Cybernetics - a brave new world!

Course; 1BA6 Assignment 2 Word count; 2010

This paper will address the development of cybernetic-robotic enhancements for living organisms, their pros, cons, impacts and ramifications. To quote a definition of cybernetics; “Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the structure of regulatory systems.” 1 In slightly easier to comprehend terms; cybernetics is a process of looking at and manipulating a system, or series of linked systems to aid it to function in an improved manner. The field itself was defined by the mathematician Norbert Wiener, and further refined by others such as the business and management expert Anthony Stafford Beer and and psychologist Gordon Pask. Due to popular media, and the general interest at the concept of a self- improving AI using a cybernetic method, many people have now come to associate fields of robotics, engineering and software engineering under the umbrella of cybernetics, while it is only a small branch of a wider science and analytical method which deals with these issues. Herein lies the “Kanga Rat”; as it now a part of the mainstream consciousness to recognise cybernetics as directly related to robotics and human augmentations, so one cannot mention without being misunderstood, except to a small group who would understand its original meaning. However, it is the issues regarding mechanically enhanced humans with self-improving technology, and the field of automated AI we will be addressing.

To place a human face upon the current issue, this paper turns to Kevin Warwick, a man resolved to 'improve' himself: indeed, in his own words; “I was born human. But it was an accident of fate – a condition merely of time and place. I believe it’s something we have the power to change…”2. As of writing this paper, Professor Warwick has completed two experiments upon himself, in the name of becoming a cyborg; a being which is part human, and part machine. He also heads a detail looking into cybernetic AI, with come success. The project culminated in one robot “teaching” another to “walk”, via the internet. Neither of the robots had been programmed at any point to move around, so the first one “learnt” on its own, and then “taught” the second robot.3 There have also been some rather bizarre results, such as an experiment to test the reactive nature of a robot to a changing environment. One such robot reached the logical conclusion of self- termination, as it could no longer deal with its environment.4 Returning to the topic on hand, Professor Warwick's “Project Cyborg”, as it is known, is the “solution” to Prof. Warwick's dilemma of being born human. In August of 1998, Prof. Warwick was implanted with an RFID chip (radio-frequency identification chip). The purpose of this was to test the limits of what the human body could willingly accept in terms of augmentations, and to see if a meaningful signal was still being broadcast by the implant. It allowed him to control many computerised system, such as doors, heaters and lights, without need to lift a finger.5 The second stage of the project was a lot more complex. Prof. Warwick had an electrode array surgically implanted into his arm, which allowed a highly detailed signal to be sent out, enough to manipulate a robotic arm with high precision. He then proceeded to preform complex operations with a mechanical arm in Columbia University, New York, while remaining in the University of Reading himself.6 He then proceeded to implant a much simpler array into his wife's arm, and, using the internet and a series of electrical impulses, they experienced the first ever purely electronic communication experiment between the nervous systems of two humans. As of writing this paper, there has been no measurable loss of function to Prof. Warwick's hand due to the implant. While the potential for the manipulation of sensory data is phenomenal news for people suffering from damage to their nervous system, there are still ethical qualms around the ideas Prof. Warwick proposes. Some do not follow his rather extreme views, wherein the implantation of an RFID chip into a person shouldn't be viewed as anything more than a simple formality, rather than a basic robbery of all privacy. Prof. Warwick holds a rather poor view of humans as a limited and weak species, and is recorded as stating; “Humanity can change itself but hopefully it will be an individual choice. Those who want to stay human can and those who want to evolve into something much more powerful with greater capabilities can. There is no way I want to stay a mere human.”7a

He has also stated; “Genetic changes offer short term, slight modifications. However the step to Cyborgs offers humans a natural, technological upgrade in the technological world we have instigated. Yes I feel it will be the next evolutionary step. Indeed we will need to do it if we are to compete with intelligent machines. ”7b From these two statements, we can gather that Prof. Warwick holds a vision of the future in which he will transcend being “just” human, and wherein intelligent machines are a viable threat, or at least a competitor for dominance. With the learning machines he has helped create and the alterations he has already preformed, these could well be viable scenarios in the near future.

The term “Cyborg” was coined in 1960, by one Manfred Clynes, and was referring to the advantages of a self-regulating, human-machine hybrid, operating in areas completely unsuited to a normal humans' ability, such as deep sea or outer space.8 There are two recognised forms of cyborg; firstly, the “fictional” cyborg. Generally, these are the first forms conjured up in the mind when speaking of cybernetics, mechanical-augmentations and cyborgs in general. They are portrayed as a mesh of organic and synthetic materials, and serve to pose the query of the difference between man and machine, when concerned with morality, free will and empathy. Then there are actual cyborgs; these are people, or organisms, which use cybernetic technology to repair or overcome physical limitations present in their bodies, such as a double-leg amputee being able to walk freely again with with a pair of mechanical legs, or someone suffering from a weak heart having it replaced by an artificial one. Due to this, many people already fit the title of “cyborg”, not just Prof. Warwick, though admittedly he takes it to extremes. Within the field of medicine, there are two recognised forms of “cyborg”; the restorative and the enhanced. While the restorative will be any person or animal which has a less than fully operational body using robotic implants to bring them functionality where there was none, while enhanced cyborgs utilise these procedures to gain the maximum output (of benefits or augmentations) for the minimum input (of energy expended). The later form has been adopted by many disciplines, such as the military using enhanced soldiers, or sports, wherein marathon runners having a leg replaced by a certain model of prosthetic have somewhat improved their speeds.

It is difficult to bring to the fore the topic of cybernetic mechanical enhancements without also entering the realm of transhumanism. Essentially, it is an “international intellectual and cultural movement supporting the use of science and technology to improve human mental and physical characteristics and capacities.” 9 This movement regards the limitations of being human, such as disease, ageing, disability and involuntary death to be unnecessary and undesirable, and wish to correct or affect these negative occurrences using biotechnologies and other emerging technological advances. Because of this definition, Prof. Warwick certainly falls under the heading of being a transhumanist. Due to its rather radical view on the imperfections of humanity, the movement has attracted both strong support and very vocal opposition, with both sides hold very powerful views, such as professor Francis Fukuyama, who calls transhumanism “some sort of odd cult ”10, and detracts the very concept as “the world's most dangerous idea.” In opposition to this, the science editor for Reason magazine, describes it as a "movement that epitomizes the most daring, courageous, imaginative, and idealistic aspirations of humanity"11. Transhumanist impulses have been present in the human race for a long time. Even in the writing of the Epic of Gilgamesh, there has been a form of yearning for immortality, a desire to break the bonds being “simply” human. It has been speculated by many who support transhumanism that all initial developments and improvements would first appear as unnatural and “blasphemous”, before they could be accepted as a necessary part of furthering humanity, either under genetic manipulation, or under human augmentations. Primarily, the technologies of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology and cognitive science are highly valued by the transhumanist movement as highly likely to aid in the ultimate goal of becoming more than human. Despite the promised gains, however, there have been many arguments detracting transhumanism. These generally take two forms; the ethical and the practical criticism. The practical criticism postulates that massive alterations to the human body are simply infeasible on the scale called for by transhumanism, while the ethical criticism states that it is morally infeasible moral principles would be carried over. There are many veins of argument against the movement, such as the Hubris, the Terminator, and the Eugenics war arguments, among others; In the Hubris argument, man cannot exceed being a man through any means other than by spiritual fulfilment (“Changing the genetic identity of man as a human person through the production of an infrahuman being is radically immoral” - The Vatican)12. On the scientific side, there is a call against the concept of “designer babies”, gene manipulation during and prior to pregnancies. This is detracted as the science behind it is still in its infant stage. The Terminator arguments hold as a scaremongering tactic, yet, if considered as a long term issue, could hold weight. Based off the popular “Terminator series”, those who favour this argument believe that as technology advances, so too does the possibility of a cataclysmic failure, resulting in a worldwide disaster. Scenarios such as “grey goo” (wherein a self-replicating nano-machine eventually consumes the entire world, as it will continue to replicate until there is no longer material to convert) and a world wherein AI and robotics are improved to the point where there could be an uprising of mechanical beings, who have a consciousness and desires analogous to our own. The Eugenics war argument could hold the most sway, however, as it plays directly upon the human psyche, and the issues therein. As people begin to alter themselves with the aim of becoming transhuman, they may become recognised as a new race, or something inhuman. Should this happen, it is likely that a form of racism will develop, followed by hate crimes, and eventually culminating (in a very worst case scenario) a genocide by either transhumans or non-transhumans. Transhuman supporters reject the claims of a eugenics war, as the very principle of coercion and the racist and classist assumptions underlying the concept, as they view the genetic manipulations and implantations as a choice, not a forced plan to “perfect” their ideals. Should the concept of a transhuman cyborg be taken seriously by a large military body, there may be great strides taken in these fields of research. Indeed, the idea of developing a “super- soldier” who's capabilities would far exceed those of a normal human would have great appeal to a military body, which could implement these alterations rapidly and over a large number of people. As with most technologies, an interest from a military budget would grant a huge, rapid boost to the field, and may bring the ideal transhuman form closer in one lifetime than most would believe possible.

In conclusion, cybernetics, as a discipline has little to do with the ideas of transhumanism and augmented humans. However, the method which it embodies are necessary parts of the looped cycle of input, action, feedback and reaction to feedback. Prof. Warwick's cyborg actualisation is not exactly totally dependent on cybernetics, but is heavily influenced by this. The “Kanga Rat” of cybernetics may prevail in the mainstream human psyche, but in scientific circles, it remains but a method.

Bibliography.

1 ; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics 2 ; http://www.kevinwarwick.com/ 3 ; Warwick, K: “I, Cyborg”, University of Illinois Press, 200 4 ; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Warwick#Robotics 5 ;http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.02/warwick.html 6 ; Warwick, K, Gasson, M, Hutt, B, Goodhew, I, Kyberd, P, Andrews, B, Teddy, P and Shad, A:“The Application of Implant Technology for Cybernetic Systems” Archives of Neurology, 60(10), pp1369-1373, 2003 7a,b ; http://www.kevinwarwick.com/faq.htm 8 "Cyborgs and Space," in Astronautics (September 1960), by Manfred E. Clynes and Nathan S. Kline. 9 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism 10 http://www.mywire.com/a/ForeignPolicy/Worlds-Most-Dangerous-Ideas/564801?page=4 11 http://www.reason.com/news/show/34867.html 12 http://tinyurl.com/c37p5

Self-grading;

Own ideas How well are your own ideas presented and developed. 0..30 Background How much background reading was done. 0..30 Reading. How deep an understanding has been gained of the material read. The extent, and depth, to which the main ideas discussed in class during the Class ideas 0..40 year are developed in the paper. Is the bibliography properly formatted? Bibliography Is the citing of references properly formatted? -30..0 Are all quotations properly attributed? Is the title page present and correct? Presentation Is the quality of overall presentation acceptable? -30..0 Is the standard of English acceptable?

Own ideas; 24 Background reading; 25 Class ideas; 30 Bibliography; -10 Presentation; -5 Total marks; 64