WINGS ESSAYS ON INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION

THE XERCES SOCIETY FALL 2014 CONTENTS

This issue of Wings is mostly about and moths: their importance as pol- linators; how atalas disappeared from south Florida and then returned; and the chal- lenges in captive rearing of endangered invertebrates such as the quino checkerspot.

Protecting Pollinators: A Critical Issue of Our Time Scott Hoffman Black Page 3.

Butterflies and Moths as Pollinators Candace Fallon, Scott Hoffman Black, and Matthew Shepherd Although butterflies are often dismissed as pollinators, evidence indicates that they and moths do pollinate, and may have specialized relationships with flowers.Page 6.

The Ecological and Social History Of the Atala in Southeast Florida Gil L. Pettigrew Once near extinction, the atala butterfly has made a remarkable recovery.Page 12.

Pupal Cells and Pumpkin Seeds: A Continuing Education in Invertebrate Zoology Paige Howorth Breeding invertebrates in zoos requires ingenuity, but it can assist in the rescue of imperiled and introduce people to these amazing creatures. Page 17.

Conservation Spotlight The Migratory Partnership engages scientists, organizations, and indi- viduals in studying and protecting ’s .Page 22.

Invertebrate Notes A roundup of new books and recent research. Page 24.

Staff Profile Meet Celeste Searles Mazzacano, our aquatic conservation director. Page 26.

Xerces News Updates on Xerces Society projects and successes. Page 27.

2 WINGS Protecting Pollinators: A Critical Issue of Our Time

Scott Hoffman Black

This spring I participated in a meeting agencies titled “Creating a Federal Strat- at the White House to discuss how the egy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees federal government can better respond and Other Pollinators.” Many of the rec- to the threats facing the nation’s polli- ommendations presented at the meet- nators. Both at the meeting and through ing and in our letter to the President a letter to President Obama, I promoted were included in the memorandum, the Xerces Society’s holistic approach to which specifically mentioned native protecting native pollinators such as our bees and monarch butterflies. The Pres- agriculturally important bumble bees ident declared that “it is critical to ex- and the much-loved monarch butterfly. pand Federal efforts and take new steps This approach includes protecting and to reverse pollinator losses and help restoring habitat, and using strategies restore populations to healthy levels.” that minimize the use of insecticides Federal agencies are charged with across farms, urban and suburban areas, creating conservation strategies to ad- and our wild spaces. dress these issues. We are helping these In June, President Obama released agencies by providing guidance, techni- a memorandum to the heads of federal cal support, and pollinator expertise so

The American bumble bee (Bombus pensylvanicus) is one of many bee species in North America that may benefit from federal action result- ing from President Obama’s memo. Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds.

FALL 2014 3 that they can effectively protect pollina- Resources Conservation Service are in- tors and their habitat. Here are just a few volved. I was appointed as one of two examples of our recent collaborations: ex officio members, along with Karen When the “Three Amigos”—Presi- Oberhauser from the University of Min- dent Obama, President Nieto, and Prime nesota, in our role as co-chairs of the Minister Harper— met at the North Monarch Joint Venture. Mexican agen- American Leaders’ Summit in Febru- cies are also working on their portion of ary, they promised more action to pro- the plan. In September I traveled to Valle tect the monarch butterfly. As a result, de Bravo, Mexico, to meet with agencies the North American Monarch Con- in that country, and to provide context servation Plan is being revised. A few about U.S. efforts as well as recommen- weeks ago, under the leadership of the dations for revising the plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, an inter- To conserve monarchs and their agency “High Level Federal Monarch habitat, we are working with U.S. na- Working Group” was formed to address tional wildlife refuges and the other the revisions within the United States. members of the Monarch Joint Venture Agency heads from the U.S. Forest Ser- to provide advice and milkweed seed for vice, the National Park Service, the Bu- monarch restoration efforts; with the reau of Land Management, the Federal U.S. Geological Survey to develop habi- Highway Administration, and the U.S. tat restoration and conservation strate- Department of Agriculture’s Natural gies for monarchs; and with the U.S.

Habitat is the key to sustaining existing populations of bees and butterflies, and is the focus of much of the Xerces Society’s pollinator conservation work. This new habitat strip was planted in fall 2013 by Xerces staff. Photograph by Brianna Borders.

4 WINGS Forest Service to provide feedback on a conservation strategy for monarchs on Forest Service lands. We are also work- ing with NatureServe—whose network of natural heritage programs informs conservation policy across the United States —to update the status assessment for both eastern and western monarch populations. Working with ICF International through a contract with the Federal Highway Administration, Xerces is de- veloping best management practices for pollinator conservation on roadsides. These practices will guide restoration and management by state departments of transportation nationwide. We are working with the Natural Resources Conservation Service to pro- Populations of monarchs (Danaus plexip­ vide additional incentives for pollinator pus) have declined significantly in recent restoration on farms. With guidance years. Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds. from our pollinator staff, new initiatives have enabled growers to restore tens work is well reflected in the report, and of thousands of acres of farmland for our books, reports, and online materials pollinators. are all included as key resources. The first product of the President’s Although we work closely with memorandum has just been released, a many government agencies, we are report from the White House Council also willing to speak up when they are on Environmental Quality that pro- not doing enough for pollinators. For vides guidance on ways that federal instance, we believe that the Environ- agencies can incorporate pollinator- mental Protection Agency should better friendly practices in new construction, regulate toxic insecticides, and we are building renovations, landscaping im- pushing for action through the Saving provements, and facility leasing agree- America’s Pollinators Act. We are also ments at federal facilities and on federal working to get protection for our coun- lands. To put this in context, the federal try’s most imperiled pollinators under government controls or owns more than the Endangered Species Act. forty-one million acres of land and well By partnering with these agencies over four hundred thousand buildings and simultaneously pushing them to in the United States. That’s a lot of prop- do more, we believe that we can achieve erty that can be made better for pollina- better protections for these vitally im- tors—and these actions can act as exam- portant and a more secure fu- ples and catalysts for other governments ture for the generations ahead who will or organizations. The Xerces Society’s rely upon their services.

FALL 2014 5 Butterflies and Moths as Pollinators

Candace Fallon, Scott Hoffman Black, and Matthew Shepherd

In 1862, Charles Darwin received a Nectar in itself does not help the package of orchids from Robert Bate- plant grow, so why on earth does a plant man, a British orchid grower. Darwin produce it? And why do some plants go had been studying the pollination of to such lengths to conceal it so deeply? A orchids for many years, so it was no growing body of evidence suggests that great surprise that people would send moths—and, counter to what many re- him specimens. What was surprising, searchers have long believed, butterflies however, was that one of the orchids as well—are significant pollinators of sported nectaries, tubular spurs from at least some species. And for these ani- the flowers containing nectar at the mals, nectar is the main attraction. bottom, nearly a foot long. In disbelief, For plants, an essential step in re- Darwin wrote to his good friend, bota- producing is pollination, the sharing of nist Joseph Hooker, “Good Heavens! pollen among their own flowers or with What can suck it?” those of other plants of the same species; The orchid was Angraecum sesquipe- the flowers both disseminate their own dale, a beautiful species from Madagas- pollen and receive it from other flowers. car with large, white, six-pointed flow- Plants, though, are —literally—rooted ers. After examining the orchid and ex- to the spot and cannot move about in perimenting with pushing tubes down order to accomplish this transfer. Ap- into its nectaries, Darwin reached the proximately 20 percent of flowering conclusion that the only insect ca- plants release and receive their pollen pable of reaching the nectar would be on the wind, with grasses being one of a moth with an extraordinarily long the major groups of such wind-pollinat- tongue —in fact, far longer than that ed plants. The great majority of flower- of any moth known at the time. Later ing plants, the other roughly 80 percent, that year, Darwin published The Vari- rely on animals, mostly , to move ous Contrivances by which Orchids are their pollen about. Fertilised by Insects, in which he made For some animals, bees in particu- his now-famous prediction that there lar, the pollen is a source of food, reason “must be moths with proboscides capa- enough in itself to visit a flower. But for ble of extension to a length of between many other insects, as well as for birds ten and eleven inches!” He was correct, and other animals, the nourishment although it took more than forty years that draws them is nectar. Brightly col- until anyone found such a moth on ored flowers or heady fragrances adver- Madagascar, a subspecies of the African tise the presence of nectar, and special hawk moth Xanthopan morgani. It was color patterns and markings help to di- given the subspecies name praedicta, in rect the pollinators quickly to their re- recognition of Darwin’s statement. ward. Then, while feeding, the animals

6 WINGS inadvertently pick up pollen grains, known to be pollinators. There are sev- which, as they continue feeding, they eral species of bats that pollinate trees transfer to other flowers of the same in the tropics, and others that pollinate plant species. When nectar is hidden saguaro cacti in the deserts of Mexico deep within the flower, it can ensure and the United States. Non-flying mam- that only a particular pollinator visits a mals that pollinate include sugar-gliders given plant species, and that the visitor in Australia and lemurs on Madagascar; contacts the pollen in just the right way. those lemurs, at more than five pounds Numerous birds pollinate: hum- (two and a half kilograms) may be the mingbirds in the Americas, sunbirds in heaviest pollinators in the world. Africa, honeyeaters in Australia and the The most significant pollinators, Pacific Islands. Some mammals are also however, are tiny: bees (Hymenoptera),

The exceptionally long spurs on the orchid Angraecum sesqui­ pedale led to Charles Darwin’s famous prediction of a moth with a ten-inch-long tongue. Etching by Henry George Moon, 1888.

FALL 2014 7 Pollen is clearly visible attached to the legs of this obscure skipper (Panoquina panoquinoides) drinking nectar from camphor daisy. ­Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds. beetles (Coleoptera), flies (Diptera), and there are photographs of skippers, for butterflies and moths (). instance, in which pollen can be clearly Bees are by far the dominant pollina- seen on their legs and bodies. We have tors of crops, and it is generally agreed observed and documented grass skip- that, in temperate areas of the world, pers (subfamily Hesperiinae) carrying bees are the most important pollina- pollen, and skippers may in fact be im- tors for plants of all kinds. Flies, though, portant pollinators of prairie areas, since become increasingly important for pol- their short legs and stout hairy bodies lination in high-elevation and high- lend themselves to moving pollen from latitude regions, while beetles grow in flower to flower. Similarly, monarch importance in tropical and equatorial butterflies may be seen with pollinia— areas, and are major pollinators of rain- small bundles of pollen—hanging from forest trees. their legs, picked up from the milkweed Which brings us to the Lepidop- flowers they visit. tera. Although not as centrally critical For any animals to be successful for pollination as bees are, butterflies pollinators, they must carry pollen from do play a significant role in the pollina- the flower of a particular kind of plant tion of flowering plants. There is plenty to another flower of the same kind. Bees of established evidence that moths can are efficient pollinators in part because be important pollinators, but some have they demonstrate considerable flower questioned whether butterflies serve constancy, moving consistently among this function at all. Butterflies certainly flowers of the same species and even re- pick up pollen when visiting flowers; turning again and again to a single spe-

8 WINGS cies in separate foraging flights to gather in the meadows and forests of the Pacific more pollen. Although butterflies show Northwest, swallowtails (Papilio spp.) less constancy to flower species, they are pollinators of the Columbia tiger lily are consistently drawn to flowers from (Lilium columbianum). In Central Amer- which they can efficiently get nectar. ica, the firecracker plant Russelia( sp.), a Butterflies and moths may not be as shrub with vibrantly colored flowers, is effective as bees in moving pollen and pollinated by the orange barred sulfur thereby pollinating plants, but, even butterfly ( philea); the shrub’s so, it has been documented that many weeping branches cause its flowers to plants benefit from the transfer of pol- hang in such a way as to make it dif- len by these insects. ficult for other insects to pollinate. In In North America, the western prai- Jamaica, tropical buckeyes (Junonia eva- rie fringed orchid (Platanthera praeclara) rete) pollinate their host plants, includ- is pollinated by several species of hawk- ing porterweed and snakeweed (genus moths in Midwest prairies; the moun- Stachytarpheta). tain parnassian (Parnassius smintheus) Europe also has a number of plants pollinates Senecio and other yellow that are pollinated by Lepidoptera, in flowers in the daisy family in montane particular orchids that are adapted to areas of the western states and north- butterflies and moths. The fragrant or- ward through Canada into Alaska; and chid (Gymnadenia conopsea) and the

Six-spot burnet moth (Zygaena filipendulae) resting on fragrant or- chid, one of several European orchids that has adapted for pollina- tion by moths. Photograph by ArtMechanic, Wikimedia Commons.

FALL 2014 9 closely related short-spurred fragrant ince. What makes this instance most orchid (G. odoratissima) are both pol- notable is that one butterfly, the Table linated by owlet and forester moths. Mountain beauty (Aeropetes tulbaghia), The greater and lesser butterfly orchids is the pollinator of a group of about (Platanthera chlorantha and P. bifolia) fifteen unrelated but visually similar may be misnamed, as owlet and hawk flowers; such dependence on a single moths are their most frequent visitors. species of pollinator is rarely found in Each of these orchids produces copious plants, let alone in a group of different amounts of nectar, unlike the pyrami- species. These flowers all bloom in late dal orchid (Anacamptis pyramidalis) — summer and have large, red flowers with which doesn’t produce any, and which straight, narrow nectar tubes; the but- yet somehow attracts both butterflies terfly appears to be attracted primarily and moths and succeeds in achieving to the red color of the flowers, while the adequate pollination. narrow nectar tubes discourage birds Another example of butterfly-pol- that would otherwise visit red flowers. linated flowers comes from the At least one of these species, the rust red shrublands of ’s Cape Prov- orchid (Disa ferruginea), does not offer

The Table Mountain beauty butterfly (Aeropetes tulbaghia) is the central figure in a web of remarkable plant–insect relationships. More than a dozen similar-looking but unrelated species of flowers rely on the butterfly for pollination. Photograph by Steve Woodhall.

10 WINGS nectar but, instead, in order to attract the butterfly, mimics species that do. Many butterfly-pollinated plants share a set of similar features. They tend to bloom during the day and to provide nectar at the bottom of a long, narrow tube or spur. The flowers, growing singly or clustered together in a group, often have a sweet odor, and typically provide a large enough surface for a butterfly to land upon. The flowers are also in col- ors that butterflies can see, usually red through violet on the color spectrum, and often in ultraviolet. To make it even easier for butterflies to find the nectar (and thus further aid the plant’s repro- ductive success), some plant species have evolved nectar guides— colorful lines or markings on the flower—which help direct the pollinator to the nectar. In some cases, these nectar guides con- The pyramidal orchid tricks butterflies tain ultraviolet patterns that only par- and moths; they visit to drink nectar but ticular flower visitors can see. Flower find none. Photograph by Olivier Prich- species with nectar guides are more fre- ard, Wikimedia Commons. quently visited by pollinators than are those without guides. ular species. As butterflies and moths Nectar is an energy-rich blend of travel from flower to flower to feed, the sugars (typically fructose, glucose, and pollen collecting on them gets brushed sucrose) combined with amino acids, off, increasing the plant’s chances of a sometimes with lipids, antioxidants, successful future. That butterfly you and alkaloids mixed in. It is the primary watch moving about in your garden or food source for most adult butterflies dancing over a meadow brings more and moths and is thus the major attrac- than just beauty. It represents millennia tant to flowers—although, as the pyra- of evolution and carries life with it as it midal and rust red orchids demonstrate, flies in the sunshine. nectar is not entirely necessary if the in- sects can be fooled into visiting anyway. Darwin’s investigation of orchids The authors are entomologists and conser- showed that some plants have adapted vationists who work for the Xerces Society. their shape to ensure pollination. Few of Candace Fallon is a conservation biologist those adaptations are as extreme as foot- for the endangered species program; Scott long nectaries, but many flowers secrete Hoffman Black is the executive director; nectar in spurs whose depth correlates and Matthew Shepherd is the communica- to the length of the tongue of a partic- tions director.

FALL 2014 11 The Ecological and Social History Of the Atala Butterfly in Southeast Florida

Gil L. Pettigrew

Southeast Florida’s atala butterfly (Eu- nineteenth century through the early maeus atala) is an example of a conserva- twentieth, the atala experienced a pre- tion success story. The atala disappeared cipitous decline due to the commercial from many places, reaching its nadir in harvesting of its larval host plant, coon- the middle of the twentieth century tie (Zamia pumila). The effect was com- when the butterfly was believed to have pounded by intensive development of vanished from Florida. Its rediscovery in the butterfly’s pine rockland and coastal 1959 sparked an attempt to reintroduce hammock habitats, and atalas were not the atala to the Everglades National in evidence in Florida from 1937 to 1959. Park and, eventually, led to its return Since that time, their numbers have to gardens and natural areas region- increased, due in large part to the popu- wide thanks to a combination of state- larity of coontie as a garden and land- government protection and the actions scape plant and to the deliberate intro- of a community of enthusiasts. duction of atalas on private and public The fate of the atala is closely tied lands. Even so, the atala is still consid- to that of its host plant. From the late ered a vulnerable species, with many of

The bright colors of the atala butterfly Eumaeus( atala) warn of its unpalatability. Photograph by Scott Zona, Wikimedia Commons.

12 WINGS Coontie has a checkered history in Florida. It is now a popular garden plant and commercially grown for the landscape industry. Photograph by Gil L. Pettigrew. its populations ephemeral or scattered. ecule called cycasin. Invertebrates, The atala is a hairstreak, in the sub- however, are not deterred; ants are sig- family Theclini of the gossamer wing nificant predators of atala eggs in many butterflies. It is large for a hairstreak, localities, and larvae may be taken by as- with a wingspan of up to two inches sassin bugs. As with many other chemi- (five centimeters), and unlike any other: cally protected insects, atalas frequently its velvet-black wings shimmer with aggregate. Adults, pupae, and larvae are blue iridescence; its hind wings sport routinely found in groups, reducing the three curved rows of glittering blue chance for any given individual to be spots and a bold orange patch; and its taken by an inexperienced predator. abdomen is bright orange. Even in its Atalas are active all year in south immature stages, it is distinctive: its Florida, but they are most conspicuous larvae are red-orange with a double row during March and April and again in of yellow spots along each side, and its October through December, when they pupae are solid orange-red. deposit whitish-yellow eggs in small Like its cousin, the Mexican cyca- clusters on the fresh coontie fronds that dian (E. toxea), the atala is aposematic: sprout after spring and fall rains. bright warning colors at all life stages The caterpillars feed on the coontie signal that it is distasteful to most ver- fronds, occasionally defoliating entire tebrate predators due to its ability to plants and causing enough damage for absorb from coontie a neurotoxic mol- gardeners and horticulturalists to re-

FALL 2014 13 Even atala caterpillars have bright colors to warn predators off. Photograph by Patrick Coin, Wikimedia Commons. gard them as pests. Atala larvae pupate quate gene flow. The transient nature of after the fourth or fifth instar, typically atala populations is often a challenge for on or near where they’ve been feeding, conservation, because many introduced with adults emerging within two weeks. populations do not persist. On the other The adults are not very active, spending hand, the butterflies sometimes return much of their time resting in shaded when conditions improve, and they also areas, frequently on large leaves. Nor do establish populations on their own in they fly quickly—their toxicity means suitable areas near existing colonies. they don’t have to. Coontie is the atala’s only native Because not every habitat within Floridian host plant, and the only cycad their range meets their needs, atalas native to the United States. It belongs to occur in small, disjunct, often ephem- a genus comprising fifty species found eral subpopulations within larger meta- in Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central populations. These are found in urban and South America. Although it is a yards, suburban gardens, and a range tropical or subtropical plant, it can en- of natural habitats in Monroe, Miami- dure temperatures of 15 degrees Fahr- Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach coun- enheit (–9.5 degrees Celsius) for short ties. Atalas have been reported from a periods and will thrive well outside the few other counties in south Florida— butterfly’s range. and there are even isolated records from A beautiful plant, coontie is vaguely north Alabama and southern Illinois, al- palm-like, with a squat, rough-barked though these tropical butterflies cannot trunk and bushy fronds of thick, shiny, survive for long in such places. pinnate leaves. It is is durable and able The butterfly’s small, isolated popu- to grow in full sun or partial shade in lations are vulnerable to cold spells, pes- a variety of natural and disturbed en- ticide use, hurricanes, floods, local habi- vironments, although it prefers sandy, tat destruction, and depletion of food well-drained soil. Coontie is also some- plants by overexploitation. Inbreeding what salt-tolerant and can grow near depression may also be a factor, espe- brackish water. This toughness is key cially in introduced populations that to its success in such domestic spaces as originate from a small number of indi- gardens and yards, and even in highway viduals or are too isolated to ensure ade- medians and at bus stops.

14 WINGS Coontie has long been harvested by Conservation Strategy as one of Florida’s indigenous Americans who would grind species in greatest need of conservation. its roots into a starch-rich flour. In the The atala is listed as “vulnerable” by the mid-nineteenth century commercial International Union for Conservation of coontie mills began to be established Nature Red List; and the South Florida around south Florida for the produc- Multi-Species Recovery Plan prepared tion of arrowroot starch, which was by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service used in breads and wafers, as a thick- identifies the atala as a “species of man- ener for soups and gravies, and as laun- agement concern.” dry starch. It takes about five hundred The lack of federal protection, ironi- pounds of coontie root to produce a cally, benefits atalas in one way: these hundred pounds of starch. By the 1920s butterflies can be collected from and the slow-growing plant had been deci- transported to private property without mated in Florida, and it existed only in a permit. The result is an atala “under- fragmented populations. The atala but- ground” of butterfly fanciers. Garden- terfly vanished with it, considered extir- ers plant coontie and exchange atala pated until 1959, when a small popula- chrysalises or caterpillars, establishing tion was discovered in Broward County. informal micropopulations on private Currently, the atala is not federally properties. There have been officially or- listed as endangered or threatened, al- ganized introductions at the Everglades though it does have a number of state National Park, and at state, county, and or regional classifications. It is listed as city parks. Botanical gardens, school rare and vulnerable by the Florida state gardens, and university campuses have government, and it is also listed under also joined in this ­effort. Community the state’s Comprehensive Wildlife organizations, such as local chapters of

Female atala (Eumaeus atala) laying eggs on coontie, the butterfly’s host plant. Photograph by Kenneth Setzer.

FALL 2014 15 the North American Butterfly Associa- butterfly— spurred on by an element tion and south Florida’s Urban Paradise of local pride born of its uniqueness to Guild, have played a role in atala conser- south Florida—has led to many efforts vation via introduction and monitoring to protect it, which have increased the projects. number of atala populations and in- This success has not been universal- dividuals. The atala also serves as an ly applauded. For some people there can umbrella species: creating and preserv- be too much of a good thing, atala-wise. ing habitat for the butterfly can pro- Commercial horticulturalists growing vide living space for other, perhaps less cycads —including non-native species charismatic, invertebrates. The breadth that atalas will eat—consider the butter- of community involvement in sustain- fly a pest, sometimes resorting to lethal ing the atala is remarkable, giving those control to protect their plants. Some, interested a sense of agency and own- on the other hand—the Montgomery ership, and with luck it can serve as a Botanical Center in Coral Gables, for model for the conservation and recov- example —gather problem caterpillars ery of rare butterflies elsewhere. and make them available to gardeners wanting their own atala colony. Despite the efforts and enthusiasm The author is grateful to the following for of gardeners and land managers, the collectively sharing their knowledge, and success rate of atala reintroductions for their dedication to protecting this but- is not precisely known due to a lack of terfly: Sandy Koi, doctoral student at the baseline data on population size, popu- University of Florida; Frank Schena, south lation growth rates, developmental rates Florida eco-historian, naturalist, and at different times of the year, and so on. president of Royal Palm Tours of Miami; Obtaining such fundamental informa- Dr. Susan Koptur, professor of biology at tion, and sharing it with professional Florida International University; Sam Van naturalists and scientists, makes an ex- Leer, executive director of the Urban Para- cellent citizen science project for local dise Guild; Claudia Figueredo and other environmental groups, schools, scouts, Urban Paradise Guild volunteers; and the and families. In the role of a volunteer Miami Blue (Miami) and Atala (Palm steward of butterfly habitat creation Beach) chapters of the North American and rare butterfly reintroduction with Butterfly Association. A version of this ar- the Miami-based Urban Paradise Guild, ticle appeared in the summer 2013 issue of I am working with local volunteers at American Butterflies.) Oleta River State Park, Arch Creek Park, Gil L. Pettigrew is a science and en- and other Urban Paradise Guild project vironmental educator, scientist, creative sites to carry out monthly monitoring. writer, and photographer living in Miami, By recording the number of atalas at var- Florida. He is the visiting Natural Sciences ious life stages every month, it is possible Professor at the College of Micronesia’s to generate simple graphs that show the Kosrae Campus on the island of Kosrae developmental dynamics of the species in the Federated States of Micronesia. He throughout the year. continues to work with the Urban Paradise The enthusiasm for this striking Guild as a consultant.

16 WINGS Pupal Cells and Pumpkin Seeds: A Continuing Education in Invertebrate Zoology

Paige Howorth

A huge bag of oatmeal. Millet spray. at the San Diego Zoo could be seen as Pumpkin seeds. Bulgur wheat. Five jars a punishment amuses me, especially of raw honey. Two local oysters. Three when you consider the vast mystery that scallops. One coconut. As this random is the invertebrate world. I would argue assortment of items rolled along the that there are more challenges—and re- conveyer belt to the cashier at Whole wards—in cracking the code for inverte- Foods, I passed him my zoo credit card brate welfare and reproduction and waited for the inevitable. “The zoo, than for any other taxa. huh?” he said. “What are you feeding?” But giving exhibit space to arthro- That day, it was katydids and coco- pods is a relatively new concept, even nut crabs, but the discovery that I direct for the San Diego Zoo. After maintain- an invertebrate rearing program always ing a temporary exhibit for four years, prompts some interesting follow-up we opened our first dedicated inverte- questions. One of the most common brate facility in 2007 and established ones is this: “Did you go to school for the Entomology Department at the zoo that, or did you get stuck with it?” The in 2009. We currently participate in two idea that working with invertebrates captive rearing programs for endan-

Children have a natural wonder about insects, even when face to face. A love of these animals can lead to a desire to protect and conserve them. Photograph copyright San Diego Zoo.

FALL 2014 17 gered insects, as well as conservation las from Latin America, and millipedes projects for monarch butterflies and from all over. other pollinators. These are our fundamental groups, As a result, invertebrates now have and we use our work with them to guide a firm place in our animal-care divi- the husbandry of related species. Yet be- sion and an entire staff devoted to their cause there are so many poorly known welfare and sustainability. We manage or completely unstudied invertebrates, between thirty and forty species at any we often find more questions than an- given time and rear those species that swers when bringing new species into we are capable of propagating long-term the collection. Indeed, for novel species, (crustaceans with a pelagic, or open it’s very common for our research into ocean, larval stage, for example, are ex- husbandry and natural history to return cluded from these efforts). We also trade a paucity of information. As a result, specimens with our colleagues at other projects undergo substantial trial and insectariums and receive occasional error before a proper diet is discovered, imports from overseas. All of these ani- for example, or the proper substrate for mals are displayed for more than three oviposition (egg laying) is revealed. million visitors a year and are used for A recent case in point: prior to im- hands-on outreach and education. porting dragon-headed katydids (Le- Some of the species we maintain sina intermedia) from Malaysia, we were have fairly straightforward rearing re- unable to learn very much about their quirements, while others are the bane of food preferences or oviposition require- our collective existence. Challenges can ments. From necessity, therefore, we be broad, such as lack of information tried to unravel their natural history on natural diet, behavior in the wild, or through their morphology and behav- requirements for egg incubation. As a ior—and the tinkering began. result, one must be systematic, curious, Dragon-heads have thick, lacerating and contemplative to survive the highs mandibles, much like predatory katy- and lows of “tinkering” in order to meet dids. Although this weaponry is sugges- the needs of such a diverse group. Or, to tive of predation, the dragon-heads re- paraphrase a colleague at a recent Xerces coiled from live insects. We tried seeds, Society workshop on checkerspot but- because those mouthparts seemed to terflies: “You have to think like a larva.” beg to chew or crush something (be- With more than nine hundred sides fingers). While most seed predators thousand named species of insects would have found something to love in alone (and maybe five million species of the peanut butter sticks with oatmeal, insects in total), however, larva-think rice seed, bird seed mix, and honey that isn’t sufficient. Taxonomically speak- we prepared, only the rice seed garnered ing, we rear a variety of stick and leaf even mild interest. We supplemented insects, cockroaches, beetles, mantids, these with vitamin mix and even pro- grasshoppers, and true bugs, as well as vided a “salt lick” in the form of sodium- a selection of aquatic insects. Across re- infused gelatin cubes. lated classes, we raise whip spiders from Eventually, we were stringing lav- Kenya, scorpions from Ghana, tarantu- ish orthopteran-kabobs with every food

18 WINGS Rearing little-studied species such as the dragon-headed katydid (Lesina intermedia) often requires educated guessing. The size and shape of this female’s ovipositor offers clues about how and where she lays her eggs. Photograph copyright San Diego Zoo. item or analog thereof conceivably in yields secrets. The dragon-headed katy- their diet in the wild: various kinds of did’s ovipositor is long, sword-shaped, produce, chitin supplement, bee pol- and thin as a fingernail—yet flexible len, freshly killed insects, fish flake, and strong. We read this message in it: honey, nuts, seeds, grains. Detecting “I require crevices to deliver these eggs, preferred items is often difficult, but the because I can’t penetrate hard wood or “all-in” diet worked, and these scaven- drill into soil.” In the beginning, we of- gers thrived. Pumpkin and sunflower fered soft wood, rife with deep nooks seeds, buckwheat and barley, watery and crannies, as well as split, rotten, produce, and even popcorn topped the palm trunks. palatability list. And we now know that When nothing changed, we planted they do relish insects—they just prefer young banana trees, thinking that the them dead. katydids might deposit eggs in between While healthy, the dragon-head the stems and leaves. Within weeks, population nonetheless remained static. jagged holes appeared at the base of the We never observed evidence of oviposi- plants and, just like that, we had both tion, despite copious mating and sperm eggs and the answers to our questions transfer, and postmortem dissections of about the oviposition behavior and uses female animals routinely revealed an for the intimidating mouthparts. Those abundance of eggs. Something impor- robust mandibles are well-suited for tant was still missing. chewing into plant stems to allow for in- The ovipositor is a specialized tool sertion of the flexible ovipositor, and the for egg deposition, and its structure result is a beautiful arrangement of eggs

FALL 2014 19 deposited between the curved sheaths. of them reside in Australia. The small This type of micro-troubleshooting population on Ball’s Pyramid—the site is readily applicable to the challenges of of their tenuous presence in the wild, an our invertebrate conservation projects. isolated rocky island a dozen miles from Examples are the Lord Howe Island stick Lord Howe Island—awaits reassessment. insect (Dryococelus australis) and the Our puzzle with the Lord Howe Is- quino checkerspot butterfly Euphydryas( land stick insect is diet. So much time editha quino); although both come from has passed since it lived on Lord Howe insect orders with well-established cap- Island that only records of histori- tive husbandry regimes, these two spe- cal host plant preferences exist; when cies defy the baseline methodologies. found on Ball’s Pyramid, the insects The conservation story of the Lord were feeding on one scrappy Melaleuca Howe Island stick insect is as compel- bush. In captivity, however, they have ling as any in the past century. It was now been reared on a number of host believed extinct for more than eighty plants that were not historically in their years, rediscovered on a barren island range. As a result, the main focus of our off the coast of Australia in the early program to date has been on identifying 2000s, and ultimately plucked from the host plant, and creating an adequate the precipice of likely extinction large- plant nursery on zoo grounds to ensure ly by the captive rearing efforts of the the success of this animal. This required Melbourne Zoo. There are only about trips Down Under specifically to retrieve a thousand specimens of these gentle seed and cuttings from host plants un- black giants in the world, and, with available in the United States, as well as the exception of a group in captivity to observe the plant-provision regime at on Lord Howe Island itself, almost all the Melbourne Zoo.

These nymphs of the Lord Howe Island stick insect (Dryococe­ lus australis) were successfully hatched at the San Diego Zoo. Photograph copyright San Diego Zoo.

20 WINGS The endangered quino checkerspot butterfly has a fleeting, yet no less -im portant, relationship with its host plant. The dwarf plantain senesces during the summer from San Diego south into Mexico, and, at this time, the butter- fly larvae hibernate, or enter diapause. Throughout this period, they cease feed- ing, molt into a distinct larval form, and wait for the winter rains to stimulate germination of dwarf plaintain seeds. Part of the quino managed-care proto- col involves creating artificially moist conditions to facilitate “breaking” dia- pause at the proper time. The environ- mental triggers for quino diapause are poorly understood, however, and in the Creating the correct conditions is the key lab larvae grown under exactly the same to successful breeding of the quino check- conditions can follow opposite develop- erspot butterfly (Euphydryas editha quino). mental paths. Some go back to “sleep,” Photograph by Andrew Borcher. while others feed, grow, and become butterflies. Much more study of their burying beetles, ultimately settling on diapause requirements is needed to op- 4.6-to-5.6 ounce (130-to-160 gram) quail timize protocols for rearing and release as a target carcass. in recovery efforts. In closing, I’ll circle back to the ear- As invertebrate populations shrink, lier questions. I deliberately chose this and captive rearing is further utilized path, and I did enthusiastically study for as a tool in conservation planning, it’s it. But “tinkering” is yet another deep great to have people poking around in and interesting rabbit hole. The out- unlikely places for the means to perfect comes—sustainably rearing collection their regimens. We’ve carved out arti- animals, or aiding a conservation proj- ficial pupal cells from floral foam for ect—are the ultimate rewards, but it is rhinoceros beetles and administered the process of identifying the questions commercial blackberry gel solution that sustains curiosity. So, if you can go via syringe to stick insects. Colleagues to school for that, class has long been in in Omaha, Nebraska, use string to fish session—and I am a devoted pupil. out endangered Salt Creek tiger beetle larvae from their burrows to prevent cannibalism; the perfect larval fishing Paige Howorth leads the Entomology De- string was found by unraveling an old partment and the invertebrate conserva- towel. As well, friends in Rhode Island tion programs at the San Diego Zoo. She and Missouri have endured nauseating serves on the steering committee of the As- studies on the proper weight and shape sociation of Zoos and Aquariums’ Terres- of decomposing prey for American trial Invertebrate Taxon Advisory Group.

FALL 2014 21 CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

The Migratory Dragonfly Partnership With their brilliant colors and exuber- Mexico; and throughout the United ant flight, dragonflies and damselflies States, the MDP has already built an in- (, or odonates) are conspicu- ternational network of more than seven ous, appealing, easily recognized resi- hundred volunteers who make observa- dents of almost any freshwater habitat. tions and report data through its two They are also important to the ecology main citizen science projects: Pond of both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Watch and Migration Monitoring. Odonates may seem like a well-studied In Pond Watch, volunteers visit group, but in fact there is still a lot we the same pond or wetland regularly don’t know about their distribution, throughout the year to note the pres- ecology, and behavior—especially when ence (or absence), emergence, and be- it comes to their annual migrations. The haviors of any of the main migratory Migratory Dragonfly Partnership (MDP) species. is working to fill these knowledge gaps In Migration Monitoring, volun- by investigating the annual movements teers report on the timing, duration, and and local life histories of migratory direction of travel of migrating dragon- dragonflies in North America. flies in both fall and spring, and note Formed in 2011 with ongoing sup- any additional behaviors seen, such port from the U.S. Forest Service Inter- as feeding or mating. When gathered national Programs, the MDP is a collab- across a wide geographic range through- oration of scientists, nongovernmental out a span of years, the data from both organizations, academic institutions, of these citizen science projects will pro- and federal agencies from the United vide answers to questions about the fre- States, Mexico, and Canada. quency and timing of migration in dif- The MDP is using research, citizen ferent dragonfly species; sources, routes, science, and education and outreach to and destinations of migrants; and pat- engage volunteers to monitor the five terns of reproduction, adult emergence, main migratory dragonfly species in and movement among migratory drag- North America: common green darner onflies along their flight paths. (Anax junius), wandering glider (Pantala The MDP is also engaging new part- flavescens), spot-winged glider (P. hyme- ners with similar interests. In 2013, the naea), variegated meadowhawk (Sympe- MDP began working with the Hawk Mi- trum corruptum), and black saddlebags gration Association of North America, (Tramea lacerata). With the help of train- and its efforts to increase the number ing and resources provided though the of resources available in Spanish has MDP web site as well as full-day short helped forge new connections and part- courses that have been offered in On- nerships with staff of environmental tario, Canada; Veracruz and Tabasco, and academic organizations in Mexico.

22 WINGS With at least 20 percent of all de- ing landscapes, and provide refuges and scribed odonate species in North Amer- connectivity between green spaces. ica considered to be at risk, the MDP is The MDP has developed Backyard Ponds: also working to raise awareness about Guidelines for Creating and Managing threats to these animals and increase Habitat for Dragonflies and Damselflies to the quality and quantity of the habitats help homeowners and other landown- on which they rely. In the coterminous ers create their own backyard refuges for United States alone, more than half of odonates. the 221 million acres of wetlands that There is still much to learn about existed in the 1600s have been degraded odonates, and anyone who is interested or lost under the pressures of increased can make a real contribution to what we settlement, farming, and industry. know about their migration, ecology, Managing wetlands to meet the needs and distribution. As it enters its third of both wildlife and humans continues year of data collection, the MDP is gain- to be a struggle. The MDP is helping to ing new insights about dragonfly migra- protect at-risk invertebrates by working tion in North America, as well as new with state wildlife agencies to ensure questions to be asked. With the help of that odonates are appropriately repre- an expanding network of volunteers, sented in State Wildlife Action Plans. the MDP looks forward to solving the Backyard habitats are part of larger many riddles of dragonfly migration, ­watershed-wide networks that sustain while increasing protections for vulner- the different life stages of odonates, sup- able dragonfly and damselfly species port biodiversity in urban and urbaniz- along the way.

The Migratory Dragonfly Partnership is working to fill the gaps in our knowl- edge of the life history and movements of North American dragonflies. Fe- male wandering glider (Pantala flavescens), photographed by John C. Abbott.

FALL 2014 23 INVERTEBRATE NOTES

Study Links Pollinator Declines and Global Malnutrition Pollination services are important to pollination, the population was three global food security, but where are they times as likely to suffer from micronu- especially critical to human health and trient deficiencies. nutrition? A recent study mapped the The authors hope that the study micronutrients supported by pollina- will suggest focal areas for research and tor-dependent crops globally, then ana- conservation where continued pollina- lyzed the overlap between human mal- tor declines could have a particularly nutrition and pollinator dependence. devastating effect on human nutrition. In the areas where vitamin A and iron (http://royalsocietypublishing.org/con- production were most dependent upon tent/281/1794/20141799.)

Pesticide Levels Still a Concern for Aquatic Life in U.S. Waterways A recent study by the U.S. Geological The potential for adverse effects on Survey of pesticide levels in U.S. riv- aquatic life may be even greater than the ers and streams shows that aquatic life study suggests, in that many potentially continues to be in trouble. From 1992 important pesticide compounds were to 2011, the proportion of rural and not included in the assessment. Further- mixed-use environments in the study more, recent regional studies in high- that exceeded aquatic-life benchmarks use areas indicate that it is likely that remained about the same, while the neonicotinoid insecticides and fungi- percentage of urban streams containing cides occur frequently in surface waters. insecticides at a level harmful to aquatic (http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ life shot up to 90 percent. es5025367.)

New Books Those of us in the Northern hemisphere ple of the twenty thousand bee species may be entertaining thoughts of hiber- found in our world, with information nation if it’s chilly outside—just like about bees’ life history, pollination ac- many of our invertebrate friends. Re- tivities, and interactions with other ani- gardless of the weather, if you’re look- mals. The book also includes engaging ing to curl up with a good book, why not sections on bee conservation and man- choose one of these recent releases? agement, humans’ interactions with The pages of Bees: A Natural History bees through history, bees’ roles in folk- (Firefly Books) brim with vivid close-up lore and medicine, and backyard bee photographs of its title creatures. Author science. O’Toole’s tone is conversational Christopher O’Toole covers a nice sam- and makes for a very pleasant read.

24 WINGS Beetles of Eastern North America of beetles found east of the Mississippi (Princeton University Press), by en- River. The guide contains sections on tomologist Arthur V. Evans, is an im- identification, natural history, collect- pressively comprehensive field guide, ing, and geographic range for every spe- describing fourteen hundred U.S. and cies and family of beetle covered. Begin- Canadian species and enhanced by ners and longtime enthusiasts alike will more than fifteen hundred photographs find a wealth of information to stoke demonstrating the astounding diversity their beetlemania.

Report Identifies New Drivers of Caribbean Coral Decline Though Caribbean coral reefs have suf- coral ecosystems, resulting in unbridled fered a precipitous decline of more than algal growth that smothers reefs. 50 percent over the past forty years, The IUCN recommends manage- their fate may still be within our con- ment plans to restore grazers. Combined trol, according to a new report from the with policies that address such addi- International Union for Conservation tional threats as coastal pollution, tour- of Nature (IUCN). The effects of climate ism, and development, this could help change are frequently cited as the cause the reefs rebound, making them more of coral declines, but the report identi- resilient in the face of the long-term fies other drivers in the Caribbean: spe- pressures of climate change. (http:// cifically, the loss of the area’s two main www.iucn.org/?16056/From-despair-to- grazers, parrotfish and sea urchins. The repair-Dramatic-decline-of-Caribbean- absence of these species disrupts delicate corals-can-be-reversed.)

Pillar coral (Dendrogyra cylindrus). Photograph courtesy NOAA Photo Library.

FALL 2014 25 STAFF PROFILE

Celeste Searles Mazzacano, Aquatic Conservation Director What got you interested in invertebrates? When I was a kid in Texas, I would res- cue insects from the municipal swim- ming pool, or watch transfixed as beau- tiful, winged adult cicadas emerged from the dull, earthbound shells of their final nymph stage. I would stop and stare as the corpse of an ant I had accidentally crushed on the sidewalk was carted off by its fellows. And when I got bored in school, I would coax a fly to visit by putting a little drop of milk on my desktop, watching as it lowered its mouthparts to sip and then cleaned itself up afterwards like a cat. I saw all of them as tiny, perfect little aliens living among us. Who wouldn’t What music do you have on your iPod? It’s be interested? pretty eclectic, since I like variety: I have Oingo Boingo and Warren Zevon rub- What’s the best thing about your job? Get- bing shoulders with Keb’ Mo’ and the ting to be an entomologist all the time, Carolina Chocolate Drops, the Skatalites and being able to share my love and ap- sharing space with Rufus Wainwright, preciation of these terrific animals with Lyle Lovett and John Hiatt squaring off other people. against Joan Osborne and Sheryl Crow, Who’s in your family? My wife Denise, and the B-52s and the Pretenders mix- who after sixteen years is almost accus- ing it up with They Might Be Giants. tomed to me saying, “here, take this, it Who is (or was) your environmental hero? won’t bite,” as I shove an insect into her I think the first environmental hero I hand to hold while I photograph it. We became aware of when I was young was also have three irrevocably spoiled cats. Jane Goodall. The idea of striking out alone to someplace new and spending What do you do to relax? I go insect hunt- my life observing and learning about ing (particularly for dragonflies) of animals was immensely appealing. course! I also kayak, hike, camp, work out, garden, cook, walk marathons, Where did you study? I got my B.S. in take a lot of nature photographs, fall off genetics and cell biology and earned a of stand-up paddleboards, and play the Ph.D. in entomology at the University harmonica rather badly. of Minnesota, St. Paul.

26 WINGS XERCES NEWS

Xerces Requests Protection for Monarch Butterfly Populations of the monarch butterfly Center for Biological Diversity and the (Danaus plexippus) have declined by Center for Food Safety—in submitting 90 percent in recent years. There are a formal petition to the U.S. Fish and multiple causes of this, including loss Wildlife Service (USFWS) to request that of milkweed-rich breeding habitat due the monarch be listed as “threatened” to the use of herbicides on genetically under the Endangered Species Act. modified crops, loss and degradation The ESA has a provision for scien- of overwintering habitat in Mexico and tists and citizens to provide information California, and extreme weather events to the USFWS to help them determine across its range. what species need to be protected, and In August, the Xerces Society joined Xerces joins a long line of scientific orga- renowned monarch scientist Lincoln nizations that have submitted petitions Brower—and two other nonprofits, the to protect animals.

Meadow blazingstar is a magnet for monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus). Photograph courtesy Minnesota Native Landscapes.

FALL 2014 27 Supporting Changes to U.S. Monarch Protection Strategies In recent months, a revived energy has Agriculture’s Natural Resource Conser- been brought to monarch conservation vation Service to find ways to expand in North America, driven by discussions incentives for pollinator restoration on at the North American Leaders’ Summit farms; working with ICF International early in 2014 and, subsequently, Presi- to develop guidance on management dent Obama issuing a memoran­dum of roadsides for the Federal Highway directing U.S. federal gov­ernment agen- Administration; and collaborating with cies to do what they can to protect the NatureServe to complete a status review butterfly. (See the introduction to this of the monarch in North America. issue of Wings for more detail about the Finally, through the Monarch Joint President’s actions and how the Xerces Venture, Xerces is helping the U.S. Fish Society influenced them.) and Wildlife Service and Mexican agen- Xerces has been protecting mon- cies revise the tri-national North Ameri- archs since the 1980s, placing us in a can Monarch Conservation Plan. Our good position to help. The Society is as- participation includes Xerces executive sisting several federal agencies (includ- director, Scott Hoffman Black, being ap- ing the U.S. Geological Survey and the pointed as an ex officio member of the U.S. Forest Service) in developing mon- inter-agency “High Level Federal Mon- arch conservation strategies. We are also arch Working Group,” formed under the partnering with the U.S. Department of leadership of the USFWS.

Milkweeds: A Conservation Practitioner’s Guide Much of the huge decline suffered by with the latest and most comprehensive monarch butterflies has come about ­science-based milkweed propagation because milkweeds, the obligate food and restoration methods ever compiled source for monarch caterpillars, are dis- in a single publication. appearing from our landscapes in the Since 2010, Xerces’ Project Milk- wake of urban development and agri- weed has worked with the native seed cultural intensification. Responding to industry, the USDA Natural Resources this issue, a new guide from the Xerces Conservation Service, and community Society shows how to bring back our partners to increase the availability of milkweeds and restore habitat for mon- milkweed seed for use in the restoration arch butterflies. of monarch butterfly habitat. These ef- Milkweeds: A Conservation Practi­ forts have resulted in new large-scale tioner’s Guide is a first-of-its kind manual seed production projects in several on large-scale milkweed seed produc- states — and nearly thirty-five million tion, nursery propagation, and field milkweed seeds available for restoration restoration of the plants. This tool pro- projects! With the release of this guide, vides seed producers, native plant nur­ we are pleased to share the knowledge series, conservation agencies, commu- and practical skills developed through nity groups, and other organizations this work.

28 WINGS The information in Milkweeds: A Conservation Practitioner’s Guide has Milkweeds been gathered from interviews with na- A Conservation Practitioner’s Guide tive plant nurseries and seed producers, Plant Ecology, Seed Production Methods, and Habitat Restoration Opportunities gained firsthand through Project Milk- Brianna Borders and Eric Lee-Mäder weed, and synthesized from scientific literature. This 140-page book provides conservation professionals with infor- mation about optimizing milkweed seed production methods, offers guid- ance on incorporating milkweeds into restoration and revegetation efforts, and highlights milkweeds’ unique charac- teristics and value to wildlife. Anyone who is interested in milk- weeds and monarch habitat restoration will find this new guide valuable. You The Xerces Society can download it as a free PDF from our for invertebrate conservation website, www.xerces.org.

Xerces Works to Change the Use of Neonicotinoids Studies from all over the world show ticides. We have helped people in four- that neonicotinoid insecticides are teen states, providing the scientific and steadily poisoning our environment. technical support they needed to suc- Now, a new analysis by the U.S. Environ- ceed. In Reno, Nevada, for example, we mental Protection Agency presents evi- assisted community members to cre- dence that soybean seeds treated with ate twenty-seven pesticide-free parks; neonicotinoids have yields no greater similarly, we helped with city-wide than untreated seeds. Xerces is working neonicotinoid pro­hibitions that have to ensure that this accumulated body of been adopted in Seattle and Spokane, research is considered by policy makers Washington; in Shorewood, Minneso­ and that we move to more ecologically ta; and in Eugene, Oregon. In addition, sound methods of pest control. the Xerces Society served on Oregon’s We are proud to have been a part Task Force on Pollinator Health, which of many efforts around the country to recently delivered its recommendations protect pollinators from harmful pes- to the state legislature.

Saving Freshwater Mussels Last summer, Xerces staff spent two Crystal Springs Creek in Portland’s days working with local volunteers to Westmoreland Park. The creek was to rescue hundreds of native freshwater be restored and the mussels were moved floater mussels (genus Anodonta) from out of the way so the creek could be

FALL 2014 29 Volunteers search for freshwater mussels during re­ location monitoring. Photograph by Dick Dewey. de-watered (temporarily put through a search the area for as many tagged mus- pipe) and reshaped by machinery. The sels as they could find. The survey sug- mussels were relocated to an adjacent gests that more than 95 percent of the upstream stretch of the creek; five hun- relocated mussels are thriving. dred of them were given numbered tags The de-watering of the project area to facilitate subsequent monitoring. did result in the death of any mussels Xerces aquatic program staff Celeste remaining in the empty creekbed; even Mazzacano and Michele Blackburn, to- so, two native floaters like those that gether with volunteers from the Crystal had been relocated were found in the Springs Partnership, returned to the restored section of the creek—an adult creek in September to survey the re- at the downstream end of the restored stored reach. Their goal was to establish reach, and a thumbnail-sized juvenile at the baseline for recolonization, and to the upstream end.

Oil in Our Oceans: New Report Reviews Impacts of Oil Spills In April 2010, an explosion on the Deep- mammals, but the damage goes much water Horizon drilling rig resulted in a deeper, impacting the invertebrates ruptured wellhead five thousand feet that are the basic building blocks of our below the surface of the Gulf of Mexico. marine environment. Oil spills have Crude oil spewed into the depths for affected—and will continue to affect— nearly three months, and at least 193 invertebrates and their habitats across million gallons of oil were released. the globe. There is no question that After such an incident, news broad- spilled oil is highly toxic to marine in- casts and newspapers show us photo- vertebrates and that this toxicity is long- graphs of oiled birds and strug­gling lasting, but, because of the extreme di-

30 WINGS versity of marine invertebrates and the populations and continues affecting relative lack of research, we still know wildlife for years, even decades, after little about the ultimate ecosystem-wide the cleanup crews have left. The report impacts of these events. reviews the significance of invertebrates The Xerces Society has released a to the marine ecosystem and commer- new scientific report,Oil in Our Oceans: cial fisheries, identifies the impacts of oil A Review of Impacts of Oil Spills on Marine spills, and makes recommendations on Invertebrates, to help fill this knowledge how to reduce these impacts. It includes gap. Exploring the effects of oil spills on a section on the Deepwater Horizon, and marine invertebrates, from corals and a series of profiles of species of particular zooplankton to crabs and oysters, the concern in the Gulf of Mexico. report clearly establishes that an oil spill Download a free PDF of the report causes immediate harm to invertebrate from our website, www.xerces.org.

Planned Giving: Your Legacy for Invertebrates A charitable bequest is one of the sim- We highly recommend that you dis- plest ways to provide continuing sup- cuss your planned giving options with port to the Xerces Society beyond your your attorney or financial adviser in lifetime. By making a planned gift order to choose a gift that works best for through your will or estate, you can cre- you and your family. If you would like to ate a personal legacy that will provide inform us of your plans, or if you have lasting benefit for the conservation of further questions, please send an email invertebrates and help preserve these es- to [email protected], or call us at sential creatures for future generations. 855-232-6639.

WINGS, Fall 2014 Volume 37, Number 2 Wings is published twice a year by the Xerces Society, an international, non- profit or­ganization dedicated to protecting the diversity of life through the ­conservation of invertebrates and their habitat. A Xerces Society membership costs $35 per year (tax-deductible) and in­cludes a subscription to Wings. Copyright © 2014 by the Xerces Society. All rights reserved. Xerces Society Exec­utive Director: Scott Hoffman Black; Editors: Scott Hoffman Black, Margo Conner, John Laur­sen, and Matthew Shepherd; Design and ­Production: John Laursen. Printed on recycled paper. For information about membership and our conser­va­tion programs for native pollinators, endangered species, and aquatic invertebrates, contact­ us: THE XERCES SOCIETY FOR INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION 628 Northeast Broadway, Suite 200, Portland, OR 97232 toll-free 855-232-6639 fax 503-233-6794 [email protected] www.xerces.org

FALL 2014 31 Dwarfed by its surroundings—as well as by its antennae —this nymph of a dragon-headed katydid (Lesina intermedia), a Malaysian species, was reared in captivity at the San Diego Zoo. Photograph copyright San Diego Zoo.

THE XERCES SOCIETY FOR INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION 628 Northeast Broadway, Suite 200, Portland, OR 97232

Board of Directors Scientific Advisors David Frazee Johnson May R. Berenbaum Karen Oberhauser President Paul R. Ehrlich Paul A. Opler Linda Craig Wendell Gilgert Dennis Paulson Treasurer Boris Kondratieff Robert Michael Pyle Sacha Spector Claire Kremen Michael Samways Secretary John Losey Cheryl Schultz Logan Lauvray Thomas Lovejoy Robbin Thorp Marla Spivak Scott E. Miller Paul Williams Gary Paul Nabhan E. O. Wilson Piotr Naskrecki Rachael Winfree

A $35 per year Xerces Society membership includes a subscription to Wings.

On the cover: One small population of the Lord Howe Island stick insect (Dryococelus australis) is known to survive in the wild. An international group of zoos is developing a breeding program to ensure a future for this species; the San Diego Zoo is the lone part- ner in the United States. Photograph by Rohan Cleave, Melbourne Zoo.