Letter from the Director

Dear delegates,

My name is Koby Chen and I am beyond ecstatic to be welcoming you to the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). As a rising sophomore at St. George’s School, I have the utmost pleasure to be serving as your Director for this committee. Staffing alongside me will be your Chair, Sana Shams, a rising junior at Semiahmoo Secondary. As a Dais team, we look forward to spectating the fruitful discussions, eloquence, and statecraft that will be employed to solve the topics and crises at hand.

Within my two years of participation in Model UN, I have truly understood its intersections of debate, international relations, and diplomacy. Throughout this weekend, not only will you engage in structured debate, you will also encounter fast-paced crises and jocular moments within committee session. It is in my belief that Model UN is a meaningful activity to pursue, as you will develop your oratory, critical thinking, and writing skills–abilities applicable to any situation. Furthermore, conferences are the pinnacle for networking and connection. It is bound that you will create long-lasting friendships and form beautiful memories. While you may feel doubtful or nervous at first, I invite you to step up to the podium and immerse yourself in the riveting world of Model UN.

Over the course of three days and multiple committee sessions, we will be discussing the tense - conflict as well as major Separatist Movements within the Asian region. While these two issues have international consequences, each problem is prevailing in the Asian continent. Thus, comprehensive resolutions addressing each topic through a regional lens will hold significance in future discussions and actions made by the global community.

The Dais team encourages delegates to craft a position paper, as the quality and depth of your research will reflect your experience and performance throughout sessions. For more information on position paper policies, please refer to the Position Paper Guide on the CAHSMUN website.

Both Sana and I are thrilled to see a weekend of leadership and discussion on our topics. If you have any inquiries about the topics, backgrounder, committee, Rules of Procedure, or Model UN in general, please do not hesitate to contact us at [email protected]. We look forward to getting to know each one of you in April; best of luck to you in SCO and at CAHSMUN 2020! 1 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

Godspeed,

Koby Chen Director of SCO — CAHSMUN 2020

Committee Description

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is a Eurasian economic, political, and security alliance announced in Shanghai, on June 15, 2001.1 The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Charter, formally establishing the organization, was signed in June 2002 and entered into force on September 19, 2003. The original nations of the SCO are comprised of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, , and Tajikistan. Since then, the organization has expanded its membership to countries all around the Asian Pacific region. This single- chambered body was precedent by the Shanghai 5 Mechanism. The SCO is comprised of eight member states, four observer states, and six dialogue partners.2 More participation from countries within the middle east and around Asia are expected to participate in the near future. To this day, it is the largest regional organization in the world in terms of geographical coverage and regard, covering nearly half of the human population.3

Annually, the heads of state congregate and adopt decisions and guidelines on important matters of the organization. The Heads of State Council (HSC) is the supreme decision- making body in the SCO. It meets once a year and adopts decisions and guidelines on all important matters of the organization. The SCO Heads of Government Council (HGC) meets once a year to discuss the organization's multilateral cooperation strategy and priority areas, to resolve current important economic and other cooperation issues, and to approve the organization's annual budget.4 The official languages of the SCO are Russian and Chinese.

Solutions and policies of this committee include military exercises, combatting terrorism, maintaining regional stability, and addressing other external threats.5 The committee also addresses economic cooperation with plans outlining trade policies within the region. These aspects, alongside engaging in cultural and humanitarian cooperation, make up the majority

1 http://eng.sectsco.org/ 2 https://dppa.un.org/en/shanghai-cooperation-organization 3 Ibid. 4https://thediplomat.com/2019/06/the-shanghai-cooperation-organization-a-vehicle-for-cooperation-or-competition/ 5 https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/shanghai-cooperation-organization 2 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

of the goals of the SCO. In addition, operating bodies such as the regional anti-terrorist structure (RATS) address the specificities of terrorism in the Asian region.6 The SCO’s growing centrality within the east establishes itself as the primary security pillar of the region.

Topic Overview

With the rise of new interests and political reforms, the tension between these two acrimonious neighbors has heightened. India and Pakistan, both located within the South Asian continent, are not only powerful countries in terms of military strength, but also have major implications on regional hegemony and stability as a whole. The two nations geographically surround and (JK), a subcontinent located in the Himalayan mountains. The value of this subcontinent is paramount; India and Pakistan have historically fought three wars, two of those being on Kashmir.7 This region is claimed to be one of the most militarized areas in the world and is at the heart of the conflict. Tensions rose as a suicide car bombing was carried out on , 2019, in which 40 Indian security personnel were killed.8 The divide of these nations has led to increased friction, and the recent terrorist attack has led to the most intense military escalation of the decade.

The long term implications of this topic are manifold. First, both nations have major nuclear arsenals. Even though nuclear weapons have not been employed after World War II, India and Pakistan have been proliferating their armories. Horizontal nuclear proliferation through the years means that more nations have access to these arsenals. The more nuclear forces in the world, the more likely they are to be used–especially in perilous crises similar to this one.9 Thus, both parties hold significant might in terms of destruction and force. Although the likelihood of respective nations using their nuclear weaponry is up for debate, it is still a major factor demonstrating the severity of this conflict.

Secondly, India and Pakistan are major stakeholders in international economics. India has a GDP of almost $2.6 trillion USD, making it one of the largest markets in the world. The country has major trade ties with China, Europe, and many markets around the globe.10 While the economic status of Pakistan is not as high, it still plays a key role in the global

6 http://eng.sectsco.org/ 7 https://www.bbc.com/news/10537286 8https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/south-asia/article/2186769/suicide-bombing-kashmir-pakistan-appeals-un- defuse-escalating 9 https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/08/08/kashmir-crisis-will-nuclear-armed-pakistan-go-war-india/ 10 https://www.ibef.org/economy/indian-economy-overview 3 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A market. Pakistan has the 24th highest purchasing power parity and has significant industrial and agricultural sectors in the resource-rich Asian continent.11 Conflicts between the two nations will have severe detriments to both nations’ economies, posing a risk to both Asian and international economic development.

As both India and Pakistan are major member states of the SCO, this conflict holds significance within the efficiency of this committee. Their cooperation is vital for managing regional economies, a factor that will face consequences in the wake of an Indo-Pakistani war. As violence and political tensions become increasingly prevalent, the development of the South Asian region is held at a stall. Terrorist attacks and military proliferations have caused institutional shifts and have driven attention away from humanitarian rights, education, health, and the safety of citizens. Ultimately, this conflict will come at human costs. Within the SCO, it is up to delegates to seek out reforms in terms of military escalations, regional trade, counter-terrorism, and other major issues mentioned in this backgrounder. Effective resolutions will ultimately set precedence in resolving territorial disputes and regional conflicts. As violent continues to perpetuate, addressing financial, humanitarian, and militaristic disputes will preserve the lives of millions.

Timeline

947 - Britain, as they decolonize the Indian subcontinent, divides it into secular Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan. The partition causes one of the largest human migrations ever seen in history and sparks riots and violence across the region.12

1947/48 - The first India-Pakistan war over Kashmir is fought, after armed tribesmen named Lashkars invade the disputed territory in October 1947. The Maharaja, faced with an internal revolt as well an external invasion, requests the assistance of the Indian armed forces. He hands over control of his defense, communications and foreign affairs to the Indian government.13

1954 - The accession of Jammu and Kashmir to India is approved by the state's constituent assembly.14

11 https://www.heritage.org/index/country/pakistan 12 Ibid. 13 https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/india-pakistan-war 14 Ibid. 4 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

1964 - Following the failure of the 1963 talks, Pakistan refers the Kashmir case to the UN Security Council.15

1965 - India and Pakistan fight their second war. The conflict begins after a clash between border patrols in April in the Rann of Kutch, and escalates, when between 26 000 and 33 000 Pakistani soldiers cross the ceasefire line dressed as Kashmiri locals, crossing into Kashmir.16

1971 - India and Pakistan go to war a third time, specifically in East Pakistan. The conflict begins when the central Pakistani government refuses to allow Awami League leader to assume the premiership.17

1988 - Pakistan and India sign an agreement that neither side will attack the other's nuclear installations or facilities. 18

1989 - Armed resistance to Indian rule in the begins. Muslim political parties, after accusing the state government of rigging the 1987 state legislative elections, form activist wings.

1992 - A joint declaration prohibiting the use of chemical weapons is signed in New Delhi.

1998 - India detonates five nuclear devices at Pokhran. Pakistan responds by detonating six nuclear devices of its own in the Chagai Hills. The tests result in international sanctions being placed on both countries. In the same year, both countries carry out tests of long-range missile weaponry.19

2001 - 38 people are killed in an attack on the Kashmiri assembly in . Following that attack, , the chief minister of Indian-administered Kashmir, calls on the Indian government to launch a full-scale military operation against alleged training camps in Pakistan.20

15 http://www.pakun.org/kashmir/history.php 16 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-16069078 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid. 20 https://www.refworld.org/docid/469f38961e.html 5 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

2006 - India redeploys 5 000 troops from Jammu and Kashmir and the two countries are unable to reach an agreement on withdrawing forces from the .21

2007 - On February 18, the train service the , is bombed near Panipat. 68 people are killed, and dozens injured.22

2009 - The Pakistani government admits that the Mumbai attacks may have been partly planned on Pakistani soil, while vigorously denying allegations that the plotters were sanctioned or aided by Pakistan's intelligence agencies.23

2013 - In September, the prime ministers of India and Pakistan meet in New York on the sidelines of the UN General Assembly. Both the leaders agree to end tension between armies of both sides in the disputed Kashmir.24

2016 - India launches "surgical strikes" on "terrorist units" in Pakistan-administered Kashmir in September, less than two weeks after an attack on an base leaves 19 soldiers dead. Pakistan denies the attacks took place.

2019 - In the early hours of February 26, India conducts air attacks against what it calls Pakistan-based rebel group Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM) "biggest training camp, killing "a very large number of terrorists."25

Historical Analysis

Decolonization of British India Since 1947, India and Pakistan have been deeply locked into a conflict between both Kashmir as well as regional hegemony and control. While the introduction of nuclear weapons and advanced military are factors pertaining to the present, this perilous conflict has its roots in the 17th century colonial rule of the Indian subcontinent.26 From the 17th to 20th century, Britain ruled most of the Indian subcontinent; first, indirectly through the ; then directly through the British crown in 1858. Over time, their power over this colony weakened, and a nationalist movement within this South Asian territory had

21 Ibid. 22https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/03/samjhauta-express-blast-case-court-acquits-accused 23 Ibid. 24 http://www.pakun.org/kashmir/history.php 25 Ibid. 26 https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1399992/A-brief-history-of-the-Kashmir-conflict.html 6 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

threatened imperial rule. Thus, facing pressure, the parliament decided British rule in India would end by 1948.27

Figure 1: The partition of Kashmir between Pakistan and India28

During its rule, Britain had separate electorates for Muslim citizens and limited their political mobility, only granting a specific number of seats for them. This pushed the Muslim population into minority status and had subsequently created a separatist movement that demanded independence from the rest of the Hindu-majority.29 A religious riot had broken out across British India, and on August 14, 1947, the Muslim majority nation of Pakistan was formed. India, the Hindu-majority nation, formed the day after. During this partition period, more than 550 princely states that were not directly governed by Britain had the opportunity to join either nation. At the time, JK was a princely state comprised of a Muslim majority, but was ruled by a Hindu prince. JK requested to remain independent. During partition related protests and violence, the pressured JK to join it through invasion and political influence, which sparked the first Indo-Pakistani war.30 Singh, the ruler of JK, urged India to aid them against Pakistani invasion, and in doing so, agreed to accede to India to gain military assistance.

27 Ibid. 28 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11693674 29 Ibid. 30https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/diary-of-a-kashmir-correspondent-when-jammu-and-- geography-became-history/article28969895.ece 7 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

Major Conflicts The first Indo-Pakistani war, occurring from 1947 to 1948 was over the princely state of JK. Pakistan, shortly after gaining independence, had launched tribal militia in an effort to capture Kashmir.31 It was during this conflict did Kashmir ask for Indian military assistance, leading to the accession of JK into the Indian domain. While at this point in time, Kashmir had joined the Republic of India, the Pakistani government continued to believe that the majority of the Muslim state rightfully belonged to them.

The second Indo-Pakistani war in 1965 caused thousands of casualties on both sides.32 Heavy employment of armored vehicles led to violence and bloodshed. Once again, Pakistan was determined to take Kashmir by force, crossing the line of the ceasefire—their attempt at a siege was unsuccessful. This war marked the beginning of the involvement of the and the Soviet Union in the conflict.

While the third conflict had little to do with Kashmir, it nonetheless intensified hostilities once again. An intervention into East Pakistan’s–now known as –independence movement had taken place.33 An Indian-supported east-Pakistan liberation campaign had occurred against West Pakistan. This third war had continued to intensify the rivalry between the neighboring nations.

Terrorist Accusations Indian citizens and politicians have always accused the Pakistani government of giving protection to terrorist groups like the Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) and Pakistan based Lashkar- e-Taiba.34 Lashkar was banned in Kashmir but has claimed responsibility for several attacks against India over the past decades.35 The 2001 Parliament attacks in Srinagar and Delhi and the 2008 coordinated attacks in Mumbai are a few to list. The Mumbai attacks severely heightened tensions between the two countries and, in 2010, Kashmir was sent into further unrest.

In early 2016, a heavily armed group reportedly from the JeM attacked an Indian airforce station near Pathankot Kashmir. This attack had led to the death of six soldiers and was seen as a breakdown of Indo-Pakistani relations. Delhi representatives saw this as an attempt to

31 https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/asia-and-africa/south-asian-history/india-pakistan-wars 32 Ibid. 33 Ibid. 34https://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/patrick-goodenough/pakistan-accused-decades-sponsoring-anti-india- terror-vows-fight 35 https://www.resetdoc.org/story/brief-history-india-pakistan-conflict-kashmir/ 8 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A derail a fragile peacemaking process and ultimately destabilized the relations between the two nations. Soon after, border skirmishes began as well as surgical strikes—attacks aimed at military targets with supposed minimal collateral damage—across the by Indian militants.36 The borders between India, Pakistan, and Kashmir remained militarized and tense.

Citizen Protest In the summer of 2010, protests had erupted throughout Kashmir. Throngs of men and women hurled rocks at Indian security forces and set tires on fire to prevent armored vehicles from entering neighborhoods.37 The Kashmiri Intifada, parallel to the long-standing Israeli occupation in Palestine, had been suppressed and media coverage was clamped by the Indian government. Since accession, Kashmiri citizens have been fighting for insurgency against Indian administration. The repression in Kashmir against its population was brutal; protests were met with shootings, tear gas, and mass arrests.38 Up to this year, Kashmir had a certain amount of autonomy from India. In practice, JK had established special rights for permanent residents, effectively barring outsiders from buying property, holding public sector jobs, or even attending government colleges.39 However, even aside from practical autonomy, Kashmir’s history of feudal, colonial, and now sub-imperial conquest is one that plagues its citizens today.

Current Situation

Kashmir Independence In August 2019, the Indian government had announced a change to its constitution, revoking the autonomy of the northern state of JK.40 This, paired with already intensifying insurgency movements, set the stage for a new major conflict. Similar to Israeli policy in the West Bank, this allowed the Indian government to move large numbers of settlers into Kashmir; shifting the majority-Muslim demographic. This decision to revoke the statute Article 370 came from an unexpected crackdown by the Indian-government on the Indian-administered region of Kashmir.41 Prominent Kashmiri political leaders and activists were detained and placed under house arrest, and thousands of Indian soldiers and paramilitaries were deployed in the

36 Ibid. 37 http://www.europe-solidaire.org/spip.php?article24582 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 https://www.economist.com/leaders/2019/08/10/modis-revocation-of-kashmirs-autonomy 41 Ibid. 9 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A region. This number added to the 600 000 already stationed, making this region referred to as the most militarized border on earth.42 In addition to the military deployments and arrests, a curfew had been imposed on civilian movements. Internet and mobile phone access for had also been completely cut off.43

The Indian government had long believed that the root of the region’s long-running unrest was due to its special status. The special status had discouraged investment and job creation, leading to an inefficient and corrupt administration.44 This was the issue they debated, one that fueled civil disobedience. Amit Shah, the home minister, had argued in parliament that the elimination of special provisions would lead to a burst of development.45 The revoking of Kashmir’s special status will continue to stand contentious for delegates, and only time will tell how the development of Kashmir turns out.

Terrorism The ongoing situation of this conflict is one of the various border skirmishes, where artillery and small weapons fire are often exchanged. Prior to February 2019, clashes were on a smaller scale. However, after a suicide bomber from JeM had killed 40 Indian paramilitary police in an Indian-controlled region, tensions began to increase and lead to direct allegations of Pakistan.46 Known as the 2019 attack, gunfights with militants, anti-Kashmiri backlash from Indian students, and airstrikes were several of the reactions to this terrorist operation. India’s retaliation and striking Pakistani of targets had brought these two nations to the brink of war, but the release of a captured Indian pilot and other goodwill gestures eased tensions.47

42 Ibid. 43 https://theintercept.com/2019/08/05/india-kashmir-autonomy-status/ 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid. 46 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49222571 47 Ibid. 10 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

Figure 2: Number of recorded incidents of Indian insurgent and militant attacks48

Following the attack, several allegations were made. Indian prime minister Modi had condemned Pulwama, and citizens of India had blamed this attack on Pakistan, pointing out Pakistan’s supposed support of the terrorist group JeM. While Pakistan had banned the group in 2002, JeM has resurfaced under different names and retains the support of ISIS.49 Several news outlets and critics have questioned the links to Pakistan, pointing out that the bomber came from Indian-administered Kashmir and the explosives may have been locally procured. Pakistan, In response, denied the allegation of a link to the attack, and its foreign minister Quereshi condemned the bombing.50 On February 19, 2019, Pakistani Prime Minister said that providing a safe haven to terrorists was not in Pakistan's interest. He asked for proof of Pakistani involvement and warned India that any military response would be met with retaliation.51

Human Rights Violations Thousands of Kashmir citizens are reported to have been killed by Indian security forces in custody. Extrajudicial executions and enforced disappearances are said to have been carried out with impunity. Security forces exploit the Armed Forces and Special Powers Act (AFSPA), which enables Indian security forces to hold prisoners without trial. The AFSPA was an act

48 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-46902935 49 Ibid. 50 https://www.dawn.com/news/1464822 51 Ibid. 11 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A granted by the Parliament of India in 1958, allowing officials to maintain public order in “disturbed areas,” or places that see citizen revolt and higher crime rates.52

On July 8th, a report by the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) raised serious concerns regarding abuses by security forces in Kashmir. Among those included are: the use of excessive force to respond to protests; the detention of protesters, political dissidents, and other activists on vague grounds for long periods; and ignoring regular criminal justice safeguards. The Indian government dismissed the report as a “false and motivated narrative” that ignored “the core issue of cross-border terrorism.”53

Human rights violations have also occurred in , or Pakistan-administered Kashmir. Pakistan, an Islamic republic, imposes several restrictions on people’s religious freedoms. Furthermore, non-Muslim, religious minorities face economic and societal discrimination, often being the main targets of sectarian violence. Furthermore, in the Pakistan National assembly, there is a major lack of discourse on human rights, justice, and democratic representation of the Kashmiri people. Similar to Indian-administered Kashmir, Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence operates in this region and is also involved with extensive surveillance, arbitrary arrests, and similar torture methods of civilians. A report by the OHCHR was critical of Pakistan for its detention of and violence against separatists in this region. The report stated that people living in Azad Kashmir as well as in Gilgit-Baltistan are deprived of fundamental human rights, particularly in freedom of expression and opinion. They lack political freedoms and the right to protest against the injustices that they face, especially because they are faced with immediate retaliation.

General offenses and criticisms outlined in multiple reports were that there has not been a single prosecution of armed forces personnel granted by the central government in a civilian court. Different tyrannies and the AFSPA clause allows security personnel to exercise power and use excessive force. The unjustified power and actions of the AFSPA is something the SCO needs to address, to prevent further humanitarian abuse and limitation of fundamental human rights.

52 http://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1958-28.pdf 53 https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/kashmir-un-reports-serious-abuses 12 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

United Nations Involvement

UNCIP The United Nations has taken a major role in maintaining peace between India and Pakistan ever since their Independence from British rule. UN Mediation of this regional conflict led to the creation of two commissions, as well as investigations and peace-making assistance. In 1947, when major disputes had erupted between the two nations, India took this issue to the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), which passed Resolution 39 the following year. Resolution 39 had established the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP), a group created to investigate issues and mediate between the two countries. The five member states of the UNCIP consisted of representatives from Czechoslovakia, Argentina, Belgium, Columbia, and the United States.

In April of 1948, as tensions heightened and hostilities increased, the UNSC decided to enlarge the membership of UNCIP and recommended various measures including the use of observers to stop the fighting. These updates were authenticated through Resolution 47. After discussion with both governments, the commission unanimously adopted a three-part resolution; they dealt with a ceasefire, calling for a complete cessation of hostilities, a truce agreement asking for the complete withdrawal of forces, and a consultation with the commission for settling the future of the nations. In July of 1949, India and Pakistan signed the , agreeing to a ceasefire which was to be supervised by military observers.

United Nations Military Observer Group (UNMOGIP) The aforementioned military observers formed the United Nations Military Observer Group (UNMOGIP) in India and Pakistan. Working under the command of the Military Adviser, they were responsible to observe, report, and investigate complaints and issues of ceasefire violations between the combating nations. They were responsible for submitting each finding to the party and to the Secretary-General of the UNMOGIP. After the dissolution of the UNCIP on March 30, 1951, the UNSC decided for the UNMOGIP to continue supervising the situation.

In early 1965, relations between India and Pakistan continued to strain over their claims at the southern end of the international boundary. The situation rapidly escalated, and by the summer of that year, a full military conflict had engrossed the ceasefire line across Kashmir. In the following reports made by the UN, the Secretary-General stated that the previous

13 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A ceasefire had collapsed, and a return to mutual observance of the conflict would generate a favorable climate for both nations. On September 4th, the UNSC, by Resolution 209 called for another ceasefire and asked the two governments to cooperate with the UNMOGIP in observing the truce. In the same month, the Secretary-General visited the region to assist in further action, in pursuit of the mandates given to him by the UNSC.

UNIPOM In Kashmir, the supervision called for by the UNSC was exercised by the machinery of UNMOGIP; however, as the hostilities extended beyond the Kashmir Ceasefire line, an administrative adjunct of the UNMOGIP was conceived. The function of this administration was to report on breaches of the ceasefire and persuade local commanders to restore the peace. Nevertheless, ceasefire violations continued to occur, and lead to direct action from the UNSC. Both India and Pakistan were to withdraw all armed personnel as necessary for the full implementation of peacemaking operations. This lead to the Tashkent Agreement, in which the prime ministers of both nations met and announced their agreement of troops on both sides of their positions. In 1966, UNIPOM was terminated and its 59 observers were gradually withdrawn.54

Status Quo After the Pulwama of February 2019, Pakistan's foreign minister appealed to the UN Secretary-General to help ease tensions with India that had sharply escalated. Foreign Minister Qureshi had written that it was “imperative to take steps for de-escalation. The United Nations must step in to defuse tensions,” as well as blaming India for deliberately ratcheting up its hostile rhetoric in the wake of the election period.55 Previous UN involvement within this conflict region has lead to multiple violations of ceasefire treaties and failed to address the issue at the root. It is necessary for the SCO to implement solutions that factor in possibilities of immediate escalation, and find ways to incentivize nations to abide by resolutions.

Possible Solutions

Increased Humanitarian Recognition To address human rights concerns, the reformation of security forces is a solution up for exploration. In the status quo, there is limited to no investigation of armed forces officials

54 https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unipombackgr.html 55 Ibid. 14 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

within both Pakistan and Indian administered regions of Kashmir. It is oftentimes that these officers arrest, detain, and assault civilians with no evidence, and they consequently violate several fundamental human rights. The powers and constraints placed on the armed forces need review and modification, especially those given through Armed Forces and Special Powers Act, AFSPA. Because of its malevolent and violent nature, the UN said that AFSPA had no authority in an Indian democracy, and it had breached multiple international laws.56 India and Pakistan both can address the humanitarian concerns around Kashmir by repealing AFSPA in its current form, and replacing it with a version that recognizes and protects the human rights of innocent Kashmiris. This will ensure the safety and security of the vulnerable Kashmiris caught amidst the war.57 Further reformation of judicial systems within the region will benefit the citizens as well. Recognition of human rights within courts and increased investigation of offenses by armed officers would aid in eradicating the unnecessary violence brought forth by the officials.

Additionally, it is integral that the personal and religious freedoms of Kashmiri citizens remain intact and protected. Upholding these religious and cultural agencies limit disputes and protects the well-being of minorities within JK. India and Pakistan can create a joint mechanism that agrees on a standard course of action to limit Islamic radicalism for the Kashmir area. Enhanced monitoring of radical preachers in mosques and madrassas and regulating publications distributed by them is one option. Curriculums in schools and madrassas can be evaluated to protect the freedoms of children and students. Changing educational systems that currently are damaging to minorities will make school more accessible and effective for everyone. Limitations placed on sharia courts can also be discussed to provide non-binding and far judgments for Islamic law; training of judges and a review of rulings made under religious authority may be necessary.

Kashmiri Origin Card Kashmir, being placed between two Asian economic powerhouses, is in a state of economic despair. Due to the conflict and through different controls over the region, there is little investment and development of the area both internally and externally. While the revocation of Article 370–an act that revoked the special autonomous status of JK–was meant to boost the economy, it posed several issues in terms of backlash and political agency. An alternate

56https://www.ndtv.com/article/india/un-asks-india-to-repeal-armed-forces-special-powers-act- 192249?pfrom=home-otherstories 57https://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/india-pakistan-solve-end-kashmir-conflict-pulwama- attack-world-news-today-34899/ 15 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

solution that delegates can explore is the issue of a joint Kashmiri origin card, a multiple-entry visa entitling Kashmiris from Greater JK to travel and invest anywhere in JK, whether in Pakistan or India.58 Moreover, this origin card will impact trade within the area; for instance, if a Kashmiri is buying and selling goods from another Kashmiri across the border, there might be no enforced import duties.59 This increases engagement between Kashmiri, Indian, and Pakistani citizens. Thus, also increasing and opening trades in the region. The specificities of the origin card and other strategies to open trade and stimulate economic engagement is looked favorably upon, as it will address the near-poverty lifestyles of Kashmiri citizens.

Demilitarization Although violence continues to occur within this heightened zone, such insurgent action cannot continue in the long-term. Eventually, demilitarization is needed to descale the situation. This can be considered on both sides of Kashmir based on a phased approach once peace is firmly established, leaving sufficient armed forces to maintain law and order– including riot control–and counterterrorism on both sides.60 Delegates must take into account the role of the UN and possible mediation strategies, to prevent failures that happened in previous ceasefire calls. As a result, this may be unlikely in the near future due to the interests and tensions on the rise; however, it is up for delegates to discuss for its long- term implications.

International Borders Another possible solution is the establishment of international borders. The status of JK will be held for contentious debate; determining which parts of JK fall to India and Pakistan, or whether it gains independence or more autonomy are factors that the committee must decide. Furthermore, the LOC may need to become a permanent international border to ameliorate petty border disputes. In addition, an establishment and enforcement of borders will resolve India’s other border disputes on its northeastern border with China in the same deal.61 India would need to decide whether or not to make its peace with China on its Belt and Road initiative running through Kashmir, which has the potential to benefit Indian-controlled Kashmir and the rest of India economically.62

58 Ibid. 59 https://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/kashmir-war-conflict-india-pakistan-peace-south-asia- politics-news-this-week-71417/ 60 https://www.wrmea.org/002-august/solving-the-kashmir-conflict-india-and-pakistan-the-worlds-most-dangerous- place.html 61 https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3022055/how--kashmir-move-complicates-border- issue-china 62 Ibid. 16 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

Bloc Positions

Pakistan and Supporters Pakistan, being the second-largest Muslim-majority country in terms of population, has a status of a declared nuclear power. Being the only Muslim-majority nation to have attained that status, Pakistan plays a key part on the international stage. Pakistan has enjoyed a close and strong historical relationship with the Middle-Eastern region, particularly , the , Syria, Jordan, Yemen, and Lebanon.63 Today, there are over 2.6 million Pakistanis living and working in Saudi Arabia alone, with a similar number in other Persian Gulf region countries that constitute the Arab League. Furthermore, its economy is rather integrated into the world, with strong ties to the EU and economic alliances and agreements with many other Asian nations. Even though the United States is not a member state of the SCO, Pakistan is one of its major non-NATO allies.64 The country has a strategic geopolitical location at the corridor of the world’s major maritime oil supply lines and close proximity to the resource and oil-rich central Asian countries; thus, many member states around this range might want to form alliances with Pakistan in the crisis.

India and Allies With the world's fifth-largest military expenditure, India is a regional power, nuclear power, nascent global power, and potential economic superpower. With international ties around the region, India is seen being backed by nations such as Bangladesh, , Afghanistan, and .65 India has a growing international influence and a prominent voice in global affairs and has unique relations with Russia. During the Cold War, India and the Soviet Union had strong military and economic ties, and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia had inherited this strategic relationship with India.66 While Russia has not made any specific or major contributions to the , the state–being a superpower within the SCO– can influence resolutions that benefit India. Outside of the committee, India has backing from many western nations within the conflict, and with the re-election of Prime Minister Modi, has strategic ties with the United States.67 All in all, it is seen that India has gotten more international support on their policies and approaches to the disputes, especially from countries located within the Asian continent.

63 https://www.cfr.org/asia/pakistan 64 https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/1092640/pakistan-vs-india-allies-enemies-support-russia-china-north- korea-usa-saudi-arabia 65 Ibid. 66 Ibid. 67 https://www.cfr.org/asia/pakistan 17 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

Middle Eastern and Gulf Nations Although they are not caught in the conflict, Middle Eastern nations are starting to pay attention to this regional conflict. This year, has accused Pakistan of sheltering extremists who attacked Iran on February 13. Saudi Arabia’s Crown Prince recently visited both India and Pakistan. In addition, Israel, Syria, and other Middle Eastern states have begun watching this conflict, as the conflict developing within Kashmir has ramifications for their wider region. Different states in the Gulf region have different vested interests as well as different Western backings. Thus, these SCO states must carefully assess the topic and determine resolutions that keep their interests at hand. Furthermore, the Indian-Pakistan challenges are parallel to the ones that Israel and other nations face; meaning that member states have the ability to translate their own policies and approaches to dispute to India and Pakistan. Conclusively, the overall geopolitical stability of central Asia is one that concerns many across the continent.

China The role of China within the situation is multifaceted and complex. On one hand, Pakistan is among the biggest beneficiaries of China’s Belt and Road Initiative. On the other, China and India have had traditional economic ties that are still strongly held today, but border disputes and political friction have fractured certain ties. The decisions made by China are largely unpredictable, but regional resources and political hegemony are an active incentive for China to invest in infrastructure and politically around both India and Pakistan.

Discussion Questions

1.) What are the ways to defend the fundamental human rights and livelihoods of the Kashmiri people under this topic? 2.) When taking action on this issue, which stakeholders and what factors are most important to consider? 3.) What are your countries’ approaches, both foreign policies and internal strategies, to conflict? 4.) Is your country involved in a similar border dispute or militaristic dispute? 5.) Is third party mediation from other member states, the UN, or non-governmental organizations necessary or beneficial for the situation? 6.) How will the pros and cons of granting autonomy/further independence to Jammu and Kashmir weigh out in the short and long term?

18 CAHSMUN SCO Backgrounder A

7.) How will the possession of nuclear weapons within the situation heighten tensions and change the SCO’s approaches and solutions? 8.) What are the chances of a large scale conflict? If one were to instigate, what would be the consequences to your country as well as the international community?

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