Chapter 1: Introduction

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Water Cycle

"The world has enough for everyone's need, but not enough TrJ" *^* for everyone's greed." -Mahatma Gandhi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The earth consists of 71% water, out of which 97% is found in sea, oceans, out The remaining is the fresh water which includes around 1.75-2.0 % in frozen glaciers, ice and snow, 0.5-0.75 % contributing to fresh ground water and soil moisture, and less than 0.01 % is available in surface water bodies like lakes, dams and rivers. Globally, only 0.003% of available fresh water is unpolluted and safe for drinking. Our body is made up of 70% water and it constitutes one of the most important fundamental needs for our survival. This clearly indicates that the most important natural resource is the scarcest and thus proper management of this resource is the need of the hour. The tremendous increase in population in the last few decades is exerting excessive demand on available scarce water resources. This situation is further aggravated by climate change. India, a country dominated by agriculture and one of the fastest urbanizing countries, is even more vulnerable to the problems of water scarcity, droughts and flooding. Land degradation in rain fed areas due to soil erosion from runoff, acute shortage of water including water for domestic, livestock and fodder needs and for drinking especially in summer, degradation of natural resources due to their over-exploitation, etc., are some of the major problems faced by India. To harness the full potential of the available natural resources and prevent its further degradation, watershed management is vital. These problems can be effectively addressed by adopting watershed as a basic unit of development. Watershed management basically involves harmonizing the use of soil and water resources between upstream and downstream areas within a watershed to fulfill the objectives of natural resource conservation, increased agricultural productivity and a better standard of living for its inhabitants. Watershed being natural hydrological entity, responds most effectively to various engineering, biological and cultural treatments. Watershed is not simply the hydrological unit but also socio-political-ecological entity which plays crucial role in determining food, social and economic security and provides life support services to rural people (Wani et al. 2008). Thus, effective management of water resources in a watershed is critical for social, economic, and political stability, as well as for sustainable development. The major component of managing the

21 watershed is managing the processes occurring during the hydrological cycle and within its component. Thus, watershed plays a major component of hydrologic cycle and suitable geographical unit for planning and anahsis of water resources. A watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams and rainfall to a common outlet such as the outflow of a reservoir, mouth of a bay. or any point along a stream channel. The word watershed is sometimes used interchangeably with drainage basin or catchment. Hydrological cycle occurring in any particular watershed forms the fundamental concept in hydrology. According to the National Research Council (NRC. 1982). hydrologic cycle is defined as "the pathway of water as it moves in its various phases to the atmosphere, to the earth. o\ er and through the land, to the ocean and back to the atmosphere". This c>'cle also plays an important role in controlling the climate of a place. Precipitation varies in amount, intensity, and form by season and geographic location. Hydrological cycle can be studied from a global perspective or on a catchment scale. Human-induced and natural changes in a watershed influence the quantity and quality of water.

Watershed management is aimed at the sustainable distribution of its resources by studying the relevant characteristics of a watershed. Watershed is composed of its natural, hydrological and demographic resources. The major factors influencing the watershed functions are size, shape, topography, slope, geology and soils, climate, amount and intensity of precipitation, and land-use/land-cover (.laiswal et al. 1978). Watershed management has important aspect of creating and implementing plans, programs, and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal, and human communities within a watershed boundary. It also aims to balanced consumption of resources of land and water with minimum impact on environment. Detailed study and rigorous understanding of the occurrence and movement of water in the surface and sub-surface systems along with soil and nutrient losses in a watershed is required for a proper watershed management. Certain physical properties of watersheds significantly affect the characteristics of runoff and are thus of great interest in hydrologic analyses. The broader objectives which are covered during the national level watershed management programs mostly includes Generation of data regarding the hydrology, meteorology, soil, and watershed process. Perform watershed modeling studies and calibration on watershed hydrology process. Development of decision support system on the basis oi' obser\ations of hydrological modeling carried out. Deri\ e a watershed management plan and preparation of standard operating procedures for implementation on site. According to the World Bank report titled 'Watershed dexelopment in India - An approach evolving through experience', about half the demand for water in the country by 2030 cannot be fulfilled as a result of increase in population and economic growth. Besides water scarcity, poor quality of the available water resources ma\ exacerbate the situation. Thus, to better manage and augment its water resources. India needs to implement good watershed management practices and approaches.

1.2 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT CURRENT STATUS

Managing the water resources in India is not a new concept. The first ever watershed integrated watershed management plan was implemented by Damoder Vally corporation (DVC) in early 1949 and set up a department for the watershed planning with a scientific team. Later on the series of integrated watershed management projects started in late seventies and early eighties in India. The watershed management programs adopted by Government of India (GOI) were generally based on the traditional practices of management. These programs aim to manage the micro watersheds with the planning and economic involvement since 1980s. These programs started to implement in 1995 with having an effect on the watershed performances at small level. These programs have a plan for improving the rain water harvesting systems, building check dams, rehabilitation of project affected places, and enhancement of ground water recharge techniques. There was lot of emphasis given to the programs as it was thought that the water sustainable rural areas would have their economic growth too. So these programs were aimed towards the rural development instead of watershed developments. Studying of these watershed management programs and considering the limited success got to these projects these National Watershed Development Projects for rain fed Areas (NWDPRA) which are continued during seventh plan they need to be modified and evaluated for their cost effectiveness and replicability in real time implementations. (GOI. Eight five year plan 1992-1997). However it was soon realized that the earlier programs were primarily aimed towards the rural development

23 instead of watershed developments. Hence, the prams focusing on watershed development were plan in late 1990s and started implementing thereafter. There are various recent watershed management projects initiated by state and central government like Hariyali .Neeru-Meeru. ArvaryPani Sansad etc. however these watershed management projects are still in the experimental stage and needed to be modified a lot with the use of modern technologies and methods of watershed developments. The modern technologies of watershed management are more complex than the original concept. The new concept not only aimed towards the conservation of runoff, soil and vegetation but it also aims towards the remarkably increase the productivity of natural resources with the help of economic and sustainable practices.

1.3 WATERSHED MODELING USING ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES

The watershed modeling plays an important role in initiation of watershed management programs. Many process of environment and the socioeconomic activities occurring within watershed are too dynamic, complex and spatially and temporally variable to be monitored and maintain precisely. The degraded perfonnance of the watershed is needed to be modeled first to understand the issues occurring within watershed. Watershed modeling is a set of various software tools which can help to simulate the underlying watershed processes and improve the watershed component performance. More precisely, they have holistic approach and propose a directorial system to decision makes during the management of water resources and related hazards. Watershed modeling studies requires the simultaneous consideration of various hydrological. meteorological, biological, instrucfional. soil, landuse, and other resources, involved in the watershed. Watershed usually covers a ver>' large area and to handle the complexities in the studies the advance like Global Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) are used. These technologies use satellite imagery and the digital elevation model to the study the watershed processes. Nowadays, computerized hydrological modeling studies considered to be a significant tool to understand and to estimate the elementaiy responses of the hydrological basins. These were done using the software's modeling technique of GIS and RS. In GIS and RS there are use computer programs which are nothing but the mathematical representation and integration of process of watershed and there impacts on the socio-

24 economic factors. Computer simulations are able to simulate the part or the entire watershed for its variable parameters and it proved the very helpful tool for the hydrologist. These models have succeeded modeling of climatological factors of precipitation and evaporation, water management practices, land use changes and measuring watershed performances. These models used to model the timed based models for present and future scenario studies and can be compared to the results. In the last few decades computerized hydrological simulation models has hugely developed advances in computer programs, geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing technologies (RS).GIS involved utilization of mathematical and logical models interacting data antiquated on the different scale and projections. thereby can serve as a catalyst for watershed management programs through holistic approach. The traditional Watershed management programs approaches were time consuming and localized. These do not incorporate inconsistency of the parameters involved in the watershed. In this context, it was necessary to redefine the thought process in use of GIS for watersheds management programs. The quantification of water balance derived proper correlation between the naturally occurring resources and it"s utilization with respect to the environmental impact assessment and the subsequent economic assessment. There are various types of watershed models are available. They vary based on their applied algorithms (conceptual, empirical physically based) or their approach of modeling (deterministic or stochastic) or the method used to represent the spatial data (distributed or Lump models) or as per the modeling processes (Event based-continuous).Watershed models also differ with their customization, sophistication, diverse nature of analyzing the inputs, providing the result at various levels, applying the different rules and formula's etc. The only common characteristic in all these watershed models is to make the watershed process simple to maintain and easy to be monitor. The choice of hydrological model to be used in the study is based on the availability of spatial and temporal data and the complexities involved in the watershed modeling. The outcomes desired also need to consider while deciding the watershed model. The watershed model has an ability to predict the future scenario by virtually implementing the watershed management practices. It helps to decide the desired management option based on the future outcome of an implementation. The modeling strategy is mostly dependent upon the various factors like issues in watershed, stressed areas; mitigation considered areas and depending upon the future desired outcomes.

25 1.4 THE STUDY AREA

The.area considered under this research is the "Khadakwasla Complex" situated in the upstream of Pune City, Haveli Taluka in Pune district of Maharashtra. India. Area of Khadakwasla watershed is 530 Km'. It consists of four dams namely Panshet, Varasgaon. Temghar and Khadakwasla. The Panshet and Varasgaon dams were built on the river Ambi and Mose respectively however, remaining two dams were built on the river Mutha.

Figure l-l Geographical location of study area

The geographical location of research area is bounded by 18 28' 00" N latitude and 73° 46' 00" E longitudes. The Khadakwasla Reservoir was constructed in 1961. The length of Khadakwasla dam is 1.6 Km (1.0 mi). The main purpose of the reservoir construction is to fulfill the irrigation requirement of Daund and Baramati and provide domestic water to Pune city and Cantonment area. Water from the Panshet, Varasgaon and Temghar released into the Khadakwasla dam and from there it is further released through Right bank canal (RBC), Left bank canal (LBC), closed and open canal for use in command area.

26 1.5 NEED OF THE STUDY

The Khadakwasla Complex caters to second most developed city in Maharashtra i.e. Pune. The city is on the priority list of the Smart City Development program of Government of India. The city has many industrial developments and is hub for information technology industry in Maharashtra. Pune city is also known as educational hub of Maharashtra. As the command area is expanding so is the water demand for the area. In current situation command area is facing problem of gap between supply and demand mostly due to some inadequacies on water resource management part. The Pune city monthly requirement of water is 35.3 Mm'\ This shall be effortlessly fultllled by the Khadakwasla reservoir however almost every year during late summers there are situations needing to cut the water demands of city. Every Month of April the Pune city has to face "water crisis" situations. Therefore in spite of having a situation of more water than the city requirements Pune has to face a demand supply gap scenario during every summer. Contradictory to the summer situations during monsoon the Khadakwasla dam cannot endure the load of water coming from all the three upper dams and has to release the excess water to command area causing the flooding situations in low laying areas of Pune city. Flood situations occur due to improper management and unplanned release of water from Khadakwasla reservoir. The detailed studies observed that the proper supply management system for the Khadakwasla complex is not in place and which has its impact on the command area water availability creating unnecessary water scarcity in the summer season. The recent development's and up gradations in the catcliment areas caused the degradations of the Khadakwasla watershed performances. The actual capacity of Khadakwasla dam is 86.62 Mm" and due to siltation 56.63 Mm^capacities can be utilized. The desiltation programs were going on in the Khadakwasla resei'voir for last ten years. The issue is also highlighted in newspapers. (Ref: DNA, Pune. Monday 8''^ June 2015) Considering the larger area of watershed as well as due to its considerably remote location of catchment use of GIS and RS technologies identified to be veiy beneficial for the detailed study of the Khadakwasla watershed. Watershed modeling as per our knowledge gained from existing situation and after talking to many stakeholders" felts that the detailed hydrological modeling study with the help of spatial modeling of

27 various hydrological processes occurring in the watershed were not performed till date. The study and calibration of these processes along with the mitigation measures suggested to improve the productivity of the watershed sustainable is important goal of performing the watershed modeling for Khadakwasla. This would be very crucial to solve all the water resource management problems of Khadakwasla watershed. Thus this study attempts to carry out detailed hydrological modeling of the selected catchment and addresses the flooding and drought problems in the catchment. It also aims to develop a computer based decision support system for management of selected catchment.

1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objectives identified for the research work were as follows

i. Hydrological modeling studies for rainfall-runoff calibration of Khadakwasla complex watershed using various computer based GIS and RS technologies and sophisticated hydrological modeling tools. ii. Identification and checking reliability of existing rain water harvesting structures on site and off site and suggest the additional methodologies and rain water harvesting (RWH ) structures with their locations and conservation measures. iii. Analysis of siltation occurring in the Khadakwasla reservoir. Identification of sediment yield index and prioritization of sub watershed management plan as per the resuhs of sediment yield index. iv. Analysis of flood hazard index and flood prone area in catchment of Khadakwasla. V. Analysis of drought situations and their causes in command area to find out solutions to mitigate the drought. vi. Development and design of Decision Support System (DSS): computer program named Hedge Management Model 2016 (HMM 2016) vii. Application of HMM for analysis of scenario (Present and Future) for the current and future modeling studies.

28 1.7 METHODOLOGY

GIS and real time remote sensing data acquisition techniques were carried out using the imaging and GIS software's. The field data and laborator> data were integrated into the GIS anahsis for evolving output products of value addition in watershed management strategies. The 2D/3D data presentation through graphical means could be used to draw an analogy for the purpose.GIS served as catalyst for data modeling. data overlay analysis, topological evaluation, geo-statistical data analysis etc. for addressing the watershed management problems. Relevant spatial outputs and tabular outputs required were generated and analyzed in the process. The spatial interpolation tools, automated watershed management delineation tools, image processing tools and latest image classification tools using neural network were carried out. Optimization of interpolated parameters used in spine interpolation and kriging interpolation were done. The watershed delineation was done initially using the Arc-hydro tools in Arc- GIS framework. Along with the watershed delineation it also helped to describe the watershed characteristics. The software programs of HEC-HMS, HEC-GeoHMS and Watershed modeling systems (WMS) were further used to study the integrated watershed procedures using distributed watershed modeling technique. The different methodologies and the models were involved within these modeling processes. Source E -Water model was used to identify the present scenario of water distribution and analysis of the fulfillment of current demands from the Khadakwasla Complex. The models like urban demand, resource assessment and allocation model helped to generate the real world picture of the Khadakwasla complex present scenario for water distribution. Hydrological models of watershed also involve the flood and drought situations. For the Khadakwasla complex the details study of floods and drought, the factors affecting during these situations and the factors which are responsible to occur the flood and draught were also studied. The flood hazard map was prepared for the Khadakwasla complex and mitigation measures suggested to proactively manage the drought situations. Siltation occuiring to the resei"voir hampers the storage capacity of the same. Khadakwasla reservoir has largely affected due to siltation in last few decades. The siltation in dam majorly occurs due to poorly managed rain water harvesting and agricultural practices in the catchment areas and rapid urbanization. 29 The sediment yield index was calculated for the watershed area. Prioritization was done for the management plan to start up with sub-watershed performance impro\ement plan. The output generated was statisticalh evaluated to derixe relationships between different watershed parameters involved in watershed management plans. Simulation of real world scenario incorporating sources and causes of environmental pollution were carried out along with simulation of changes arising due to scientifically managed watershed programs with the objective of sustainably. A balance between social, economic, environmental objectives and consideration and their interactions of the watershed system were crucial benchmarks in watershed management. In Khadakwasla complex conflicts increased over shared water resources between irrigation, industry, and urban city use. Sustainable water release management of Khadakwasla water resources was thus essential for economic development and livelihood of the people. This identifies a necessity of decision support system which would help to release the water as per the requirement of demand. The performance of the watershed and the reservoir is completely dependent upon the actions taken up for the management of process occurring within them. The decision support system was developed for Khadakwasla complex. The computerized based mathematical software is developed using the Hedge rule as a base. The name of the software model is Hedge Management Model (HMM 2016). The model analyses the inputs and provide the water distribution solutions to fulfill the demands from the reservoir. A Decision support system (DSS) designed to support decision makers interactively thinking about and making decision about relatively unstructured problems. A DSS provided a framework for incorporating modeling capabilities with database resources to improve decision-making processes. Decision makers can interact with the system using intuitively designed easy-to-use graphical user interfaces. This also helped in decision analysis, algorithm optimizations, scheduling routine for the program, and so on. This eventually helps the decision makers to formulate the alternative and impact analysis and interpretation of a particular method adopted for watershed management. The water supply to the different users as per their requirement was the major concern in planning of the DSS for the Khadakwasla Complex area. Application of Hedge rule has served the purposes. A small DSS mathematical software system was developed which would be applied to the any watershed. The outcomes of the model would

30 guide the distribution of the axailable water to command area throughout the year. The proposed software model was developed using .net framework. Hedge rule was applied through mathematical programs to release of water to the user. The enhancement to the hedge rule was also suggested and applied within a model which was based on the supply of minimum water to the user which can fulfill the minimum daih requirement of that water user. The application of proposed software was tested on the Khadakwasla complex supph management. The scenario based modeling was done with the HMM software for present and future scenarios. Lastly. Watershed Management Plan (WMP) was developed for Khadakwasla complex. WMP is the process of creation and implementation of various programs to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the watershed behavior. WMP helps in managing the components of watershed like water quantity drainage, runoff, socioeconomic and environmental aspects. Watershed management fundamentally involves coordinating the use of soil and water resources between upstream and downstream reaches within a watershed toward the objectives of natural resource conservation, increased agricultural productivity, and a better standard of living for its inhabitants. Identifying and addressing the environmental pollution sources causing deterioration of watershed were considered as the important issue associated with the watershed management programs in sustainable manner. The statistical evaluations watershed based morphological parameters with hydrological and soil erosion parameters were done to check out appropriate co-relation between the various hydrological planning area of watershed leading to appropriate and sustainable watershed management practices. In this direction the runoff and soil erosion models were also be utilized. Long term comprehensive plan for the watersheds of Khadakwasla drainage area prepared using integrated GIS based scientific approach keeping in mind factors such as protection of watersheds, long tenn viability of water resources and socio-environmental aspects. These aspects were an-anged during the course of research. The watershed management plan will act as a package for the area reflecting utilization of ground realities, challenges and opportunities in the decision on making process keeping in view prospective growth and future needs.

31 L8 FLOW CHART OF METHODOLOGY

Defining Research Problem. Objectives & Study Area

Literature review and Expert advice

Decision of GIS models to be used for research and identification of spatial and

Spatial and temporal data collection

Watershed modeling HMS model stabilizes the runoff HEC-HMS Model using rainfall-runoff model

Watershed modeling WMS-GSSHA simulates using WMS Model hydrological process of watershed

Source E-water Model Identification of the present I scenario of water distribution Study of flood and drought situations

Development DSS-HMM System

Design of the water allocation model

AoDlication of HMM model

Figure 1-2 Methodology of the research

32 1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS

The thesis has been organized as outlined in the following paragraphs. Chapter-1 Presents the background and introduces the research along with the need, research aims. Objectives and scope of work. Research Methodology and thesis framework are other major inputs of the chapter. Chapter-2 Literature review of the research work and various references followed during the research work. Chapter-3 Presents the brief description of study area chosen for the study and the details of the data collected satellite images etc. and present the systematic procedure that has been adopted for data collection. Chapter-4 Deals with different kinds of modeling procedures available and describes the vivid study and the modeling of the watershed using the different software while targeting the parameters to be modeled like the water, soil, rainfall etc. It also describes the analysis of the flood, drought and sedimentation studies along with suggestion of mitigation measures to reduce the impacts. Chapter-5 This chapter describes the Decision Support System (DSS) named Hedge Management model (HMM) proposed for the distribution of water as per the Hedge rule and to check the robustness and acceptability of the model using the real time data applications. Chapter-6 This chapter has result and discussions of the research work Chapter-7 This covers the research work conclusions and scope of future work. Appendix I The appendix has part code for the HMM software developed as a DSS system. References made for the work and the publications by the author were provided at the end.

33 Khadakwasla watershed was selected as the research area for devising a Watershed Management Plan to enable planners and decision makers for developmental planning. The various software models were used for the study along with mathematical models to identify the watershed characteristics and behavioral pattern. To identify the objective and scope of work, literature concerning to the subject were studied in-depth and the gaps for research were identified, which has been described in the next chapter with the cited references.