrawal.

Chromium, CR Chromium is a steel-gray, naturally occurring element found as ore in natural deposits. It is commonly used in metal alloys like stainless steel, plumbing coatings, magnetic tapes, and pigments for paints, cement, paper, and rubber. It also finds application in wood preservatives. Although it is found widely in plants and soils, it is rare in natural waters. The most hazardous form of chromium is hexavalent chromium (Cr VI). Trivalent chromium (Cr III) is non-toxic.

Annex 2 - List of Pollutants

Common Sources • Tanneries • Dye manufacturers • Chemical manufacturing industry or hazardous waste facility • Combustion of natural gas, coal, and oil • Metallurgical facilities, electroplating • Small amounts of chromium are found in fruits, nuts, vegetables, grains, and cereals • Implants like cobalt-chromium knee and hip arthroplasts • Contaminated landfills • Cement dust

Human Exposure Pathways • People can be exposed to chromium by eating food, drinking water, or breathing air that is contaminated • In air, chromium compounds are present mostly as fine dust particles that eventually settle over land and water • Cigarettes contain 0.24 to 14.6 milligrams (mg) chromium per kilogram (kg). Thus cigarette smoking might constitute a significant source of chromium intake • Skin contact with chromium-contaminated dust, dirt, and puddles

Human Health Effects • Hexavalent chromium, the most hazardous form, can cause cancer. It has been shown to cause tumors in the stomach, intestinal tract, and lungs • Hexavalent chromium can also cause damage to the male reproductive system. • Chromic acid or chromate dusts can cause permanent eye damage • Short-term exposure causes skin irritation and ulceration • Chronic health effects include damage to liver, kidney, circulatory and nerve tissues, and skin irritation • Can cause allergic reactions, such as skin rash. Breathing it can cause nose irritations and nosebleeds. • Inhalation of hexavalent chromium compounds can result in ulceration, asthmatic bronchitis, edema, cough, shortness of breath, and wheezing. Other health effects include: upset stomach and ulcers, respiratory problems, weakened immune systems, and alteration of genetic material.

Cadmium, Cd Cadmium is a soft, silver-white metal that occurs naturally in the environment. It is usually found as a mineral combined with other elements and is extracted during the production of metals like zinc, lead, and copper. It finds application in the manufacture of batteries, pigments, metal coatings, and plastics, as it does not corrode easily.

Common Sources • Release of cadmium compounds from copper, lead, and zinc smelters and municipal incinerators;

Annex 2 - List of Pollutants

• Natural release into the environment (~25,000 tons a year); • Application of phosphate fertilizers or sewage sludge to soils; • Tobacco leaves can accumulate high levels of cadmium from the soil; and • Smelting and electroplating.

Human Exposure Pathways • Human uptake of cadmium takes place mainly through food. Liver, mushrooms, shellfish, mussels, cocoa powder, dried seaweed, oysters, shrimp, lobster, and fish are potential sources. Cadmium also tends to bio-accumulate in aquatic life. Additionally, leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach can contain high levels of cadmium. • Smoking exposes people to significant amounts of cadmium. Tobacco smoke transports cadmium into the lungs. • People who live near hazardous waste sites or factories that release cadmium into the air and people who work in the metal refinery industry are significantly exposed to cadmium via inhalation of dust or fumes.

Human Health Effects • Damage to kidneys and lungs • Diarrhea, stomach pains and severe vomiting • Debilitating effects on bones and the skeletal structure • Reproductive failure and possibly even infertility • Damage to the central nervous system • Damage to the immune system • Psychological disorders • Possibly DNA damage or cancer development

Arsenic, As Arsenic is a naturally occurring, brittle, steel gray semi-metallic solid. Arsenic and its compounds are highly toxic. It finds application in the manufacture of insecticides, pesticides and various alloys. It is also used for bronzing and as a wood preservative.

Common Sources • Human activities like mining, smelting and agricultural applications • Release from pesticides and wood preservatives • Natural sources, such as volcanic activity, the erosion of rocks and minerals, and forest fires

Human Exposure Pathways • Arsenic exposure occurs by ingestion, inhalation of dust, and, to a much lesser degree, by absorption through the skin • Accidental poisoning has been reported to occur from wearing inadequate clothing when applying arsenic-based products • Arsenic exposure in the workplace occurs through inhalation, ingestion, or dermal or eye contact

Annex 2 - List of Pollutants

• Most arsenic compounds are white or colorless powders that do not evaporate. They have no smell, and most have no special taste. Thus, you usually cannot tell if arsenic is present in your food, water, or air

Human Health Effects • Arsenic in drinking water causes bladder, lung and skin cancer, and may cause kidney and liver cancer. Studies have also found that arsenic harms the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as heart and blood vessels, and causes serious skin problems. It also may cause birth defects and reproductive problems • Arsenic can be carcinogenic at very low levels and one-tenth of a gram accumulated over a two-month period can be fatal • Symptoms of mild poisoning include loss of appetite, nausea, diarrhea, stomachache, and vomiting • Severe exposure causes cramps, vomiting, neurological effects like restlessness, chronic headache, fainting, dizziness, convulsions or coma. • Acute exposures can cause lung distress and death • Chronic exposure to arsenic (known as arsenicosis) can lead to dermatitis, pigmentation of the skin, wart formation, hard patches on ones palms or soles of their feet, decreased nerve conduction velocity, and lung cancer.

Pesticides Pesticides are used in the agricultural industry to protect food from pests, such as insects, rodents, weeds, mold, and bacteria. The term pesticide also applies to herbicides, fungicides and so forth. Pesticides are often referred to according to the type of pest they control or grouped by chemical types of pesticides. These include organophosphate, carbamate, organochlorine and pyrethroid pesticides. Pesticide contamination typically results from pesticide projection facilities, pesticide application on agricultural fields, and abandoned storage facilities or dumpsites for obsolete pesticides.

Sources • Runoff from agricultural fields • Illegal dumping or inadequate storage • Waste from pesticide production facilities

Human Exposure Pathways • People can be exposed to pesticides and insecticides by eating food on which it has been applied or by drinking water from sources contaminated by pesticides • Children may be exposed to pesticide residues from their agriculture-worker parents through dust and soil

Human Health Effects • Children, infants, and fetuses may be especially vulnerable to the health effects of pesticides. Children may be more susceptible to loss of brain function if exposed to neurotoxins, and may be more susceptible to damage to their reproductive systems. Increased odds of childhood leukemia, brain cancer and

Annex 2 - List of Pollutants

soft tissue sarcoma have been associated with children living in households where pesticides are used. • Pesticides are intentionally toxic substances. Some chemicals commonly used on lawns and gardens have been associated with birth defects, mutations, adverse reproductive effects, and cancer in laboratory animals. • Toxicology and Industrial Health published a study showing that the natural mix of chemical pesticides and fertilizers – in concentrations mirroring levels found in groundwater – can significantly affect immune and endocrine systems as well as neurological health.

Annex 3 - List of TSIP Sites in Kenya

Total

Key Popuation at Test Test SiteID Site Name Latitude Longitude Industry Pollutant Risk Results 1 Units Results 2 Units Rosterman Gold Mine

and Dump site, Artisanal

Kakamega, Western Mining (hand Mercury - mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3250 Province. 0.2594444 34.736667 mining) elemental 65500 0.4 ppm 0.25 ppm

Owino Uhuru Slum, Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3253 Mombasa -4.00772 39.61576 Recycling Lead 15000 202.74 ppm 897.52 ppm Flower Farms, Lake mg/kg or KE-3267 Naivasha, Naivasha -0.81399 36.32492 Other Arsenic 30000 47.04 ppm Industrial/Muni

Hilton/Gioto dumpsite- cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3285 -0.26882 36.04817 Site Lead 12000 17.07 ppm 7.7 ppm Industrial

Kariobangi Light Estate (mixed mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3301 Industries - 1.26032 36.87986 industries) Lead 57000 133.8 ppm 20.42 ppm Industrial

Estate (mixed mg/kg or KE-3302 Sabuni Industries site -0.08146 34.75458 industries) Lead 19500 26.65 ppm Town, KE-3303 0.6166654 34.766706 Paper Mill Other 25000 22000 ug/m3 Sugar Factory & Agro- Industrial

Chemicals, Muhoroni Estate (mixed mg/kg or KE-3307 area -0.15552 35.188 industries) Lead 14000 9.06 ppm 14 ug/l or ppb Mwakirunge Municipal Industrial/Muni

Dumpsite, Mombasa cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3311 Kenya -3.938826 39.67434 Site Lead 10500 46.11 ppm 61.57 ppm Macalder-Nyatike Artisanal

Artisanal gold mines, Mining (hand mg/kg or KE-3315 Nyanza -0.965556 34.285556 mining) Arsenic 31000 150 ug/l or ppb 6732.14 ppm Sugar Factory, Kibos Food mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3316 area -0.06329 34.81602 Processing Lead 15000 11.19 ppm 14.39 ppm Kijutu Alluvial Gold Mining (hand mg/kg or KE-3367 mines 0.104722 34.7158333 mining) Arsenic 6000 75.91 ppm Municipal cipal Dump KE-3375 Dump site 0.602177 34.539 Site Lead 1000 2.056 ug/l or ppb Murera Dumpsite- cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3380 1.06315 36.57393 Site Lead 2710 57.96 ppm 63.24 ppm

Annex 3 - List of TSIP Sites in Kenya Total

Key Popuation at Test Test SiteID Site Name Latitude Longitude Industry Pollutant Risk Results 1 Units Results 2 Units Municipal Industrial/Muni

dumpsite,Kericho, Rift cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3402 valley -0.370722 35.276885 Site Cadmium 14500 2.49 ppm 0.23 ppm Recycling /

Recyclers

Gikomba Jua Kali (including mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3403 Fabricators -1.2897 36.8414 salvage yards) Lead 54500 53.67 ppm 359.56 ppm Artisanal gold mining, Mining and Ore mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3423 Wagusu area -0.18423 34.19048 Processing Arsenic 3100 6.64 ppm 14.15 ppm Dumpsite, Industrial/Muni

Uasin Gishu District; cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3431 Eldoret 0.5225 35.2401 Site Lead 8100 29.93 ppm 30.1 ppm Olkaria Geothermal

Power Plant, mg/kg or KE-3467 Naivasha, Rift valley -0.893676 36.308777 Other Lead 52500 3.43 ppm 9.79 ppm Dump sites, cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3479 Kenya -1.02032 34.9883 Site Lead 15000 40.46 ppm 35.28 ppm Mtondia Dumpsite, cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3500 Kenya -3.57582 39.88741 Site Lead 15733 2.39 ppm 41.2 ppm cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3519 Busia Dump site 0.462622 34.111261 Site Lead 8500 38.62 ppm 5.07 ppm Artisanal

Mining (hand mg/kg or KE-3524 Kaimosi Gold mines 0.1505555 34.86666 mining) Lead 33500 40 ug/l or ppb 15.18 ppm Chromium mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3527 Spinners and Spiners -1.1489 36.9569 Dye Industry (Total) 4008 79.6 ppm 51.2 ppm Kayole dumpsite, cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3528 Naivasha,Rift valley -0.792978 36.441706 Site Arsenic 25600 47.04 ppm 12.61 ppm Manyatta municipal cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3530 dumpsite, Gilgil -0.008 36.3269 Site Arsenic 15700 19.86 ppm 7.43 ppm mines, Nyanza Mining (hand mg/kg or KE-3538 Province -1.048611 34.5536111 mining) Arsenic 15000 3180.62 ppm 230 ug/l or ppb Mikei Artisanal gold Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3539 mines, Migori, Nyanza -1.007778 34.317778 mining) Arsenic 39500 52.7 ppm 22.59 ppm Devki Mills Metal Mercury - mg/kg or KE-3559 Smelting Industry -1.14789 36.9569 Other elemental 22000 0.7465 ppm 72.8 ug/l or ppb

Annex 3 - List of TSIP Sites in Kenya Total

Key Popuation at Test Test SiteID Site Name Latitude Longitude Industry Pollutant Risk Results 1 Units Results 2 Units Industrial

Kangoki Dumpsite- Estate (mixed mg/kg or KE-3560 -1.07744 37.1177 industries) Lead 10000 29.5 ppm 693.33 ppm Municipal cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3575 Dumpsite -3.2639 40.12087 Site Lead 50000 39.43 ppm 49.38 ppm mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3597 Kisumu Port 0.10261 34.74524 Ship-Breaking Arsenic 50000 4.3 ppm 10.79 ppm Industrial

Thika Municipal Estate (mixed mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3602 sewerage plant -1.06832 37.1162 industries) Lead 6200 804.2 ppm 115.94 ppm Tannery Chromium mg/kg or KE-3603 Kenya Leather -1.03268 37.753 Operations (Total) 1650 120.56 ug/l or ppb 19.5 ppm cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3611 TOI MARKET -1.307 36.78 Site Lead 11000 0 ppm 69 ppm Multiple

Lwang'ni - Port Police Diverse mg/kg or KE-3620 Post area -0.09685 34.74901 Industries Lead 11000 54.9 ppm 54.9 ppm Malakisi Tobacco

Farms, Western KE-3623 Province 0.3599 34.0002 Agriculture Lead 50000 210 ug/l or ppb Amala Stream, Mara KE-3627 ,Mulot, -0.963475 35.38 Agriculture Pesticides 55000 0.01 ug/l or ppb Artisanal Gold Mining Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3628 Lolgorian, Transmara -1.240728 34.8 mining) Arsenic 2700 108.27 ppm 56.45 ppm Volatile

Sakam Enterprises, Organic

Makhokho, Western Compounds KE-3637 Province, Kenya 0.16726 34.74605 Other (VOCs) 11000 1 ug/m3 mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3639 Nzoia Sugar factory 0.56899 34.655 Agriculture Lead 5000 18.74 ppm 14.85 ppm Ikolomani Artisanal Mining (hand Mercury - mg/kg or KE-3641 Gold mines 0.2207 34.73777 mining) elemental 4000 5.84 ppm Multiple

Nyando-Singida Rice Diverse mg/kg or KE-3667 Scheme -0.2748 34.88276 Industries Cadmium 30000 9.15 ppm , Western Food mg/kg or KE-3682 Province. 0.35996 34.4991 Processing Lead 70000 0.5 ug/l or ppb 0.612 ppm

Total

Key Popuation at Test Test SiteID Site Name Latitude Longitude Industry Pollutant Risk Results 1 Units Results 2 Units Artisanal

Asembo-bay Artisanal Mining (hand mg/kg or KE-3703 Gold mines 0.315833 34.600278 mining) Arsenic 1500 81.95 ppm Mukuro Artisanal gold Artisanal

mine, , Mining (hand KE-3720 -1.041667 34.367222 mining) Arsenic 21000 140 ug/l or ppb 500 ug/l or ppb Awach Artisanal Gold Mining (hand Mercury - mg/kg or KE-3834 mine 0.48333 34.61667 mining) elemental 2250 1.5 ug/l or ppb 0.134 ppm Ramba Artisanal Gold Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3842 mines 0.1425 34.673333 mining) Arsenic 25000 31.85 ppm 75.99 ppm Ngiya-Bar ding' Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3853 Artisanal gold mines 0.001389 34.569167 mining) Arsenic 19000 7.29 ppm 26.97 ppm cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3862 Kisumu dumpsite - 0.190833 35.287778 Site Arsenic 31000 3.94 ppm 16.33 ppm Ndira Artisanal Gold Mining (hand Mercury - KE-3870 mines 0.051389 34.3434278 mining) elemental 12000 44 ug/l or ppb Tannery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3891 Alpharamma Tannery -1.45 36.9833 Operations Lead 5100 55.64 ppm 89.62 ppm Associated Battery Lead - Battery mg/kg or KE-3897 Manufacturers -1.4499 36.9835 Recycling Lead 7500 225.5 ppm 1100 Smelting

(everything mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-3898 Apex steel Industries -1.451 36.9838 except Lead) Lead 4500 222.5 ppm 75.25 ppm Wang'arot Artisanal Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4078 Gold mine 0.136667 34.315833 mining) Arsenic 10000 95.5 ppm 75.99 ppm Nyatuoro Artisanal Mining (hand Mercury - KE-4144 gold mine -1.522778 34.4838889 mining) elemental 15000 14 ug/l or ppb 4 ug/l or ppb Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4146 Ugunja-Ugenya 0.1947 34.29905 mining) Arsenic 8000 71.64 ppm 32.89 ppm cipal Dump mg/kg or KE-421 Dumpsite -1.25 36.900002 Site Lead 90000 13500 ppm AP Lead Acid Battery

Recycling Company, Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4322 Nairobi - 1.313979 36.879564 Recycling Lead 15150 44100.6 ppm 6588.64 ppm Lead -

Acid Battery Recyclers Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4325 and Metal Smelters - 1.436111 37.471944 Recycling Lead 3000 1769.77 ppm 1758.32 ppm

Total

Key Popuation at Test Test SiteID Site Name Latitude Longitude Industry Pollutant Risk Results 1 Units Results 2 Units lead-acid

battery recyclers and Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4326 metal smelters - 1.429444 37.4925 Recycling Lead 15000 1805.07 ppm 1664.08 ppm Multiple

Diverse mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4339 Mavoko Dumpsite -1.23228 36.58423 Industries Lead 7000 371.594 ppm 122.359 ppm Industrial Diverse mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4340 Area -1.45 36.9833 Industries Lead 3500 376.285 ppm 32.039 ppm Dandora lead-acid

battery recyclers and Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4363 metal smelters - 1.433611 37.476389 Recycling Lead 5000 1544.12 ppm 1695.24 ppm Lead - Battery Chromium mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4894 Kiandutu slums -1.050845 37.0774921 Recycling (Total) 3350 0 ppm 0 ppm Prancis Artisanal Gold Mining (hand mg/kg or KE-4907 Mines, . -1.184052 34.6559433 mining) Arsenic 60000 2670 ppm 190 ug/l or ppb Ganesh Informal

ULAB Recyclers, Lead - Battery KE-4910 Nyamathi, Naivasha. -0.785333 36.5223667 Recycling Lead 3000 193 ppm 27000 ppm Juakali Informal Used

Lead-Acid Battery

Recyling Operations, Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4911 Kisumu City. - 0.09387 34.7559467 Recycling Lead 10000 100000 ppm 1100 ppm Kehancha Artisanal Artisanal

Goldmines, Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4912 Kehancha, Kuria. -1.164708 34.61263 mining) Arsenic 25700 972 ppm 838 ppm Industrial

Pioneer jua kali Estate (mixed mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4913 Muranga -0.723642 37.1637708 industries) Lead 1150 640 ppm 432 ppm Maina kijiji dumpsite in cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4935 Nyahururu 0.0333 36.3667 Site Lead 1700 501 ppm 36 ppm Rongo Artisanal Mining (hand Mercury - KE-4959 Goldmines -0.746654 34.5595926 mining) elemental 20000 4.3 ug/l or ppb 5.49 ug/l or ppb Masaba Artisanal Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4964 Goldmines, Kuria. -1.12404 34.5461317 mining) Arsenic 6450 992 ppm 2328 ppm Cable and Tire

Burning Area, Nairobi E-waste mg/kg or KE-4974 County -1.281915 36.832945 recycling Lead 35000 457 ppm

Total

Key Popuation at Test Test SiteID Site Name Latitude Longitude Industry Pollutant Risk Results 1 Units Results 2 Units Recycling Area,

Kayole Slums, Nairobi Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4975 County -1.267863 36.9149933 Recycling Lead 32000 13567 ppm 100000 ppm Viyalo Artisanal Gold Artisanal

Mines, Sabatia Sub Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4977 County, 0.102165 34.6977833 mining) Arsenic 31000 13600 ppm 3748 ppm Fabricating and Spray

Painting Area,

Gikomba, Nairobi Chromium mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4978 County -1.291697 36.8426885 Other (Hex) 50000 872 ppm 4021 ppm Eldoret Informal ULAB

Recycling Operations,

Eldoret Town, Uasin Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-4979 Gishu County 0.52036 35.26993 Recycling Lead 79500 8901 ppm 1397 ppm Kapsaos Artisinal Artisanal

Gold Mines, Nandi Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5000 Hills, Nandi County 0.0143517 35.076835 mining) Arsenic 25500 6068 ppm 5583 ppm Mwabungo-Kinondo cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5036 Dumpsite, -4.366937 39.515684 Site Cadmium 5700 38 ppm 35 ppm Nyamasare Artisanal Artisanal

Goldmines, Ugunja, Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5050 County. 0.1833345 34.2887967 mining) Arsenic 2750 34 ppm 24 ppm Kombwede Artisanal Artisanal

Goldmines, Ugenya , Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5051 . 0.20197 34.241155 mining) Arsenic 10550 2884 ppm 2949 ppm Municipal cipal Dump Mercury - mg/kg or KE-5052 Dumpsite -3.472637 38.460051 Site elemental 2300 90 ppm and ULABs Recycling Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5061 Embu -0.54129 37.4556634 Recycling Lead 1900 305 ppm 911 ppm Artisanal Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5084 Goldmines 3.5232707 39.060635 mining) Lead 2750 59 ppm 525 ppm cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5085 Dumpsite 2.37644 37.9961767 Site Lead 650 771 ppm 18 ppm Narok Informal ULAB

Recycling Operations,

Narok Town, Narok Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5090 County. -1.090417 35.86999 Recycling Lead 30000 184 ppm 8882 ppm

Total

Key Popuation at Test Test SiteID Site Name Latitude Longitude Industry Pollutant Risk Results 1 Units Results 2 Units Athi river ULABs Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5091 storage site in Embu -0.540126 37.4576131 Recycling Lead 2400 190 ppm 72 ppm Nakuru Informal ULAB

Recycling Operations,

Nakuru town, Nakuru Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5095 county. -0.287697 36.0651583 Recycling Lead 10300 1548 ppm 114 ppm Embu dumpsite cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5096 kanguga -0.057049 37.5014392 Site Lead 1500 1815 ppm 575 ppm Used Lead-Acid

Battery Recycling

Area, Town, Kakamega Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5105 County 0.285365 34.751255 Recycling Lead 26000 897 ppm 3704 ppm and Auto-works, Chromium mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5119 Mombasa -4.053746 39.657675 Other (Total) 3800 198 ppm 226 ppm Tononoka Jua Kali mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5128 Artisans -4.051008 39.668785 Other Lead 8500 61 ppm 120 ppm Gakoromone scrap Diverse mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5134 metal recycling 0.04626 37.6558 Industries Lead 4000 13195 ppm 1448 ppm Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5135 Meru majengo slums 0.047035 37.649803 Recycling Lead 1650 65 ppm 372 ppm Nakalale Artisanal Artisanal

Gold Mines, Nakalare, Mining (hand mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5156 3.512095 35.18689 mining) Arsenic 8000 13 ppm 49 ppm Repair and Recycling,

Lodwar, Turkana Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5157 County 3.117045 35.5963007 Recycling Lead 9000 100000 ppm 3753 ppm Cable and Tire

Burning Area, , E-waste mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5158 Turkana County 3.1132333 35.59915 recycling Lead 8000 1936 ppm 684 ppm Busia Informal ULAB

Repair and Recycling

Area, Busia Town, Lead - Battery KE-5162 0.462595 34.1032133 Recycling Lead Pending Industrial

Bangladesh Slums, Estate (mixed mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5178 Mombasa -4.01162 39.633734 industries) Lead 11000 48 ppm 91 ppm

Total

Key Popuation at Test Test SiteID Site Name Latitude Longitude Industry Pollutant Risk Results 1 Units Results 2 Units Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5193 Kisii Informal ULABs -0.673977 34.7728591 Recycling Lead 32500 23442 ppm 73925 ppm Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5197 Migori Informal ULABs -1.070091 34.4687755 Recycling Lead 50000 100000 ppm 50010 ppm Changamwe Industrial

Roundabout, Estate (mixed mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5199 Mombasa -4.029499 39.633044 industries) Lead 18000 856 ppm 388 ppm KPLC Transformer Power Plants mg/kg or KE-520 Facility, Nairobi -1.311111 36.87389 (coal or oil) Lead 58000 3.4 ug/l or ppb 118.31 ppm Mwea (Ngurumbani) Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5269 scraps metal recyclers -0.681101 37.3583694 Recycling Lead 1600 75 ppm 363 ppm Kitale Informal Used

Lead Acid Battery

recycling operations in Kitale town, Transzoia Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5277 county. 1.01809 35.00064 Recycling Lead 23400 436 ppm 10323 ppm Matisi Informal Used

Lead Acid Battery

operations in Matisi Centre, Transzoia Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5278 county. 1.0387983 34.9773633 Recycling Lead 9400 144 ppm 0 ppm Moi's Bridge Informal

Used Lead Acid

Battery operations in Moi's Bridge town, Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5279 . 0.8755883 35.1197417 Recycling Lead 8000 46 ppm 3583 ppm cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5296 Kagio dumpsite -0.624753 37.2607531 Site Lead 500 244 ppm 61 ppm cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5297 dumpsite -0.501764 37.284884 Site Lead 600 601 ppm 90 ppm Mumias Informal Used

Lead-acid Battery

Repair and Recycling Area, Mumias Town, Lead - Battery KE-5305 0.3340967 34.4880517 Recycling Lead Pending

Total

Key Popuation at Test Test SiteID Site Name Latitude Longitude Industry Pollutant Risk Results 1 Units Results 2 Units Mayoni Informal ULAB

Repair and Recycling

Area, Mayoni, Lead - Battery KE-5307 Kakamega County 0.3759333 34.4766667 Recycling Lead Pending Informal

ULAB Recycling

Operations, Kapsabet Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5336 Town, Nandi County 0.20079 35.0956133 Recycling Lead 19000 37 ppm 190 ppm Kericho Informal

ULAB Recycling

Operations, Kericho Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5337 Town, -0.368493 35.28145 Recycling Lead 10500 1716 ppm 757 ppm Industrial/Muni

cipal Dump mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5354 dumpsite -0.43139 36.9622423 Site Lead 1100 68 ppm 44 ppm

Othaya ULABs Lead - Battery mg/kg or mg/kg or KE-5369 recycling -0.546107 36.9441288 Recycling Lead 750 1337 ppm 209 ppm Informal ULAB

Recycling Operations,

Kibera Slums, Nairobi Lead - Battery KE-5424 County -1.313648 36.7819567 Recycling Lead Pending Majengo Informal

ULABs Recycling

Operations, Majengo Lead - Battery KE-5425 Slums, Nairobi city -1.286457 36.8444033 Recycling Lead Pending Informal

ULAB Recycling

Operations, Mathare Lead - Battery KE-5426 Slums, Nairobi City -1.262913 36.8640767 Recycling Lead Pending Battery Repair and

Recycling Operations,

Webuye Town, Lead - Battery KE-5427 0.60663833 334.771845 Recycling Lead Pending

Total

Key Popuation at Test Test SiteID Site Name Latitude Longitude Industry Pollutant Risk Results 1 Units Results 2 Units ULAB Recycling

Operations, Bungoma

Town, Bungoma Lead - Battery KE-5428 County 0.55904166 634.5595517 Recycling Lead Pending Mining and Ore Mercury - KE-554 Migori -1.066667 34.466667 Processing elemental 5000 26.23 ug/l or ppb 177.63 ppm KE-556 Lake Nakuru -0.366667 36.083332 Agriculture Lead 5000 304.5 ug/l or ppb 503 ug/l or ppb Makupa and Port- Industrial

Reitz Creek systems: Estate (mixed mg/kg or KE-726 Kenyan Coast -4.033333 39.633333 industries) Cadmium 10000 51 ppm Artisanal

Mining (hand Mercury - KE-758 Osiri/Makalda 1.066667 34.466667 mining) elemental 60000 100 ug/l or ppb Diverse Chromium KE-759 River Kisat (Kisumu) -0.087158 34.749964 Industries (Hex) 500000 120 ug/l or ppb Mining and Ore mg/kg or KE-768 Mariakani -3.866667 39.466667 Processing Lead 15000 70 ug/l or ppb 44.38 ppm Product

Manufacturing

(electronics, Kibarani Waste Site- equipment, Chromium mg/kg or KE-770 Mombasa -3.949907 39.65028 clothing) (Total) 65000 460 ppm Recycling / PCBs

Changamwe/Kibarani Recyclers (PolyChlorina

old tire burning site- (including ted mg/kg or KE-771 Mombasa -3.949907 39.65028 salvage yards) Biphenyls) 30000 100 ppm Lead Smelting

Kamkunji Blacksmith - (with ingot KE-772 Nairobi -1.283333 36.816667 production) Lead 50000 34 ug/dl PCBs

Industrial/Muni (PolyChlorina

Muthurwa/Railway - cipal Dump ted mg/kg or KE-773 Nairobi 1.283333 36.816667 Site Biphenyls) 20000 150 ug/dl 2.17 ppm cipal Dump KE-774 VOK -Mombasa -4.058796 39.666824 Site Lead 38000 300 ug/dl

Total Pop at Risk 2,865,951

Industry Agriculture 4 Artisinal Mining 28 Dye Industry 1 E-Waste Recycling 2 Food Processing 2 Industrial Estate 9 Industrial/Municipal Dumpsite 25 Lead Battery Recycling 35 Lead Smelting (with ingot production) 1 Mining and Ore Processing 3 Multiple Diverse Industries 6 Other 7 Paper Mill 1 Power Plant (Coal or Oil) 1 Product Manufacturing (electronics, equipment, clothing) 1 Recycling / Recyclers (including salvage yards) 2 Ship-Breaking 1 Smelting (everything except Lead) 1 Tannery Operations 2 132

Key Pollutant Arsenic 25 Cadmium 4 Chromium (Hex) 2 Chromium (Total) 5

Lead 81 Mercury (Elemental) 10 Other 1 PCBs (PolyChlorinated Biphenyls) 2 Pesticides 1 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 1 132