Timeline / 1890 to 1920
Date Country Theme
1890 - 1920 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces
The 20th century is undoubtedly one of urbanisation. Outside the Arab medina a new city develops to host the many Europeans who have arrived to promote development of the colonial economy.
1890 - 1900 Tunisia Fine And Applied Arts
Construction of public and private buildings in the arabisance style, which proposes a synthesis of European architectural styles with Arab and Spanish-North African architecture.
1890 - 1910 Tunisia Migrations
Emergence of a new European-inspired city outside the Arab medina with a multitude of buildings built in the European style.
1890 - 1892 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces
In Bucharest a fire tower is built from the plans of the chief architect of the city, George Mandrea. It is both a watchtower, used by firemen to keep the city under observation to rapidly intervene in case of a fire, and a reservoir for water distribution in the eastern part of Bucharest.
1890 France Reforms And Social Changes
On 1 May, Labour Day is celebrated for the first time.
1890s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
There is a notable increase in the activity of foreign powers – especially Ottoman Turkey, France and Russia – in the Gulf region. Germany also makes its first appearance. The main interests for all of them are economic and geostrategic.
1890 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Cavalleria rusticana by Pietro Mascagni (1863–1945) has a great success, marking the beginning of verismo (Italian realism) in music, which intends to portray the world of peasants and the poor through strong and passionate drama. The singing style changes radically, leaving behind the aesthetics of bel canto and turning to reciting, even shouting, and spoken parts in the most exciting dramatic moments.
1890 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
For the first time, trade unions organise celebrations for May Day as the International Worker’s Day.
1890 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme
The Alexandria Sporting Club is built; it is one of the oldest clubs in Egypt.
1890 - 1920 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
“Alhambrismo” in music. From 1890 many composers produce pieces showing the influence of the Alhambra, e.g.Chapi's Los Gnomos de la Alhambra (1889), Debussy’s Lindaraja (composed in 1901) and La puerta del vino (1912–13). The most important piece is the first movement of Noches en los Jardines de España (1909–15) by Manuel de Falla, titled "En los Jardines del Generalife".
1890 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
Suffrage established for men aged 25 years and above. Although the 1812 Constitution had theoretically established “universal” suffrage for men, during most of the 19th century it had been limited to men above a certain economic level. It was not until 1931, under the Second Republic, that the suffrage became truly universal, including women.
1890 - 1908 Portugal Political Context
The British Ultimatum (11 January 1890) pressures Portugal to withdraw from southern Africa resulting in popular outrage and unrest. The bankruptcy of 1892, anti-monarchic sentiment against King Carlos I, the cost of living and unfulfilled popular needs are major drivers of the Republican movement.
1890 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
The railway station of Rossio (Lisbon) designed by the Portuguese architect José Luís Monteiro, begun in 1886 and inaugurated on 23 November of 1890. Located in the historical centre, the Rossio station follows the neo-Manueline architectural style and is an important building of the 19th-century late Romantic style.
1890 - 1899 Italy Migrations
Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 26,000, USA 51,000; Argentina 37,000; Brazil 58,000.
1890 - 1910 Germany Fine And Applied Arts
The paintings by Heinrich Vogeler, Das Konzert (Sommerabend) (1893), and Gustav Klimt, Der Kuss (1908), exemplify the period in art known as Jugendstil or Art Nouveau.
1890s - Around 1900 Germany Migrations
After the United States, the German Empire was the most popular country of immigration.
1890s Germany Migrations
The Prussian policy of Abwehrpolitik sees Polish seasonal workers in agriculture forced to leave the German Empire during winter. Date Country Theme
1890 - 1910 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of Modern literature (i.e. the works of Hesse, Hauptmann, Mann and Zweig) is characterised by pluralism, the merging of Art Nouveau, Symbolism, Impressionism, etc.
1890s Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Sigmund Freud formulates his theory of psychoanalysis in Vienna.
1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Emperor Wilhelm II dismisses Bismarck; and so begins the era of the emperor’s personal regiment.
1890 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
Khan Antun Bey Square evolves after the construction of the great Ottoman jetty and quays from 1890 that changes the design of the urban area.
1890 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
16 September: Sailing frigate Ertu#rul sinks while returning from a goodwill voyage to Japan off the coast of Oshima in a typhoon that kills all but 69 of its 609 crew.
1890 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts
Müfide Kadri is born (d. 1912). One of the early female painters, she took private classes from Osman Hamdi Bey.
1891 Tunisia Economy And Trade
Monetary reform: the administration of the protectorate decides to replace the Tunisian monetary unit the “piastre” with the French Franc.
1891 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
The Museum of Applied Arts in Vienna purchases the Karabakh carpet in Istanbul.
1891 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
First Chambers of Labour (territorial trade unions) founded in Milan.
1891 Greece Economy And Trade
An insurance company for sea transportation is founded on the island of Chios.
1891 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
October: Domitilia de Carvalho is the first woman to study at the University of Coimbra. She is obliged to wear black, sober costumes and a discreet hat to Date Country Theme go unnoticed among her male colleagues. A brilliant student she graduated in mathematics (1894), philosophy (1895) and medicine (1904).
1891 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Founding of the Pan-German League (Allgemeine Deutsche Verband; since 1894 the General German Association or Alldeutscher Verband) to advance an active, nationalistic German foreign policy in Europe and overseas.
1891 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts
Fausto Zonaro (1854–1929) arrives in #stanbul as an independent artist. He receives the title of court painter in 1896.
1891 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
13 June: The Archaeology Museum in Istanbul is opened.
1891 - 1892 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
Osman Hamdi Bey excavates in Lagina.
1891 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Ahmed Vefik Pa#a dies. Besides his administrative positions, he is regarded as a precursor of Turkish cultural nationalism and remembered also for contributing to the development of Western theatre in the empire by translating French plays.
1892 - 1914 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Development of the railway network connects the city of Tunis with its hinterland. The network serves the large cities by connecting them with the agricultural centres created by colonisation.
1892 - 1914 Tunisia Economy And Trade
Development of a railway network connecting the city of Tunis with its hinterland.
1892 - 1895 Romania Political Context
In 1892 a delegation of 237 Romanians sends Emperor Franz Joseph a Memorandum protesting against the discriminatory effects of the union of Transylvania with Hungary (1867). In 1893 the signatories of the petition are sent for trial at the end of which, in May 1894, they are sentenced to prison. However, in 1895 the Emperor amnesties them.
1892 France Rediscovering The Past
Excavations at Delos and Delphi by the French School of Athens.
1892 France Reforms And Social Changes
The Law on Health and Hygiene at work is passed. Date Country Theme
1892 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
The British government effectively becomes the ruler of the Trucial Coast when the sheikhs are forced to pledge that neither they nor their descendants will enter agreements with or grant territorial rights to any government or their representatives other than Britain.
1892 - 1898 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Hydroelectric power plants are built in Tivoli (1892) and Paderno d’Adda (1898) and the power they generated is transported to, respectively, Rome and Milan.
1892 Italy Political Context
Italian Socialist Party founded.
1892 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Muntazah Palace is constructed for Khedive ‘Abbas, which he uses as both a hunting lodge and residence for his companion.
1892 Egypt Travelling
The Greco-Roman Museum of Alexandria is created.
1892 Spain International Exhibitions
European and American Historical Exhibitions held in the Palacio de la Biblioteca y Museos Nacionales, Madrid, celebrating the fourth centennial of the discovery of America.
1892 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
18 August: Praça de Touros do Campo Pequeno (Campo Pequeno Bullring) opens its doors with a gala show. Built in an area assigned to the Casa Pia (educational establishment for children in need) by the city of Lisbon in 1889 the bullring was designed by the architect António José Dias da Silva (1848–1912) and inspired by Madrid's bullring.
1892 Portugal Economy And Trade
13 June: bankruptcy is declared in Portugal causing tremendous popular outrage. The deficit in the public finances, the dependence on foreign funding and incipient industrialisation are contributing factors to this crisis.
1892 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Fatma Âliye (1862–1939), female novelist and publisher, publishes Muhâdarât (Reminiscence). Her feminist attitude was apparent in her rejection of marriage for economic reasons, believing in the need for women to join the workforce.
1893 Qatar Political Context Date Country Theme
The Battle of al-Wajba is a victory for Sheikh Jassim and Qatar. This represents a decisive moment in the nation's history, asserting Qatar's independence from direct Ottoman interference.
1893 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of the first analytical laboratory as part of the services that later became the Pasteur Institute, initially providing a rabies treatment service, and then offering a vaccination centre.
1893 Austria Rediscovering The Past
The Egyptian authorities give the head of a Sphinx of Sesostris III to the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.
1893 - 1895 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of Piazza Vittorio Emanuele (today Piazza della Repubblica) in Florence, after clearing the area of the Ancient Market.
1893 - 1894 Italy Economy And Trade
A comprehensive law on banking establishes the Bank of Italy, which starts operating on 1 January 1894.
1893 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
At the age of 80, Verdi composes his last opera, Falstaff, an opera buffa that opens new avenues towards the theatre of the 20th century. The music underscores all the subtle nuances of the psychology of the different characters.
1893 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Manon Lescaut by Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924) has a great success in Turin and Puccini becomes the most promising opera composer of the new generation.
1893 Greece Rediscovering The Past
Foundation of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.
1893 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Creation of the Portuguese Ethnological Museum, which in 1906 opened its doors to the public at the Jerónimos Monastery in the Belém area of Lisbon. The museum is currently designated the National Museum of Archaeology.
1893 - 1902 Turkey Migrations
72,000 Muslims and Jews are forced out of Bulgaria. Unlike earlier migrants, they are resettled in towns in Thrace as well as in rural areas of central and eastern Anatolia. Date Country Theme
1893 Turkey International Exhibitions
At the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the main Ottoman pavilion refers to the Sultan Ahmed Fountain, but it experiments with a different approach, being designed as an exhibition building.
1894 - 1898 France Political Context
The Dreyfus Affair: Captain Dreyfus is unjustly accused of espionage, is militarily degraded, and then deported at the end of the trial. The writer Émile Zola denounces this situation in a pamphlet entitled J’accuse. The case divides France; it is recognised that Dreyfus is innocent.
1894 - 1913 Italy Economy And Trade
The chemical industry takes off. The production of fertilisers grows from 85,700 tons in 1894 to 1 million tons in 1913.
1894 Italy Travelling
The Touring Club d’Italia is founded. Its main goal is “to make Italians know Italy”. It conceives of tourism as a tool for the cultural growth and modernisation of the country.
1894 - 1908 Morocco Political Context
Having ascended to the throne too young, Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz must act under the regency of his father mulay al-Hasan I’s chamberlain for almost six years. Upon his father death in 1900, Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz took up the reins of power and made clear his desire to restructure the governing institution of Morocco, the Makhzen. He worked on the modernisation of the army and stabilisation of the currency. He relaunched the project to ensure universal application of the tartib tax, which he wanted to apply to all foreigners and protégés. This project naturally displeased the consular corps.
1894 - 1900 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Qasim Amin publishes his book Les Egyptiens in French in 1894. In it he rejects the negative claims against the traditions of Oriental society made by Duke Drocom in his book, L’Egypte et les Egyptiens. In defence of Islam, Amin compares the rights of women according to Islam with those of civilized European women. In 1899, he then publishes The Emancipation of Women, which is severely criticized. In 1900, Amin refutes the arguments of his critics with The New Woman, a work that provides fresh fuel to his ardent battle for the emancipation of women.
1894 - 1900 France Fine And Applied Arts
The Salon des Cent (Salon of the One Hundred) neither focused on any one school of art nor paid attention to any of the official bodies.
1894 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Otto Lilienthal invents the glider. Date Country Theme
1895 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Romanian Maritime Service, the first civil naval institution of Romania, is founded. It is intended to buy and build ships and it ensures passenger and freight transportation on the route Br#ila–Constan#a–Istanbul, later extended to Alexandria and to ports on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean: Pireu, Smyrna, Haifa and Beirut.
1895 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
9 December: the first electric tramway is introduced in Bucharest.
1895 Romania Economy And Trade
Promulgation of the Mining Law, which stipulates separation between the ownership of land and of the subsoil resources, which, except for oil, belong to the state. Concessions of oil exploitation by the state (in cases where the owner of the land did not want to do it) are regulated.
1895 Austria Rediscovering The Past
A statue of an athlete is found in Ephesus, Turkey; ‘Abd al-Hamid II, the Ottoman Sultan at the time, gives it as a gift to the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I.
1895 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Gugliemo Marconi makes the first successful experiments of radio broadcasts.
1895 - 1913 Italy Economy And Trade
Major growth of iron and steel industry: cast iron production rises from 9,000 tons in 1895 to 426,000 tons in 1913; steel production rises from 50,000 tons in 1895 to 933,000 tons in 1913.
1895 Italy International Exhibitions
Opening of the First International Art Exhibition of the City of Venice, known as the Venice Biennale. The exhibition – organised to bring the city out of isolation – meets with great public acclaim (224,000 visitors).
1895 Greece Political Context
Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis declares that Greece is bankrupt.
1895 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first car in Portugal, a Panhard et Levassor, is personally imported from Paris by the fourth Count of Avilez. The Lisbon Customs did not know how to tax this awkward item. Was it a farm machine or a locomotive? They chose the second option. Count Jorge Avilez drove from Lisbon to his farm in Santiago do Cacém at 15 km an hour.
1895 France Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
Castel Béranger by Hector Guimard is in the Art Nouveau style.
1895 France Fine And Applied Arts
The Maison de l'Art nouveau by Samuel Bing.
1895 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Roentgen ray (X-Ray) is discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen.
1895 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
German archaeologist Theodor Wiegand begins to excavate ancient Greek city of Priene. He would start to excavate in Miletos in 1896.
1896 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of Khaldunia. The purpose of this institution located near the Zaytuna Mosque was to spread scientific knowledge among the Arab communities, and especially among students of Zaytuna University. Its name refers to the great Arab thinker Ibn Khaldun.
1896 France Travelling
Tsar Nicolas II visits France and inaugurates the Pont Alexandre III bridge in Paris.
1896 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Austrian composer Anton Bruckner dies.
1896 Austria Political Context
Russia recognises Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, a former Austrian officer, as the new Prince of Bulgaria.
1896 - 1914 Italy Economy And Trade
Sustained economic growth (except for short crises in 1900 and 1907–08); industrialisation makes a leap forward.
1896 Greece Travelling
Revival of the Olympic Games.
1896 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First X-ray made in Portugal by Henrique Teixeira Bastos, Professor of Physics at Coimbra University. In 1895 Roentgen had discovered X-rays and the news was published in Portugal in the newspaper Novidades in January 1896. This first X-ray of the right hand of a boy with bone tuberculosis was made one week after.
1896 Germany International Exhibitions Date Country Theme
The Great Industrial Exposition opens at Treptower Park, south of central Berlin.
1896 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Recaîzâde Mahmud Ekrem publishes the novel Araba Sevdas# (A Carriage Affair). He was prominent in literary circles and promoted the Westernisation of Ottoman Turkish literature.
1897 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of the French civil hospital provides a surgery and two general medical services to meet the needs of the European population from the outset.
1897 Romania Fine And Applied Arts
The National School of Architecture is founded as a section of the School of Fine Arts in Bucharest. It becomes an independent institution in 1904, under the name the Superior School of Architecture.
1897 - 1899 Romania Travelling
Romanian biologist and speleologist Emil Racovi## participates in the Belgian Antarctic Expedition, the first winter research expedition in the Antarctica region.
1897 - 1898 Italy Political Context
Widespread demonstrations and riots against high bread price. The government uses the army to repress protests: in Milan 85 demonstrators are killed.
1897 Greece Political Context
Defeat of the Greek Army during the Greek–Turkish War.
1897 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
Gustav Klimt (1867–1918) founds, along with other Viennese artists, the Viennese Secession, a society of Austrian Art Nouveaux artists.
1897 - 1909 United Kingdom Cities And Urban Spaces
Charles Rennie Mackintosh (b. Glasgow, Scotland 1868; d. London, England 1928), artist, designer and architect, is perhaps best known for the Charles Rennie Mackintosh building at Glasgow School of Art, which was built in two stages (1897–9 and 1907–9) due to lack of funding. Designed in the Art and Crafts style, and owing much to Scotland’s baronial tradition, Mackintosh eschewed the architectural styles of Greece and Rome in his design. Achieving the acclaim he felt he deserved in Europe, Mackintosh’s originality was never fully appreciated in the United Kingdom, except by a few loyal supporters and patrons, during his lifetime.
1897 - 1904 Germany Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
Formation of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum (now the Bode Museum), proposed by Wilhelm von Bode, and built by Ernst von Ihne and Max Hasak.
1897 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
On 9 January 1897 and in celebration of the 10th anniversary of the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II’s coronation, a clock tower is built near the Grand Serail, Beirut, to make up for the absence of a public clock indicating mandatory Muslim prayer times especially as many foreign institutions had built Western-style clock towers.
1898 - 1899 Romania Travelling
Bazil G. Assan is the first Romanian to go on an expedition around the world, taking the route Constan#a–Istanbul–Cairo–Ceylon–China–Japan–Pacific Ocean– USA–Europe.
1898 Italy Political Context
Anarchist Gaetano Bresci kills the King Umberto I, in revenge for the protesters killed in Milan in 1898. Victor Emanuel III becomes King of Italy.
1898 United Kingdom Political Context
Sudan is in possession of the Egyptians until a Sudanese revolt under the Mahdi severs the connection. It is brought back to Anglo-Egyptian rule with a military conquest led by an Egyptian army officered by the British. Control of Sudan facilitated British colonial expansion in Sub-Saharan Africa.
1898 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Shahin Pasha Aqueduct, constructed under Muhammad ‘Ali and located between the Omar Shah and Tukuz Tamar (Darb el-Jamamiz) aqueducts, is infilled with earth.
1898 - 1902 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The British begin construction of the first Dam across the Nile in 1898 and work continues to 1902. Opened on 10 December 1902, the Aswan Low Dam is a gravity (masonry) buttress dam on the Nile in Aswan.
1898 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
The lost of the last overseas territories causes a big crisis. It is the moment for important writers and intellectuals such as Unamuno and Joaquin Costa, all members of what is called "Generación del ‘98” (Generation of ’98) to analyse the reasons for the crisis and look critically at Spain's past and its future.
1898 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The teaching of astronomy as an individual science starts, taking advantage of the astronomy teaching experience acquired since 1837 at the Lisbon Polytechnic Date Country Theme School. This school was meant to provide training for cartography surveys and military preparation.
1898 Portugal Economy And Trade
Industrialist Alfredo da Silva refounds CUF (Companhia União Fabril), in Barreiro in the beginning of the 20th century. CUF produced soap, candles and vegetable oils, later becoming a leader of the fertilizer and other chemical products sector. Da Silva gave residential quarters and free education to all his employees nationwide.
1898 - 1917 Germany Rediscovering The Past
Foundation of the Deutsche-Orient Gesellschaft (DOG) in Berlin is to promote research in the field of “Oriental” archaeology and bring it to a wider audience. One of the first archaeological excavations undertaken by the DOG was in Babylon, with the discovery of the Ishtar Gate (now at the Museum of the Ancient Near East in Berlin). DOG was responsible for finds at Tell el-Amarna, the capital of the Pharaonic Empire where the famous bust of Queen Nefertiti was found (now at the Neues Museum). Kaiser Wilhelm II assumed patronage of DOG in 1901.
1898 - 1900 Germany Political Context
Development and rearmament (Aufrüstung) of the German Navy.
1898 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Ay#e S#d#ka (d.1903), the first female Ottoman pedagogue, publishes Usûl-i Talim ve Terbiye Dersleri (Lectures on Methods of Teaching and Education). She was the instructor for courses in geography, ethics and handicrafts at the Female Teachers’ Seminary in #stanbul.
1899 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
By 1899 private British, French and other European arms dealers import some 20,000 rifles into the Trucial Coast region and Oman annually.
1899 - 1904 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the new Synagogue in Rome (architects: Vincenzo Costa and Osvaldo Armanni), an imposing building of eclectic style, with decorative elements inspired by Assyro-Babylonian architecture.
1899 - 1920s Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of some remarkable Liberty-style buildings, such as the Villino Florio in Palermo and the new building of Palazzo Montecitorio (seat of the Italian Chamber of Deputies in Rome), both by Ernesto Basile, some pavilions for the 1902 national exhibition in Turin, and the small Coppedè neighbourhood in Rome. Overall, however, Liberty style leaves a smaller mark on Italian cities than eclecticism.
1899 Italy Economy And Trade
In Turin, Giovanni Agnelli founds the car factory FIAT. Date Country Theme
1899 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Prince Muhammad ‘Ali Tawfiq is responsible for opening the Al-Manyal Palace Museum in 1899, which is set in a large garden of thirty feddans (approx 31 acres).
1899 Egypt Economy And Trade
The National Bank of Egypt introduces notes in denominations of 50 piasters, and one, five, ten, 50 and 100 Egyptian pounds.
1899 Egypt Migrations
British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt.
1899 Egypt Travelling
British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes is appointed Undersecretary of State for Finance in Egypt.
1900 - 1920 Tunisia Fine And Applied Arts
Art Nouveau marks the city’s landscape.
1900 - 1910 Tunisia Migrations
The colonial era: social and cultural life are organised around Europeans striving for modernity and accustomed to the cultural life of European cities; hence construction of theatres, hotels, casinos, etc.
1900s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
British records note that an industry of weaving fine sheep’s-wool ‘aba’ (cloaks) had been developed in Sharjah but, as insufficient quantities were being made to meet local demand, they were also imported from Bahrain and al-Ahsa. Most of the cloth used in the Trucial States at the time was imported from India and elsewhere.
1900s - 1915 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Reforms And Social Changes
Media from Egypt and India critical of British politics penetrates the Trucial Coast. The Cairo-based newspapers Al-Mu’ayyad and Al-Liwa have numerous subscribers on the Trucial Coast.
1900 Romania International Exhibitions
At the International Exposition in Paris, Romania has four pavilions, the central one designed by French architect Jean-Camille Formigé.
1900 Romania Travelling Date Country Theme
Al. Saabner-Tuduri publishes a book on the Mineral Waters and the Spas of Romania, the first paper about Romanian balneology, which used to be a very important component of Romanian tourism.
1900 France Economy And Trade
The first line of the Paris Metro is built for the second Universal Exhibition.
1900 France International Exhibitions
The World Fair in Paris as the symbol of the Belle Époque with its theme “the balance of a century”. The exhibition bequeaths to Paris several buildings including the Petit Palais and the Grand Palais.
1900 France Reforms And Social Changes
The law on the working conditions of women and children (Millerand Law) decreases the working day to 11 hours.
1900 Lebanon Migrations
A group of about a dozen Lebanese, dissatisfied with the dismal prospect of earning a livelihood from the stubborn northern Lebanese soil, set out to stake their claim on the mythical riches in the new land of Australia.
1900 - 1908 Jordan Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Hijaz Railway is developed by ‘Abd al-Hamid II (1876–1908) for various reasons, not least of which is to strengthen the Empire’s control in an area that is the only window for the Ottomans to trade with the Far East after the British took control of the major international trade routes (Suez Canal and Arab-Persian Gulf). Supported by Germany, which is seeking control in this area to oppose the British, work on the project, and inauguration of stations coincides with the annual anniversary of the Sultan’s accession on 1 September. The line reaches Amman in 1903, Ma’an in 1904 and Mudawwara in 1906. The 1,450 km railway reaches Medina in 1908.
1900 - 1909 Italy Economy And Trade
Annual per capita income increases by 18.5% during the decade because of industrialisation.
1900 Italy International Exhibitions
In the 19th and 20th centuries, Italian companies participate in many international exhibition, such as the 1900 Paris World Fair.
1900 - 1909 Italy Migrations
Italians who had migrated to the USA, Argentina and Brazil repatriate to Italy in large numbers during the 1900s: the annual average is 119,857 from the USA; 31,712 from Argentina; 19,864 from Brazil. Date Country Theme
1900 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Law on “state quinine” passed: in order to fight malaria, the state will produce quinine and sell it at a low price not only in the 5,000 pharmacies, but also in the 27,000 tobacconists.
1900 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Birth of the celebrated poet Mubarak bin Saif al-Nakhi in Sharjah.
1900 Greece Fine And Applied Arts
Foundation of the National Gallery in Athens. Its chief curator is the acclaimed painter Georgios Iakovidis.
1900 Egypt Travelling
On a visit to Britain, ‘Abbas Hilmi II tells the authorities that he thinks the British have carried out good work in Egypt. He declares himself ready to cooperate with British officials administering Egypt and Sudan.
1900 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
By this year Portugal has 8,345 km of telegraphic lines and 443 telegraphic stations. The telegraph is an urban phenomenon hand in hand with city development. Due to the demand for telegraphic operators, several schools were created. Submarine cables assured the telegraphic service between Portugal and the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and Africa.
1900 Portugal International Exhibitions
At the Paris “Exposition Universelle et Internationale”, the Portuguese pavilion is called “Portugal and Portuguese Overseas Colonies”. Inside, on the ground floor, are two main exhibitions: one on the works of João Vaz (1859–1931) painter of harbours and fishing scenes, the other on natural forest products such as cork.
1900 - 1909 Italy Migrations
Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 57,000; USA 233,000; Argentina 73,000; Brazil 30,000.
1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The establishment of the beneficence “Nobel Prize” by Alfred Nobel.
1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Planck’s Law, which describes electromagnetic radiation.
1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin invents the zeppelin, a steerable airship. Date Country Theme
1900 Turkey International Exhibitions
As if to compensate for its absence from the Paris 1878 and 1889 exhibitions, the Ottoman government spends a considerable sum on the pavilion for the Paris Internation Exhibition of 1900, designed by the French architect Adrien-René Dubuisson.
1901 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Russian Steam Navigation and Trading Company begin commercial and passenger operations in the Gulf.
1901 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo paints The Fourth Estate, showing workers on strike. The painting will become an icon of the workers’ movement.
1901 Italy Migrations
Comprehensive law on migration creates the Commissariato generale per l’emigrazione and introduces other measures aimed at ensuring migrants’ welfare, such as medical inspections on boats.
1901 - 1910 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Giacomo Puccini consolidates his reputation. He develops a very personal language that is deeply rooted in the Italian melodic tradition, despite his attention to international trends and his choice of exotic subjects (Madama Butterfly, La fanciulla del West, Turandot).
1901 - 1914 Italy Political Context
Almost uninterrupted rule by Giovanni Giolitti, who allows more freedom of action to trade unions, introduces some social reforms and makes some openings for Socialists and Catholics.
1901 Italy Travelling
Liguria (the region of Genoa) is the Italian region with the highest number of foreigners (12,000). It has a mild climate that attracts foreigners escaping north Europe’s harsh climate for health reasons. All through the 19th and early 20th centuries, many foreigners affected by tuberculosis and other illness resided in Italy for extended periods.
1901 - 1903 Greece Political Context
Under the leadership of King Constantine I and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, Greece defeats the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria during the Balkan Wars.
1901 Greece Economy And Trade Date Country Theme
The Greek Chamber of Commerce is founded in Alexandria, Egypt, with Emmanouil Benakis as its president.
1901 United Kingdom Travelling
Age 42, a young and energetic Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon, visits the Arab Gulf sheikhdoms to confirm treaties of British protection of them, a policy that prevails until 1970.
1901 United Kingdom Political Context
The British Viceroy, Lord Curzon, visits the sheikhdoms of the Gulf to confirm treaties of protection that exclude other European powers. Iraq and Arabia fall under a British- Indian sphere of influence with the Indian rupee as the principal currency. Curzon’s policy lasts until 1970.
1901 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces
Otto Wagner designs and overseas construction of the Viennese metro, the Wiener Stadtbahn.
1901 - 1909 Saudi Arabia Political Context
Under the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid, the Hijaz Railway is built, running from Istanbul to the Medina (Madinah) province.
1901 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)
One of the founders of Macedonian modern art, Lazar Lichenoski (d. 1964) is born in Galichnik. After graduating from Belgrade Art School he attended prestigeous art schools in Paris. He is best known for his landscapes, which reveal the harmonious beauty of nature through endless views from the peak of Bistra Mountain. Lichenoski introduced expressionism in Macedonian art.
1901 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
31 August: Inauguration of the first electric tram route in Lisbon, connecting Cais do Sodré to Ribamar (Algés). The more efficient electric tramway, with tracks, overhead power lines and the construction of Santos Central Power Station, replaces the popular “Americanos” horse-drawn trams of Lisbon.
1901 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
The Sociedade Promotora de Belas Artes (1861) and the Grémio Artístico (1890) created by the Grupo do Leão (1880) merge into the National Society of Fine Arts (SNBA) headed by Malhoa Columbano and António Ramalho. In Porto, the Centro Artístico Portuense (CAP) (founded in 1870) did not survive the death of the painter Silva Porto in 1903.
1901 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Posthumous publication of the Livro de Cesário Verde, a compilation of the poetry of Cesário Verde (1855–86) by his friend, Silva Pinto, author of the Preface. An Date Country Theme original poet who described a world previously unknown to poetry, Cesário Verde completely modernised the traditional style of the Portuguese lyricism.
1901 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces
Izmir Clock Tower is built to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Abdülhamid II’s accession to the throne. It is designed by Levantine French architect Raymond Charles Père.
1902 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
The Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral agree by Treaty to prohibit the import of arms into their territories.
1902 Italy International Exhibitions
First International Exhibition of Modern Decorative Arts in Turin, featuring the best production of architecture, furniture and applied arts.
1902 - 1903 Italy Rediscovering The Past
The Italian state buys the 15th-century building of Villa Borghese in Rome and the park around it, including the astounding collection of paintings and sculptures that the villa housed. The villa will be transformed into the Borghese Gallery and Museum.
1902 - 1909 Italy Rediscovering The Past
First Italian national laws on the protection of cultural heritage. The new laws establish the principle of inalienability of national heritage and create a state administration (with national and local branches) dedicated to caring for cultural heritage.
1902 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Legislation passed prohibiting children under the age of 12 from working, women from working in mines and under-age women from working at night. First provisions for maternity leave (four weeks after delivery).
1902 - 1920 Saudi Arabia Political Context
In 1902, age 19, King ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman, along with a small army, returns to Riyad to reclaim his family legacy. Managing to take Riyad, ‘Abd al- Rahman then begins to unify modern Saudi Arabia.
1902 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)
Birth of writer Stale Popov in Melnca, Mariovo Region. He began writing early immortalising tales from Macedonian folk tradition about Itar Pejo (Smart Pejo). He achieved eminence after publication of his first novel Patchwork Life. His talent lay in introducing themes from social life. His other well-known novels are Kalesh Angja and Tole Pasha. Date Country Theme
1902 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
Opening of Santa Justa Lift, an iconic example of iron architecture. Planned since 1874, it was designed to bridge the 25 metre gap in height between Ouro and Carmo streets, thus making pedestrian traffic between Lisbon’s hills easier. The inauguration of the gangway by King Carlos I is held on 10 July.
1902 Portugal Travelling
Inauguration of the Escola de Medicina Tropical de Lisboa (Lisbon Academy of Tropical Medicine), founded like its European counterparts to provide specialised training, spread knowledge and undertake field research. One of its main subjects was sleeping sickness for whose treatment the Academy undertook five field missions (1904–11) to São Tomé and Mozambique.
1902 Lebanon Rediscovering The Past
Opening of the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut. It is the third oldest museum in the Mashriq, after those in Cairo and Istanbul.
1902 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Naz#m Hikmet Ran, famous Turkish poet, playwright and novelist, is born.
1903 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
British Viceroy and Governor-General of India, Lord Curzon, visits the Trucial sheikhs at Sharjah to reaffirm Britain’s commitment to “guardianship and protection” and the British Government’s position as “your overlords and protectors”. Curzon asserts that continued British control of India depends on maintaining British supremacy in the Gulf.
1903 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
The Wiener Werkstätte, an association of designers such as Joseph Hofmann and Koloman Moser is founded, covering all aspects of design from fashion to furniture.
1903 Serbia Political Context
A military coup brings about restitution of the Kara#or#evi# Dynasty.
1903 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
The House of Arab Antiquities opens on 28 December 1903, located on Bab al- Khalq Square which is famous for its Islamic infrastructure: the mosques of Ahmad ibn Tulun and Muhammad ‘Ali, and the Citadel of Saladin. The Museum is only the second concrete-iron building to be constructed after the Egyptian Museum.
1903 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)
A founder of contemporary Macedonian art, Nikola Martinoski is born in Krushevo (d. 1973). He learned painting in the Skopje workshop of the icon painter Dimitar Date Country Theme Andonov, and in Bucharest and Paris. His distinctive expressionist style depicts social themes and portraits, influenced by Macedonian frescos and the modern Parisian school. His outstanding work is the painting "Mother and Child".
1903 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)
The Slav-Macedonian Scientific Literary Society, also known as the St Petersburg Colony, is established. It plays an important role in the national awakening of Macedonians and raising the issue of the independence of Macedonia within the international community.
1903 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)
Publication in Sofia of On Macedonian Matters by Krste Petkov Misirkov (1874– 1926). This book was a starting point in explaining factors about Macedonian people as a distinct nation and laid the foundations of the Macedonian modern language and grammar.
1903 Germany Rediscovering The Past
A large part of the richly ornamented south facade of Qasr al-Mushatta – one of the most important works of early Islamic architecture – was presented as a gift from the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II to Emperor Wilhelm II and transported from Jordan to Berlin via rail and sea.
1903 Austria Political Context
The young King Alexander of Serbia is brutally murdered in an officers’ conspiracy in June. The replacement of the pro-Austrian Obrenovi# Dynasty by the pro- Russian House of Kara#or#evi# under Peter I, changes the balance of power in the Balkans.
1904 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Theodor Herzl, founder of the Zionist movement, dies.
1904 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936), Italian dramatist, novelist, poet and short story writer, publishes the novel Il fu Mattia Pascal. In 1934, he will be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
1904 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Law on free distribution of quinine to peasants and workers in malaria-infested areas.
1904 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
First general strike at a national level held as a protest at police violence against workers (in repeated instances, the police had opened fire against workers on strike, killing several of them). Date Country Theme
1904 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
First performance of Leoš Janá#ek’s (1854–1928) opera Janufa.
1904 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
The Egyptian Geological Museum (EGM) is established and opened to the public as part of the Egyptian Geological Survey (EGS), founded earlier in 1896. The Museum supports the theses that Egyptians are pioneers in extraction and utilization of metals and stones, the essential basics of civilization, and that they were the first to discover gold and copper and mine them from the Eastern Desert and Sinai.
1904 - 1912 Spain Political Context
After the loss of its last colonies, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines, Spain focuses on North Africa in the framework of the colonial interests of other European powers such as France, the UK and Germany. After different international talks and agreements – Spanish–French Agreement (1904), Algeciras Conference (1906), Cartagena Declarations (1907) – Spain and France sign in November 1912 the Treaty establishing the French and Spanish Protectorates in Morocco.
1904 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
Avenida Ressano Garcia, a main residential area and development axis opens in the north of Lisbon as part of the “Avenidas Novas” plan. Part of a later phase of the Lisbon Improvements Plan, led by Frederico Ressano Garcia, it also included sanitation improvement. Today the street is known as Avenida da República.
Around 1914 - 1918 Germany Economy And Trade
In 1914 Germany becomes the biggest industrial nation within Europe as a result of munitions production before and during World War I.
1904 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Publication of Max Weber’s The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber is known as the originator of social science.
1905 - 1907 Romania Travelling
The construction of the seaside resort Mamaia, on the shore of the Black Sea, which became and remains one of the most popular Romanian resorts.
1905 France Reforms And Social Changes
On 29 June, the working day for minors is reduced to eight hours.
1905 Italy Economy And Trade
Nationalisation of the railways.
1905 Italy Travelling Date Country Theme
The Automobile Club d’Italia is founded.
1905 Morocco Political Context
Emperor Wilhelm II visits Tangiers on 3 March 1905, keen to prevent diplomatic isolation of his country and to safeguard Germany’s economic interests.
1905 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
The Egyptian Olympic Athletes Club is built in Alexandria.
1905 Republic of Macedonia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century (FYROM)
The first film in the Balkans is shot by the Manaki brothers. Pioneers of Macedonian film, Janaki (1878–1945) and Milton (1880–1964) shot their first film only 10 years after the Lumiere Brothers. It shows their grandmother Despina spinning wool. Their first film of ethnographic value was shot soon after. It documents celebration of the feast of Sts Cyril and Methodius in front of the church devoted to these saints in Bitola.
1905 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)
Publication of the journal Autonomous Macedonia begins in Belgrade. This attempt to propagate the idea of an independent state initiated by Grigorie Tashkovic ends after only a few issues.
1905 - 1916 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Physician Albert Einstein formulates his Theory and publishes Relativity: The Special and General Theory.
1905 Germany Migrations
Foundation of the German field-workers central office (Deutsche Feldarbeiter Zentralstelle; later Deutsche Arbeitszentrale), initiated by the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture, in order to control work-based migration to Germany.
1906 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past
The Archaeological Museum of Sfax is established in one of the city’s hotels.
1906 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The German Hamburg–America Line offers a steamer service between Europe and the Gulf.
1906 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
18 March: Romanian pilot and inventor Traian Vuia tests in France (near Paris) his heavier-than-air, fully self-propelled, fixed-wing aircraft. The plane leaves the Date Country Theme ground and flies at a height of 1 m for a distance of about 12 m, but the engine cuts out and it comes down.
1906 France Reforms And Social Changes
Introduction of a compulsory weekly rest period of 24 hours (voted on 3 July).
1906 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Simplon Tunnel between Domodossola (Italy) and Brig (Switzerland) inaugurated. The construction works had started in 1898. At the time, it was the longest tunnel in the world (19.7 km).
1906 Italy International Exhibitions
International Exhibition in Milan to celebrate the opening of the Simplon Tunnel. The main focus is on transport. There are 35,000 exhibitors, coming from dozens of different countries, and more than 5 million visitors.
1906 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Italian poet Giosuè Carducci (1835–1907) is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
1906 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Sibilla Aleramo (pseudonym of Rina Faccio, 1876–1960) publishes Una donna (A woman), a fictionalised memoir that describes a woman’s desperate struggle to assert her individuality in a male-dominated society. The book is considered a feminist manifesto.
1906 Italy Rediscovering The Past
Ethnographer Lamberto Loria (1855–1913) creates an Ethnography Museum in Florence.
1906 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
The Confederazione Generale del Lavoro (CGL – national confederation of trade unions) is founded. Argentina Altobelli becomes Secretary General of the Farm Workers Union (the first woman to become national union leader).
1906 Greece Travelling
The Intercalated or Olympic Games are held in Athens. An international multi-sport event, many people consider them to be the Olympic Games. The International Olympic Committee refers to them as the “Second International Olympic Games in Athens”.
1906 Morocco Political Context
The Algeciras Conference of 1906 endorses the intervention of Western powers in Morocco, granting special rights to both Spain and France. Date Country Theme
1906 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
Opening of the Lyceu Maria Pia, Lisbon, the first secondary school for girls. Though planned since 1887, female access to secondary level education faced lengthy resistance from Parliament. In 1888 the government was authorised to set up girls’ secondary schools run by district, municipal and charitable entities in Lisbon, Porto and Coimbra.
1906 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Alois Alzheimer describes a type of dementia, Alzheimer’s, for the first time.
1906 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
In celebration of the 30th year of ‘Abd al-Hamid II as sultan of the Ottoman Empire, the Tell Clock Tower is erected in Tripoli as a gift to the city. It is similar to the Jaffa Clock Tower and many others throughout the Empire.
1906 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
Hotel Kadri is built in Zahlé. In 1914 it is taken over by the Turkish army and used as a military headquarters.
1906 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Ottoman government decides to build the Electric Tramway Station in Beirut. The electric tramway passes through Beirut on seven tram lines built in 1891 heading to the coast and linking Beirut and Mameltein.
1906 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The second railway in Lebanon is opened connecting with the first line at Riyaq and running to Aleppo, connecting it with Beirut.
1907 - 1912 Tunisia Political Context
The Young Tunisians found the first French-language newspaper Le Tunisien. Echoes of their militant action are seen in the riots of Djellaz on 11 November 2011 and the tramway accident on 8 February 1912.
1907 Lebanon Travelling
Khalil Pasha (1864–1923), commander of the Turkish Sixth Army during World War I orders the creation of the Hamidi Public Garden, which later becomes the Sanayeh Garden. It is one of the oldest public open-air spaces in the capital.
1907 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Introduction of the general equal franchise means that all Austrian male citizens have the right to vote for members of the parliament; prior to 1907 only males paying a minimum amount of tax were allowed a vote.
1907 Morocco Political Context Date Country Theme
Colonial rivalries: the Moroccan crisis brings about a new raft of trade agreements between the English and the French, with the participation of the Spanish, sharing out Morocco and Egypt, which is greeted with dismay by Moroccans.
1907 - 1912 Morocco Political Context
A series of incidents provoke the intervention of the French army when in August 1907 the French land in Casablanca and occupy Oujda, Casablanca and Fez, despite opposition from Germany.
1907 Spain International Exhibitions
Colonial Exhibition in Paris. After the success of the first international exhibition known as the Great Exhibition in London in 1851, international exhibitions become more specialised as colonial exhibitions from 1866. These exhibitions, held in European cities until 1948, depict life in the colonial territories.
1907 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of the Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas (JAE) (Board for Advanced Studies and Research), a public institution founded to provide scholarships for Spanish university students to attend European universities. Intended to promote contact with European culture and science, this public programme created a basis for reforms needed in education, culture and science. The JAE, ideologically related to the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Free Institution for Education), was abolished by Franco’s government in 1938 and replaced by the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC – Higher Council for Scientific Research) in 1939.
1907 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)
Gjorgji Zografski paints what is considered to be the earliest depiction of an actual historic event. It shows the plundering raid on the village of Papradishte near Veles that occurred in 1884.
1907 - 1920 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
In Aveiro, art nouveau buildings are associated with a local middle class looking for cultural and social status. Some are “brasileiros”, coming back from Brazil to their homeland, and investors in trade and industrial businesses, thus contributing to local economic development. The art nouveau of Aveiro is inspired by French patterns.
1908 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
The School of Pasha Street, the first school for Muslim girls, opens in Tunis.
1908 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces
The population of Sharjah has reached around 19,000 inhabitants. The suq boasts some 200 shops, with a multicultural mix of local and resident merchants, pearl traders, and trade-related professionals originating from as far away as India and Date Country Theme East Africa. The Emirate of Sharjah as a whole is estimated as having around 45,500 inhabitants at this time.
1908 France Reforms And Social Changes
Manifestation of French suffragettes for women’s right to vote.
1908 Greece Fine And Applied Arts
An exhibition by members of the Omada Technis (Art Group), which includes Nikolaos Lytras, Konstantinos Parthenis, Konstantinos Malea and others, reacts to the conservative academicism of the Munich school.
1908 Portugal Political Context
1 February: The assassination of King Carlos I and his heir-apparent Prince Royal Luis Filipe in Terreiro do Paço in central Lisbon, fomented by, among other things, the King’s appointment of João Franco as head of government in 1906; with the King’s consent he set up a dictatorship one year later. Queen Amelia and Prince Manuel escape and the prince is enthroned as King Manuel II.
1908 Germany Political Context
Austria-Hungary annexes the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following international protests, Germany shows solidarity with Austria.
Since 1908 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Women are admitted to study at German universities.
1908 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Hijaz Railway is opened.
1908 Turkey Political Context
4 July: Young Turk Revolution.
1908 Turkey Political Context
23 July: The Constitution of 1876 is restored and the Committee of the Union and Congress (CUP) takes control over the administration.
1908 Austria Political Context
The Austrian Government proclaims the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the evacuation of Austrian troops from the Sanjak on 6 October. The Austrian annexation then escalates into a major international crisis, which sees Serbia’s future hope to establish a Yugoslav empire shattered.
1909 France Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme
On 7 December the law is passed guaranteeing the payment of wages at regular intervals (every 15 days for workers, every month for employees).
1909 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
Filippo Marinetti publishes the Futurist Manifesto in Le Figaro.
1909 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (b. Alexandria, Egypt, 1876, d. Bellagio, Italy, 1944) publishes the Futurist Manifesto. The Futurist artistic movement emphasised speed, energy, vitality, and the power of machine and technology. Marinetti also glorified violence and war, which he considered “the world’s only hygiene”.
1909 United Kingdom International Exhibitions
Heliopolis, Egypt, in this year, sees one of the first aviation exhibitions with an “Aviation Week”. While, initially, aviation was a sport, during World War I it became a weapon. It is only after the end of the war that aviation starts to be used as a form of “mass” transport for the wealthy.
1909 Egypt Economy And Trade
Trading had hardly started that day (30 April) at Shari‘ al-Borsa al-Jadida or New Bourse Street when it was announced that Raphael Suares, the leading laissez- faire banker-industrialist in Egypt, had passed away. The Bourse closed for the rest of the day. It was largely thanks to Saures’ efforts that Cairo had a bourse in the first place. His unexpected and early death meant that Suares missed by only a few months the imposition of the first ever bourse regulations.
1909 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts
A Turkish group of painters, Association of Ottoman Painters, is founded by students from the Fine Arts Academy in #stanbul.
1909 Turkey Political Context
The 31 March Incident (31 Mart Vakas#/Olay# or Hadisesi) is a rebellion on 13 April (31 March in official Rumi calendar) in Constantinople against restoration of the constitutional system. It is the culmination of the Ottoman countercoup that attempted to end the Second Constitutional Era in the empire and the newly established influence of the Committee of Union and Progress in order to reaffirm Abdülhamid II as absolute monarch.
1909 Turkey Political Context
27 April: Unseating of Sultan Abdülhamid II and accession of Sultan Mehmed V.
1910 Romania Rediscovering The Past
27 April: the establishment of the Historical Commission of Romania, which is intended to publish critical editions of the Romanian medieval chronicles. Date Country Theme
1910 - 1920 France Migrations
The Spanish community is France’s most important.
1910 France Reforms And Social Changes
On 28 December, the Act establishing the Labour Code is passed.
1910 - 1912 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Maternity fund for female workers established. Voluntary pension fund established.
1910 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces
When Adolf Loos designs the Michaelaplatz in Vienna for the textile company Goldman & Salatsch, unusually, there is no ornamentation around the windows.
1910 Spain International Exhibitions
“Meisterwerke muhammedanischer Kunst” (Masterpieces of Islamic Art) exhibition in Munich displaying more than 3,600 artefacts. The exhibition gives Islamic art and archaeology a new push in the academic world and is considered a turning point in the orientalist view of and romantic passion for Islamic art and culture.
1910 Portugal Political Context
The Republic is proclaimed in Lisbon on 5 October. King Manuel II is forced to exile in England together with his mother Queen Amelia who ends up in her homeland France. A Provisional Government is set up, headed by Teófilo Braga, a well- known respected jurist and writer. The new cabinet ruled until the first republican Constitution was enacted.
1910 - 1919 Italy Migrations
Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 44,000; USA 157,000; Argentina 32,000; Brazil 13,000.
1910 Germany International Exhibitions
A groundbreaking exhibition on Islamic art opens in Munich, “Ausstellung von Meisterwerken Muhammedanischer Kunst”.
1911 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
The Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral sign a Treaty with the British that enjoins them to request permission from the British Resident in the Arabian Gulf prior to responding to foreign requests for pearling or sponge-fishing rights along the Trucial Coast.
1911 Lebanon Travelling Date Country Theme
A private residence in Beirut’s Zokak el-Blat quarter is turned into the Robert Muawad private museum, presenting precious collection of fine arts and antique pieces.
1911 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
In Rome, inauguration of the neoclassical monument to King Victor Emanuel II (built after clearing the Capitol Hill area of medieval buildings) and of the new building for the National Gallery of Modern Art, built for the Fine Arts International Exhibitions, combining elements of different styles (neoclassical, neo-Renaissance, Liberty).
1911 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Italy is the first country to use a plane in war (the Italo-Turkish war, for the conquest of Libya). Planes cannot carry heavy weights, so the pilot carries in his pocket 1 kg bombs that he drops manually.
1911 Italy International Exhibitions
To celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of Italian unification, international exhibitions are organized in Rome, Florence and Turin.
1911 - 1912 Italy Political Context
Italo-Turkish war: Italy gains possession of Libya and the Dodecanese Islands.
1911 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Alexandrian poet Constantine P. Cavafy publishes his poem Ithaca.
1911 Portugal Political Context
April: First Republican Constitution enacted. Manuel de Arriaga is elected as the first President. It is believed that the Republic will address the economic crisis and promote progress. Though bringing together political forces, the regime is too vague to achieve the necessary economic and social reforms and soon ends up in political fragmentation and infighting.
1911 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
The painters Dórdio Gomes (1890–1976) and Guilherme de Santa Rita (1889– 1918) introduce modernism in Portugal. Largely unaccepted by the critics, as was happening in other European countries, the main focus of the modernists was to fight against the conservatism of techniques and themes still cherished by Portuguese art consumers.
1911 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
28 May: Carolina Beatriz Angelo (1878–1911), a gynaecologist, succeeds in voting in the 1911 elections. Challenged at the poll because she is a woman and therefore ineligible to vote, she insists, replying that she is “a doctor, over 21 and Date Country Theme head of a family” and therefore she fulfils all the conditions required to vote. The electoral law is revised soon after this event.
1911 Portugal Travelling
12–20 May: The 4th International Congress of Tourism is held in Lisbon organised in collaboration with the Sociedade de Propaganda (founded 1906). Before the end of the meeting (18 May), the provisional government of the newly proclaimed Portuguese Republic (5 October 1910) creates a Bureau of Tourism at the Ministério do Fomento (Ministry of Development).
1911 - 1913 Germany Rediscovering The Past
The international reputations of the Orientalist, archaeologist and investigator of inscriptions Ernst Herzfeld and art historian Friedrich Sarre were assured when they found 8,000-year old (6th-century) painted pottery known as Samarra-Ware. Some of these finds from Samarra are in the Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin.
1911 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Foundation of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft (later Max-Planck-Gesellschaft).
1911 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
In the reign of Yusuf Pasha, the train station in Beirut begins operating and is connected to the Syrian city of Homs with a single track. From the 1920s to the 1940s It formed the terminus of the Orient Express line.
1912 - 1920 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
Giorgio de Chirico’s first metaphysical paintings (L’enigma dell’ora, 1912; Le muse inquietanti, 1916; Ettore e Andromaca, 1917; Il Grande Metafisico, 1917).
1912 Italy Economy And Trade
Law establishes state monopoly of life insurance and creates the Istituto nazionale delle assicurazioni (INA).
1912 Italy Political Context
The right to vote is extended to all men above the age of 30 (or aged 21 if they completed primary school). The Pope allows Catholics to vote.
1912 - 1913 Greece Political Context
The Treaty of Sèvres is ratified after the victory of the Balkan Wars and the end of World War I. Consequently, Greece gains administration of the area of Smyrna.
1912 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Italian writer Scipio Slataper publishes his autobiography in which he describes the multinational character of the Littoral (the countryside around his home in Trieste). Date Country Theme
1912 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Jaroslav Hašek (1883–1923) publishes his parody on the Austrian army, The Good Soldier Švejk.
1912 Morocco Political Context
Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz is deposed and replaced by his brother Mulay ‘Abd al-Hafiz (1908–12), who is proclaimed ruler in Marrakesh on 6 August 1907. He was then obliged to sign the treaty establishing the protectorate in Fez on 20 March 1912.
1912 Morocco Political Context
In November 1912 the Madrid Convention makes northern Morocco a Spanish protectorate.
1912 - 1913 Serbia Political Context
The First Balkan War begins in October 1912 between Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire; Montenegro is accused of igniting it by attacking Skadar. At the request of Turkey, an armistice is concluded in December 1912. Negotiations in London fail and the war continues into 1913. A Peace Treaty is signed in London in May 1913. Turkey surrenders all territories west of the Enos- Midija. The Serbian Navy withdraws from the sea; in November 1912, Albania is formed due to Austrian pressure.
1912 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Bulaq Abu-l-‘Ala Bridge is inaugurated during the reign of Khedive ‘Abbas Hilmi II. It is seen as an architectural marvel that will link Cairo with Zamalek Island.
1912 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Muhammad Husayn Haykal publishes the first volume of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He intended the book to create a cultural intermarriage between the East and West and hoped it would lead to a new intellectual revolution by providing an example to the West.
1912 Spain Fine And Applied Arts
Foundation of the Museo Nacional de Artes Decorativas, an important step in the progress of applied arts and design, especially because its main objective is the education of workers, students and the public in the styles, decoration and other aspects of the applied arts.
1912 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)
First publication of the Macedonian and Russian language journal Makedonski Golos (Macedonian Voice). Krste Petkov Misirkov and Dimitrija Chupovski, central figures of the Slav-Macedonian Scientific Literary Society, were largely responsible for its publishing. Date Country Theme
1912 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first Portuguese experimental psychology laboratory is created in the new Faculty of Humanities of the University of Coimbra by Professor Joaquim Augusto Alves dos Santos (1866–1924). The laboratory enabled the development of research on knowledge and memory and had a major impact on pedagogy and republican didactics.
1912 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
A reaction to academic teaching of the National Society of Fine Arts (SNBA) emerges in 1911 with the first free exhibition of young modernist painters. This is highlighted in the first Exhibition of the Humoristas of 1912, which includes painters Cristiano Cruz, Almada Negreiros, Eduardo Viana, Stuart de Carvalhais, José Pacheko and Emmerico Nunes and sculptor Diogo de Macedo.
1912 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Paul Claudel's de L'Annonce faite à Marie opens at the Théâtre de l'Œuvre, a Symbolist theatre set up as a reaction to André Antoine’s “Naturalist” Théâtre Libre.
1912 - 1913 Turkey Migrations
Balkan Wars. Large wave of Muslims and Jews flee the Balkans for Ottoman lands to the south. This involuntary migration is estimated to involve 64,000 persons.
1913 Romania Political Context
In 1913 Romania participates in the Second Balkan War and under the Treaty of Bucharest receives the south of Dobruja from Bulgaria.
1913 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
Umberto Boccioni made the sculpture Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, considered a masterpiece of Italian Futurism.
1913 Italy Migrations
Italian migration reaches its peak: 870,000 Italians migrate abroad.
1913 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Grazia Deledda (1871–1936) publishes the novel Canne al vento. Thirteen years later, she will be awarded the Nobel Prize (the second woman to be Nobel laureate in literature).
1913 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Average life expectancy, which in 1861 was 30 years, is now 47 years.
1913 Austria Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
Egon Schiele (1890–1918) becomes a member of the Bund Österreichischer Künstler (Society of Austrian Artists).
1913 Serbia Political Context
The Second Balkan War begins due to a quarrel between Serbia and Bulgaria over the division of joint conquests. Bulgaria attacks Serbia and Greece in 1923; the Bulgarians are defeated on both fronts. Subsequently, Turkey and Romania declare war on Bulgaria and the Bulgarians soon request an armistice. The war ends with a Peace Treaty signed in Bucharest in August 1913. During the Balkan Wars, Serbia expands its territory by 39,500 square kilometres.
1913 - 1914 Portugal Political Context
Afonso Costa is appointed Prime Minister. Republican achievements fall short of people’s expectations, fuelling the resistance of monarchists, capitalists and landlords. Inflation, public debt, trade deficit, strikes, the rise of anarcho- syndicalism, middle-class disillusion, and fear of communism will invite the establishment of the 1915 military dictatorship.
1913 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
February–March: Amadeo Sousa Cardoso, at the invitation of Walter Pach (1883– 1958), exhibits eight works at the Armory Show (1st Show of European Art, USA) in New York, Chicago and Boston. The Chicago art collector Arthur J. Eddy acquires three paintings by Cardoso and promotes his work in his book Cubists and Post-Impressionism book, emphasising his colour techniques.
1913 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Marcel Proust’s Du côté de chez Swann.
1913 - 1917 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
The last palace (Cicilienhof) of the House of Hohenzollern (a dynasty of former princes, electors, kings and emperors) was built under Wilhelm II. The palace hosted the Conference of Potsdam in 1945.
1913 Turkey Political Context
23 July: Edirne retaken by the Ottoman Army under the command of Enver Pa#a.
1913 Turkey Political Context
23 January: Bab-# Ali coup d'état in the empire (Turkish: Bâb-# Âlî Bask#n#) results in Grand Vizier Kamil Pa#a being driven from power and replacement of Minister of War Naz#m Pa#a by #smail Enver. Effectively ending the London Peace Conference, it marks a significant point in the Ottoman government's progress towards centralisation, giving de facto power to the triumvirate known as the Three Pashas.
1914 Qatar Economy And Trade Date Country Theme
Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim regulates the activity of pearling. He issued and publishes the first written document on pearling activities identifying the start and the end dates of the season and the dividend rates of workers in pearling dhows.
1914s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
Around 1914, 80 per cent of the Trucial Coast’s labour force is involved in the wider pearling sector, including 950 major pearl merchants, 1,300 pearling ship-owners and some 21,000 general employees. The remainder are employed in agriculture, fisheries and other forms of commerce. Gulf pearling exports amount to 2 million pounds sterling.
1914 Romania Political Context
Death of King Carol I. As he only had one daughter, who died at the age of three, Ferdinand, his fraternal nephew, had been designated heir to the Romanian throne in 1880.
1914 Romania Rediscovering The Past
Vasile Pârvan initiates archaeological digs at Histria (Dobruja), the earliest documented city in the territory of Romania, and in 1915 discovers the ruins of the ancient Greek city Istros.
1914 France Reforms And Social Changes
The first French Doctorate in literature, Docteur en lettres, is received by a woman.
1914 - 1918 France Political Context
The First World War, which left millions dead in France, leaves a lasting impact on society.
1914 United Kingdom Political Context
War catches the people by surprise: British troops are fighting the Ottomans on three fronts. They are repelled at Gallipoli, pushed back in Southern Arabia, and British forces are captured in Iraq. By the end of the war these setbacks are reversed and Britain and her allies occupy Constantinople, Egypt, Iraq and the Levant.
1914 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Austrian expressionist writer Georg Trakl commits suicide following his experiences in battle during World War I.
1914 - 1918 Serbia Political Context
The duration of World War I.
1914 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
Laying of the Foundation Stone of the University of Fuad I. Date Country Theme
1914 Egypt Political Context
On 25 July, at the onset of World War I, ‘Abbas Hilmi II is in Constantinople where he suffers wounds to his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt. On 5 November of that same year, when Britain declares war on Turkey, ‘Abbas is accused of deserting his country because he did not return home forthwith. In addition, because the British believe that he has been plotting against their rule, when the Ottoman Empire joins the central powers in the war, Britain declares Egypt an independent Sultanate under British Protectorate on 18 December, and ‘Abbas is deposed.
1914 - 1920 Spain Economy And Trade
Due to Spain's neutrality in World War I, the economy witnesses increased production and industrial growth. The end of the war produces the beginning of a crisis that causes the end of the monarchy in 1931.
1914 Lebanon Political Context
The privileged position enjoyed by Lebanon is ended by the Ottomans in World War I: Lebanon’s semi-automous status is abolished and Mount Lebanon, an important territory at the international level, is put under martial law by the Ottomans. The Turkish commander Jamal Pasha occupies Lebanon militarily.
1914 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Welsh poet and writer Dylan Marlais Thomas is born in Swansea on 27 October 1914. His best known works include the poem “Do not go gentle into that good night” (1951) and the play for voices Under Milk Wood (written 1951, first broadcast 1954). In later life, Thomas encouraged his reputation as a “roistering, drunken and doomed poet”; dying prematurely in New York in 1953.
1914 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
With the outbreak of World War I, the modernist movement thrives in Portugal with the return from France of a group of avant-garde artists including the painters Manuel Bentes (1885–1961), Eduardo Viana (1881–1967), José Pacheko (1885– 1934) and Amadeo de Souza Cardoso, and the sculptors Diogo de Macedo (1889– 1959), and Francisco Franco (1885–1955).
1914 Germany Political Context
The heir apparent of Austria, Franz Ferdinand, is murdered in Sarajevo by a member of the Serbian intelligence service known as the “Black Hand”. As a consequence, the Austrian government issues an ultimatum to Serbia; Germany declares war on the Russian Empire and on France; and Great Britain declares war on the German Empire.
1914 - 1918 Germany Political Context
World War I is declared and fought.
1914 - 1918 Germany Migrations Date Country Theme
One in every ten members of the workforce in the German Empire is foreign (many of them prisoners of war).
1914 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
The School of Fine Arts for female students (#nâs Sanâyi-i Nefise Mektebi) is opened.
1914 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
A school for theatre (Dârülbedayi) is founded.
1914 Austria Political Context
On 28 June the heir-apparent Archduke Francis Ferdinand is shot in Sarajevo by a Bosnian youth of Serb origin.
1914 Austria Political Context
Austria declares war on Serbia in July: she is supported by Russia, France and Britain. Turkey and Bulgaria enter the war on the side of the German–Austrian Alliance.
1914 Turkey Political Context
29 October: German warships, officially designated as Ottoman vessels, shell Russian Black Sea ports, an action that leads the Ottoman Empire to enter World War I.
1915 Qatar Political Context
The Ottomans suddenly abandon Doha, leaving behind guns, shells and ammunition.
1915 - 1918 Italy Economy And Trade
When the war breaks out, the state takes a leading role in organising industrial production. Dramatic growth of steel, mechanic, chemical and textile productions. Workers in industries of strategic value are submitted to military discipline.
1915 - 1918 Italy Political Context
Italy participates in World War I on the side of the UK, France and Russia, despite widespread opposition to entering the war. On the Austrian front, Italy suffers a crushing defeat at Caporetto in 1917, but wins in 1918. In Libya, Arab revolt: Italy keeps control only of coastal towns. Casualties are 650,000 military deaths, 950,000 wounded, 600,000 prisoners of war or missing.
1915 Lebanon Political Context
Turkish commander Jamal Pasha initiates a blockade of the entire eastern Mediterranean coast. Lebanon witnesses thousands of deaths from widespread famine and plague. Date Country Theme
1915 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
In the 1910s several modernist painters such as Eduardo Viana rejected the current teaching of academic naturalism, still deeply rooted in the national taste. Their focus was the cubism, futurism and Dada movements in Paris, but also the Orphism of French painters Sonia and Robert Delaunay, living in Portugal in 1915– 16.
1915 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of the only two issues of Orpheu magazine, thanks to the contribution of the most gifted figures of the modernist group. Without anything specifically programmatic, the magazine shows an iconoclastic irreverence, seeking notoriety by scandalising those holding traditional attitudes and customs.
1915 Germany Migrations
Introduction of the Legitimationszwang in Prussia allows police to tag foreign workers and their German employers.
1915 Turkey Political Context
Allied forces occupy #stanbul (16 March); Greece occupies #zmir (15 May).
1916 Qatar Political Context
Treaty with the UK. This recognises Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim as the ruler of Qatar, and places the sheikhdom under British maritime protection.
1916 - 1918 Romania Political Context
After two years of neutrality, Romania fights in the World War I on the side of the Triple Entente. At the end of the war, following the dissolution of the Austro- Hungarian monarchy and of the Russian Empire, the national gatherings of Bessarabia, Transylvania, Banat and Bukovina vote for their union with the Romanian kingdom. Greater Romania is thus created.
1916 France Migrations
First Chinese immigration wave to France: 35,000 Chinese workers are recruited to France during World War I.
1916 Jordan Political Context
Sykes–Picot Agreement signed by the British, French and Russian governments on 16 May 1916 concerning the division of Ottoman lands in Greater Syria between the two colonial powers, the UK and France. According to this secret treaty southern Syria (Palestine and Jordan) and Iraq are to fall under British mandate and Syria and Lebanon under the French.
1916 - 1920 Jordan Political Context Date Country Theme
Supported by the UK, on 10 June 1916 Husayn ibn ‘Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, declares the Great Arab Revolt against the Turks with the aim of establishing an independent Arab state under his leadership in Bilad al-Sham (Greater Syria). Aqaba in Jordan is captured in 1917, becoming the headquarters of the northern army headed by Husayn’s son Prince Faysal, who becomes King of Syria in 1920. British promises to Sharif Husayn have contradicted other secret agreements of the UK with its allies, e.g. Sykes–Picot. These mandates put an end to the Arab Kingdom of Syria under King Faysal on 24 July 1920.
1916 United Kingdom Political Context
British interests in the Middle East are driven partly by the British Indian administration and partly by the strategic alliance with France. Mark Sykes for Britain and George Picot for France come to a diplomatic agreement to divide the Ottoman Levantine possessions for their respective countries. This conflicts with an earlier British promise of independence.
1916 - 1917 Saudi Arabia Political Context
The Arab Revolt begins on 10 June 1916 led by the Governor of Mecca (Makkah), Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali, and his sons, the amirs ‘Ali and Faisal. His forces seize the city of Riyad and force the small Ottoman garrison to seek refuge in the local fortress. Another of Husayn’s sons, Amir Abdallah, manages to surround and then take the town of Ta’if.
1916 - 1917 Saudi Arabia Political Context
Rebel clans allied to Sharif Husayn attack Jeddah (Jidda) and other seaports along the Arabian coast of the Red Sea.
1916 Saudi Arabia Political Context
By the end of July 1916, the seaports of Jeddah, Yanbu and Rabigh are in Arab hands. This allows the British to increase their supply of arms and equipment to the Arab forces fighting in the Hijaz.
1916 - 1917 Egypt Economy And Trade
More paper currency enters circulation: the 25 piaster together with the five and 10 piaster.
1916 Lebanon Political Context
Turkish authorities publicly execute 21 Syrians and Lebanese in Damascus and Beirut, respectively, for alleged anti-Turkish activities; the place of execution in each city will be renamed Martyrs' Square.
1916 Austria Political Context
Death of Emperor Francis Joseph and accession of Emperor Charles I to the Austro-Hungarian throne.
1916 Austria Political Context Date Country Theme
Romania declares war on the Central Powers: Germany, Austria and Bulgaria.
1916 Portugal Political Context
Germany declares war on Portugal. Portugal enters World War I, complying with international commitments in Europe and defending the Portuguese strategic possessions in Africa, mainly Angola and Mozambique. The Portuguese army fought on the western European Front and in the south of Angola (border with Namibia) and the north of Mozambique (Nevala).
1917 - 1920 France Cities And Urban Spaces
The planning and development of several cities in Morocco (Casablanca, Fez, Marrakech, Meknes and Rabat) are carried out by French architects.
1917 - 1918 Saudi Arabia Political Context
In June 1917 the coastal city of Aqaba in Jordan becomes the new base for Faisal’s army, renamed the “Arab Northern Army”. Attacks on the Hijaz Railway continue, extending now as far north as southern Jordan. T. E. Lawrence, “Lawrence of Arabia” himself led reconnaissance parties into Syria and made contact with Arab nationalists in Damascus. The spectacular victory of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) at the Third Battle of Gaza (Beersheba) in October 1917, and the subsequent British advance into the Jordan Valley, gave renewed impetus to Faisal’s “railway war” further east. Meanwhile, Amir Faisal, with Lawrence as his adviser, had captured the seaport of Wejh (al-Wagh) on the Red Sea, 150 km north of Yanbu. From there, Faisal’s men spent most of 1917 attacking the Hijaz Railway. Small raiding parties blew up sections of track, destroyed bridges, water towers and even some weakly defended railway stations. The British, planning to invade Palestine, were keen for the Arab rebels to keep the 12,000 Ottoman troops tied down in Medina (Madinah).
1917 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Strong cultural pressure at this time puts constraints on female performers. When the singer Munira al-Mahdiyya begins her career, she is the first female Muslim performer to appear onstage.
1917 Germany Political Context
The United States declares war on the German Empire.
1917 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The conservatoire (Dârülelhân) is founded.
1918 Lebanon Migrations
The Lebanese buy homes from the Italians and Jews, who are moving away. They learn about clothes, home improvements, insurance and credit. Businesses are branching out, with dry goods and notions business replaced by grocery stores, butcher shops, coffee houses and sales of farm produce from vehicles. Date Country Theme
1918 - 1919 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
600,000 die in the Spanish influenza pandemic.
1918 Greece Reforms And Social Changes
The General Confederation of Greek Workers (GSEE) is founded.
1918 - 1920 Saudi Arabia Political Context
Squabbling among the allies (those that had betrayed the Arab Revolution) delays the signing of the Peace Treaty with the Ottomans, which is being negotiated at Sèvres in France up until 10 August 1920. The Treaty confirmed French and British possession of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan and Iraq in the guise of League of Nations mandates. Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali is rewarded for his leadership of the Arab Revolt with international recognition of the Hijaz as an independent kingdom.
1918 Egypt Migrations
George Park begins building work on Alexandria Opera House, known also as Sayyid Darwish Theatre, which opens in 1921.
1918 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Najib al-Rihani introduces a new type of theatre known as Musical Theatre or Operette. Cooperating with the famous Egyptian singer and composer Sayyid Darwish and the actor and writer Badi‘ Khayri, together, they produce several successful Operettes.
1918 Spain Political Context
Spain's neutrality in World War I brings important economic upturn.
1918 Lebanon Political Context
British General Edmund Allenby and Faysal I, son of Sharif Husayn of Mecca, move into Palestine with British and Arab forces, thus opening the way for the occupation of Lebanon.
1918 Austria Political Context
The Peace (or Treaty) of Bucharest between Romania and Austria.
1918 Austria Political Context
Armistice between Austro-Hungary and the Entente Powers (France, Russia and the United Kingdom).
1918 Austria Political Context
Emperor Charles I renounces his participation to the government of Germany- Austria (Deutsch Österreich). The Austrian republic is founded in Vienna. Date Country Theme
1918 Germany Political Context
Woodrow Wilson declares his “14 points” program in front of Congress.
1918 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
The so-called November Revolution results in the withdrawal of Emperor Wilhelm II; the Council of People’s Deputies (SPD and USPD members) take over government.
1919 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past
At the Paris Peace conference held after the end of the World War I, the Ottoman provinces of Basra, Baghdad and Mosul are unified into Iraq, governed by Britain, under a League of Nations mandate. Gertrude Bell helps found the Iraq Museum (1926) and draft antiquities laws.
1919 France Reforms And Social Changes
The official working day is recognised as eight hours; the official working week is set at 48 hours.
1919 - 1920 Lebanon Economy And Trade
New currency is adopted when the Lebanese Bank is linked to the Syrian Bank.
1919 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Law 1176/1919 abolishes “marital authorisation” and allows women to practise most professions and to take up public employment. But some limitations on women working persist: they are still not allowed to become magistrates, diplomats and police officers or reach the highest grades in the civil service.
1919 - 1920 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
The “Two Red Years”: 2 million unemployed. Introduction of compulsory old- age, unemployment and disability insurances. High inflation and decrease of salaries. Intense workers’ mobilisation: strikes and occupations of land, factories and shipyards. Trade unions achieve minimum wage, 8-hour working day and recognition of factory commissions.
1919 Italy Political Context
Introduction of universal male suffrage and of an electoral system of proportional representation. The Popular Party (antecedent to the Christian Democrats) is founded. Mussolini creates the first Fascio di combattimento (embryo of the Fascist Party).
1919 Italy Travelling
The Ente nazionale per le industrie turistiche (ENIT – a state-funded body aimed at promoting tourism in Italy) is founded. In the last decades of the 19th century, local Date Country Theme associations and bodies aimed at promoting tourism started to be created, under public or private initiative.
1919 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Taha Husayn is appointed Professor of History at Fuad I University, where, through his own will and craving for knowledge, he becomes the leader of the Arab cultural renaissance.
1919 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
The 1919 Egyptian Revolution is a milestone, not only in terms of the nationalist struggle, but also in the history of popular revolutions in general. Its overall influence, extending well beyond the politics and political parties of Egypt, exceeds the impact of the earlier ’Urabi Revolution.
1919 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces
The beginning of the Madrid subway system, the first in Spain, heralding a major advance in public transport in cities.
1919 Austria Political Context
Austria signs the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with the Entente Powers.
1919 Germany Political Context
On signature of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany must face up to its responsibility to make reparation payments, abandon territory and let go of its colonies. The League of Nations is founded.
1919 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Rudolf Steiner, originator of the Waldorfpädagogik, opens the first Steiner School in Stuttgart (the basis of which is human anthropology).
1920 Tunisia Political Context
The first Tunisian political party is established as the Constitutional Liberal Party of Tunisia: “Le destour’’. In a pamphlet published anonymously in Paris, one of its founders, Abdelaziz al-Thalibi, specified the party’s demands.
1920 Italy International Exhibitions
First Milan Fair of industrial products: 1,233 exhibitors (including 224 foreigners) and 360,000 visitors.
1920 United Kingdom Political Context
The letter from the British Foreign Secretary, Arthur Balfour, to Lord Rothschild in November 1917 offers British support to Zionist aspirations for Palestine to be a national home for Jews. This is internationally confirmed by the League of Nations handing over Palestine to Britain as a Mandate. Date Country Theme
1920 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Tal‘at Harb Pasha founds Banque Misr.
1920 Lebanon Political Context
France takes control over Lebanese territory after the San Remo Conference.
1920 Austria Political Context
The population of Carinthia in southernmost Austria votes in favour of remaining within Austria.
1920 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
Although it reproduces a traditional technique, the use of azulejo (ceramic tilework) meets the need for modernisation of shops and public buildings in main cities throughout Portugal at the beginning of the 20th century.
1920 Germany Political Context
Foundation of the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP); the party’s first selection for the German Reichstag is on 6 July.
1920 Germany Political Context
The Conference of San Remo was an international meeting convened to decide which parts of its territories the Ottoman Empire would lose, to become the mandated territory under the League of Nations. For example, France received mandated territory for Syria and Lebanon (and King Faysal of Iraq goes into exile after losing Greater Syria to the French).
1920 Turkey Political Context
23 April: Formation of Turkish National Assembly in Ankara.
1920 Turkey Political Context
10 August: Treaty of Sévres, which divides Anatolia between the Allies, Greeks, Armenians and Kurds.