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5. CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT

5.1 CULTURAL HERITAGE –BUILT HERITAGE AND CULTURAL LANDSCAPES Background

This cultural heritage assessment considers cultural heritage resources pursuant to the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, ’s Environmental Assessment Act, Ontario’s Heritage Act, the Planning Act and the MTO Environmental Guide for Built Heritage and Cultural Heritage Landscapes (2005). This assessment addresses aboveground cultural heritage resources over 50-years old.

In accordance with the policies of both Canada and Ontario, aboveground cultural heritage resources are considered to be aspects of the environment, the effects on which must be evaluated in fulfillment of the requirements of the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act and the Ontario Environmental Assessment Act. The has also recognized the importance of conserving Ontario’s aboveground cultural heritage resources in the Heritage Act, the Planning Act, the PPS (providing “policy direction on matters of provincial interest related to land use planning and development” [MMAH, 2005] pursuant to the Planning Act), and other documents. As well, several local governments throughout the GTA West corridor have officially recognized the desire to properly manage aboveground cultural heritage resources, and to ensure that cultural resource concerns are addressed during the planning stages of development projects.

5.1.1 Heritage Sensitive Areas

The following section presents heritage sensitive areas identified in the County of Wellington and City of Guelph, the Regional Municipality of Halton, the Regional Municipality of Peel, and the Regional Municipality of York. This information was collected from readily available provincial and federal databases, historic research, and GIS mapping. Historic Settlements and Aboveground Cultural Heritage Resources are shown in Exhibit 5-1.

County of Wellington and City of Guelph

City of Guelph

Within the present day City of Guelph, numerous aboveground cultural heritage resources have been designated under the Heritage Act and are concentrated within and surrounding the historic settlement of Guelph, situated near the Highway 6 and Highway 7 junction. Concentrations of properties designated under the Ontario Heritage Act can be found on Albert Street, College Avenue West, Douglas Street, Liverpool Street, London Road West, Oxford Street, Paisley Road, Waterloo Avenue, Woolwich Street, and Wyndham Street. These aboveground cultural heritage resources are associated with early settlement in the Town of Guelph and include several residences, public buildings, and commercial structures. Select National Historic Sites have been retained in the City of Guelph, including Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception Church overlooking the City of Guelph, the McCrae Birthplace Museum

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GTA West Corridor Planning And Environmental Bathurst Street Cultural Heritage Features Assessment ") Bank ") Inn ") Jane Street 15 Sideroad Study - Stage 1 ") Bridge ") Library KING King Road Highway 9 ") Cemetery ") Mill Highway 27 Weston Road Overview of ") Old Church Road Church ") Municipal Building ") ") Environmental ") Commercial Building ") Post Office/General Store ")")") ") Conditions and ") Farm ") Railway Station Road Caledon Village ") Constraints Working ") Fire Hall ") School ") ")")") ") Paper ") ") School/Hall ") Hall ") VAUGHAN Highway 407 ") Hotel ") Store Exhibit 5 - 1 Highway 50

") ") Highway 400 House Miscellaneous The Grange Sideroad ") Historic Euro-Canadian ") Mayfield Road King Street ") ") ") Settlements and CALEDON EAST ")") ")")") ") Above-ground Cultural Dixie Road ") Olde Baseline Road ") Heritage Resources Hurontario Street ") ") ") ") Legend Erin-Garafraxa Townline )"Cheltenham Highway 6 GTA West Preliminary ") ") Study Area ") Municipal Boundary ERIN Ospringe ") Roadway Grand River )" ")")")") ")")") Heritage Rivers

Highway 6 7 Highway ") Royal York Road ") Highway 407Highway 410 Historic Settlement Highway 124 Everton ") Highway 401 Centres ") ") Queen Street West ") ")") ") ") Crewson’s Corners ") ") Trafalgar Road GUELPH/ERAMOSA

Highway 7

407 Highway ") Highway 403 Ariss Erin Mills Parkway Hamilton Drive ") ") Marden Road GUELPH ") ") ") 401 Highway ")")")")") ") ")")")")")")")")")") ")") ") ") ")")")")")") ")")")")") First Line ")") ")")") ") ") ") ") ") 403 Highway Tremaine Road")") Date: MAY 2010 Highway 7 ")")")") ")")")") Derry Road West Campbellville Road 02.55km PUSLINCH ") Data were provided by the Ministry of Natural Resources Highway 24 407 Highway through the Land Information Ontario (LIO) and Natural Resources Value Information Services (NRVIS) databases, HAMILTON Ministry of Culture and Parks Canada. 401 Highway Mapping was prepared by Ecoplans Limited under licence ") Highway 6 with the Ministry of Natural Resources

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located on Water Street near McCrae Boulevard, and the Guelph City Hall and Annex located on Carden Street, near Wyndham Street South.

Gow’s Bridge

Gow’s Bridge, constructed in 1897, is listed on the Ontario Heritage Bridge List and designated under Part IV of the Ontario Heritage Act. Alterations to bridges on this list are subject to a heritage impact assessment and to the approval of the Ontario Ministry of Culture. Gow’s Bridge is located on McCrae Boulevard and based on geographical maps is situated south of Raymond Street and west of Gordon Street.

McQuillan’s Bridge

McQuillan’s Bridge, a concrete bowstring arch with single cross tie constructed in 1917, is listed on the Ontario Heritage Bridge List. McQuillan’s Bridge is located on Stone Road East, east of Victoria Road and South of York.

Heffernan Street Bridge

The Heffernan Street Bridge, a footbridge constructed in 1914, is designated under Part IV of the Ontario Heritage Act. The Heffernan Street Bridge spans the Speed River, east of Eramosa Road.

Norwich Street Bridge

The Norwich Street Bridge, a single span steel and iron bridge constructed in 1882, is designated under Part IV of the Ontario Heritage Act. The bridge spans the Speed River, just west of Eramosa Road.

Township of Puslinch

Based on data collection and GIS mapping, limited aboveground cultural heritage resources have been identified in this area of the township. However, the Puslinch Township Bridge No. 10 has been identified as a Class C structure in the Heritage Bridges Identification and Assessment Guide, Ontario 1945-1965. This rectangular voided slab bridge was constructed in 1959 and carries Highway 6 over Highway 401, near the community of Morristown.

Regional Municipality of Halton

Town of Milton

Within the present day Town of Milton, a number of aboveground cultural heritage resources have been designated in association with the historic settlements of Darbyville, Nassagaweya, Huttonville, and Milton. Select features are concentrated just east and west of Guelph Line between 25th Sideroad and 15th Sideroad. The historic Town of Milton continues to retain a number of aboveground cultural heritage resources concentrated near the Bronte Street North and Main Street East intersection. A number of residential features are particularly concentrated on Mill Street and provide an impression of mid-nineteenth century development in the historic Town of Milton. Additional notable aboveground cultural heritage resources are located on Chris Hadfield Way, King Street, Bronte Street, and Main Street East and include the

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Grand Trunk Railway Station, a former Registry Office, the Bronte Pioneer Cemetery, and an Old Town Hall, respectively.

Town of Halton Hills

Within the present day Town of Halton Hills, a select number of aboveground cultural heritage resources are concentrated around the historic settlements of Georgetown, Norval, and Glen Williams. Features are concentrated at the Mountain View Road North and Main Street intersection, and north and south of Highway 7 at Mountain View Road North. Three features are concentrated north of Embleton Road, on Third Line and Regional Road 25 and in association with the historic settlement of Speyside.

Regional Municipality of Peel

Town of Caledon

A number of aboveground cultural heritage resources have been designated under Part IV of the Heritage Act in the Town of Caledon. Based on data collection and GIS mapping, a number of features are situated between Chingacousy Road and Creditview Road, south of Boston Mills Road. It is also expected that a number of aboveground cultural heritage resources will be concentrated near the historic settlement of Cheltenham, (between Mississauga Road and Creditview Road, north of King Street) and near the historic settlement of Terra Cotta, (King Street, east of Mississauga Road). Currently, a cultural heritage landscape study is under review of the historic settlement of Rockside, (with a southern boundary at Old Baseline Road). It is expected that a number of aboveground cultural heritage resources will be concentrated in this area. A number of aboveground cultural heritage resources are also located on King Street, east of Airport Road and concentrated around the historic settlement of Bolton. Aboveground cultural heritage resources located in the present day Town of Caledon will be concentrated in the eastern and western quadrants of the portion of the Town of Caledon that is situated in the Preliminary Study Area and with a southerly boundary of Mayfield Road (southerly limit of the Town of Caledon).

Steel Truss Bridge on Glasgow Road

This steel truss bridge, constructed in 1915, is designated under Part IV of the Ontario Heritage Act. This steel truss bridge crosses the Humber River, west of Regional Road 50 and just north of King Street.

Steel Truss Bridge on Sneath Road

This steel truss bridge, constructed in 1915, is designated under Part IV of the Ontario Heritage Act. This steel truss bridge crosses the Humber River, east of Regional Road 50 and south of King Street east. Based on geographical mapping, this bridge is situated in the Township of King east of the Caledon-King Township line, however, it is listed as located in the Town of Caledon on the Ministry of Culture’s database.

City of Brampton

A number of aboveground cultural heritage resources in the City of Brampton have been designated under Part IV of the Heritage Act. A number of features are located in close

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proximity to the historic settlement of Brampton and concentrated north and south of Embleton Road at Hurontario Street/Highway 10. A select grouping of features are also located south of Embleton Road, between Winston Churchill Boulevard and Chingacousy Road and are associated with the historic settlements of Huttonville and Churchville. It is expected that additional aboveground cultural heritage resources will be concentrated near the historic settlement of Churchville, as the City of Brampton has designated this area as a Heritage Conservation District under Part V of the Ontario Heritage Act.

Bowstring Arch Bridge

This bowstring arch bridge, constructed in the early twentieth century, is designated under Part IV of the Heritage Act. This bridge spans the Credit River and is located at Creditview Road, north of Steeles Avenue West. The bridge stands as a contextual landmark in the City of Brampton and is associated with the historical development along Creditview Road.

Regional Municipality of York

City of Vaughan

Within the City of Vaughan, a number of aboveground cultural heritage resources have been designated under Part IV of the Heritage Act. Concentrated features can be found in proximity to the historic settlements of Woodbridge and Kleinburg. Near the historic settlement and the present day Village of Kleinburg, a number of features are located on Islington Avenue, near the Regional Road 27 junction. A number of these features include residences associated with early settlers, as well as the Kleinburg Railway Station, the Kleinburg General Store and Post Office. A number of other features are also concentrated around the historic settlements of Woodbridge and Brownsville. Aboveground cultural heritage resources located in this area can be found on Kipling Avenue, Woodbridge Avenue, and Nashville Road.

Underpass at Maple Side Road

The Highway 400 underpass at Maple Side Road in the City of Vaughan has been identified in the Heritage Bridges Identification and Assessment Guide, Ontario 1945-1965 as a Class B structure. This rectangular voided slab frame bridge was constructed in 1949 and based on available information, this structure is located at the Major Mackenzie Drive and Highway 400 junction.

Township of King

Based on data collection and GIS mapping, limited aboveground cultural heritage resources are concentrated in the portion of the Township of King that is located within the Preliminary Study Area. However, one Highway 400 underpass located in the Township of King has been identified in the Heritage Bridges Identification and Assessment Guide, Ontario 1945-1965 as a Class B structure. The King Sideroad Underpass is a box beam bridge, constructed in 1959. This underpass is located at King Sideroad and Highway 400.

Aboveground Cultural Heritage Resources

Based on a search of the Ontario Ministry of Culture Heritage Properties Database and the National Historic Sites Register, a list of cultural heritage features within the Preliminary Study

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Area has been prepared. The preliminary search has yielded over 200 aboveground cultural heritage resources. These features have been designated under: Part IV and Part V of the Heritage Act; the Railway Stations Protection Act, the Ontario Heritage Bridge List and the Heritage Bridges Identification and Assessment Guide, Ontario 1945-1965. Certain features have also been identified as provincially owned heritage properties, issued an Ontario Heritage Trust Easement, listed on municipal inventories, identified with a provincial plaque, and protected as a National Historic Site.

Significant/Sensitive Built and Cultural Landscapes: Summarized

The results of the background historic research and data on identified aboveground cultural heritage resources, available from provincial and federal databases, reveals a Preliminary Study Area with a long history of Euro-Canadian occupation and a large number of heritage sensitive areas and features.

Within the Preliminary Study Area there are:

 Eight aggregate areas of heritage sensitivity;

 Three National Historic Sites;

 197 features designated under Part IV of the Heritage Act;

 One heritage conservation district designated under Part V of the Heritage Act and one additional heritage conservation district currently in the planning stages;

 Two bridges identified on the Ontario Heritage Bridge List, six bridges protected under Part IV of the Heritage Act, and three bridges identified in the Ontario Heritage Bridges Identification and Assessment Guide, Ontario 1945-1965 as a Class A, B, or C structure;

 One provincially owned heritage property;

 Nine properties that have Ontario Heritage Trust Easements;

 One property that has a provincial plaque;

 Three properties that have been protected under the Railway Stations Protection Act; and

 One property listed on the Ministry of Culture’s Ontario Heritage Properties Database as identified on municipal heritage inventories.

With regards to the last bullet in this list, though this feature was included during data collection and analysis and has been mapped using GIS data coordinates, it should be noted that features listed on municipal heritage inventories are not consistently or typically listed on the Ontario Heritage Properties Database, and as such these features are not indicative of the amount or breadth of aboveground cultural heritage resources located in the Preliminary Study Area that have been identified by municipal levels of government as being of heritage interest and/or listed on local heritage inventories. Given that several municipalities located in the Preliminary Study Area have active municipal heritage committees and developed heritage inventories, it is anticipated that a number of additional cultural heritage resources will be revealed when municipal heritage inventories are consulted. It should also be noted that data collection of

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previously identified aboveground cultural heritage resources does not include information pertaining to historic roads and has not provided an exhaustive listing of cemeteries located in the Preliminary Study Area.

During the process for generating, evaluating, and selecting the transportation planning alternatives, a built heritage and cultural landscape study will be undertaken at a level of detail sufficient to support the objectives of this stage of the EA study. Nationally and provincially recognized built heritage features and significant cultural heritage landscapes will be identified through reviews of readily available databases. Additional aboveground cultural heritage resources will be identified by reviewing available built heritage lists and locally established inventories. Following identification of aboveground cultural heritage resources, a cultural heritage inventory will be compiled for the process of generation, evaluating, and selecting the provincial roadway alternatives. Potential typical effects of the project on built heritage features and cultural landscape units will be identified and recommendations and mitigation measures will be developed as appropriate.

5.2 CULTURAL HERITAGE – ARCHAEOLOGY

5.2.1 Background

In accordance with the policies of both Canada and Ontario, archaeological resources are considered to be aspects of the environment, the effects on which must be evaluated in fulfillment of the requirements of the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act and Ontario’s Environmental Assessment Act. The Government of Ontario has also recognized the importance of conserving Ontario’s archaeological resources in the Heritage Act, the Planning Act, the PPS, and other documents. As well, several local governments throughout the GTA West Preliminary Study Area have officially recognized the desire to properly manage archaeological resources, and to ensure that archaeological concerns are addressed during the planning stages of development projects.

Archaeological assessment activities during planning, design, construction, and operation/maintenance of the GTA West corridor must conform to the legislation and policies (provincial and federal, as applicable) governing cultural heritage preservation and archaeological assessment/excavation in Ontario, and must be undertaken in accordance with the technical guidelines and requirements for archaeological assessment set out by the Ministry of Culture (1993; 2006).

Of special significance for alternatives evaluation are those sites which represent locations of human burial. Such sites are the most significant and sensitive archaeological resources. It should be noted that First Nations habitation sites, especially village sites, present the distinct possibility that burials are present both in close proximity to and within the habitation area, area of artifact concentration, or archaeological site limits. As well, large secondary interment pits known as ossuaries containing the remains of numerous individuals are known to have been associated with First Nations sites. It cannot be assumed that impacts to First Nations archaeological sites can be mitigated by archaeological excavation (i.e. Stage 3 testing and Stage 4 salvage excavation). The decisions to excavate, protect or avoid First Nations archaeological sites within the region should be made through discussions with First Nations.

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5.2.2 Pre-Contact and Contact Aboriginal History

This section provides a brief description of First Nations cultural history in south central Ontario. Exhibit 5-2 also provides a summary of First Nations history in Ontario prior to the onset of Euro-Canadian settlement.

The arrival of the first bands of hunter-gathers is thought to have occurred sometime between approximately 10,500 and 11,000 years ago. Before this time, the glaciers that stretched across most of North America covered southern Ontario. As these glaciers began to retreat, large melt water lakes formed in their wake and continued to cover much of southern Ontario. The landscape that subsequently emerged was one of relatively barren tundra interspersed with areas of open boreal forest. Populations during this period were small and highly mobile, traversing vast areas as they followed herds of caribou.

Between 7000 B.C. and A.D. 500 people continued to live in small, highly mobile bands, although in certain areas there is evidence to suggest by about 3000 B.C., increased population levels within smaller areas exploded during the course of the annual round. Sites were larger and occupied for longer periods of time.

By about 2000 B.C., these hunter-gatherer bands had likely settled into familiar hunting territories. There is some evidence to suggest that the majority of people spoke some form of Algonquian by 4,000 years ago, if not before.

The period between A.D. 500 and 1600 saw the gradual appearance of agriculture in many parts of southcentral Ontario. By about A.D. 1300, agriculture represented the main subsistence pursuit of all those groups who lived in the areas of suitable farm land, while groups in more marginal areas might either have traded for domesticated food crops or produced small quantities of their own. The agriculturalists, for the most part, inhabited large semi-permanent villages and spoke some form of Iroquoian language. Precisely how this language emerged as the dominant-spoken language in the region is unknown. Also unknown is the origin of the distinction between Iroquoian and Algonquian-speakers in southern Ontario, given that relationships between groups were complex and dynamic, and individual communities often had ties with both their immediate neighbours as well as much more distant groups.

By about 1650, intertribal warfare within the Five Nations Iroquois of New York State (the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida and Mohawk), combined with the spread of European epidemic diseases, resulted in the dispersal of the Huron, Petun and neutral Iroquoian confederacies in Ontario and many of their Algonquian-speaking allies of the southern Canadian Shield.

In the 1670’s, the Five Nations Iroquois established a series of short-lived settlements at strategic locations along the routes inland from the north shore of . At about the same time, the Mississaugas of the New Credit and other Ojibwa groups began expanding southward from the upper great lakes and coming into occasional conflict with the New York Iroquois, despite the creation of alliances between the two groups.

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Exhibit 5-2: Aboriginal Temporal/Cultural Periods Date Period Description A.D. 1600- 1780 Contact Period - First Nations population displacements, movements (Huron, Petun, New York Iroquois, and Ojibwa,) and French Regime. A.D. 1400 - 1600 Late Woodland - Complex agricultural society. (Late Iroquoian) - Villages, hamlets, and camps. - Politically allied regional populations. A.D. 1300 - 1400 Late Woodland - Agricultural dependency. (Middle Iroquoian) - Villages, hamlets, and camps. - Development of socio-political complexity. A.D. 900 - 1300 Late Woodland - Limited agriculture and foraging. (Early Iroquoian) - Villages, hamlets, and camps. - Socio-political system strongly kinship based. A.D. 800 - 900 Transitional - Incipient agriculture in some regions. Woodland - Longer term settlement occupation and reuse. 400 B.C. – A.D. 800 Middle Woodland - First appearance of maize in the archaeological record. - Hunter-gatherers, spring/summer congregation and fall/winter dispersal. - Large and small camps. - Band level society with kin-based political system. - Some elaborate mortuary ceremonialism. 1000 - 400 B.C. Early Woodland - Hunter-gatherers, spring/summer congregation and fall/winter dispersal. - Large and small camps. - Band level society with first evidence of community identity. - Mortuary ceremonialism. - Extensive trade networks for exotic raw materials. 7000 - 1000 B.C. Archaic - Hunter-gatherers. - Small camps. - Band level society. - Mortuary ceremonialism. - Extensive trade networks for exotic raw materials. 9000 - 7000 B.C. Paleoindian - First human occupation of Ontario. - Hunters of caribou and now-extinct Pleistocene mammals. - Small camps. - Band level society.

5.2.3 Thematic Overview of Euro-Canadian History

The historical themes described in this section identify various agents of change in the landscape that could be represented in archaeological deposits. A number of themes have been derived, including military events, early Euro-Canadian settlement, township surveys, settlement centres, transportation, and economic activity. It should be noted, however, that this thematic overview is broad and is not intended to provide a history of the Preliminary Study Area. Also, in view of the large size of the Preliminary Study Area, the thematic research was restricted only to those lands located within the Preliminary Study Area. The following review

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summarizes history prior to the mid-19th Century. When the area of analysis is narrowed in subsequent phases of the project, more specific historic period background will be required.

Military Activity

Early historic activity was focused along the Lake Ontario shore, and the activities there determined the later course of events in the Preliminary Study Area, 15 km inland.

The first Europeans to arrive were transient merchants and traders from France and England, who wisely followed First Nations pathways and set up trading posts at strategic locations where the various waterways and overland trails met the Lake Ontario shore. Fort Rouille, also known as Fort Toronto, just east of the Humber River mouth, was an important early outpost. It was built in 1759, the same year as Fort Niagara, and was little more than a fortified trading post operated by a dozen men. Its north shore location enabled the French to deal with the First Nations fur traders before they could cross the lake to trade with the English on the opposite shore (ASI, 2004). The fort was later burned and abandoned by the French during the Seven Years War.

Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe established Fort York in 1793 on the west side of the outlet of the Don River. This location was convenient to lake travel as well as to waterways such as the Humber and Don Rivers by which the interior could be accessed. Of particular importance was the Humber River since it was part of the Toronto Passage, the primary north- south route between Lake Ontario, Lake Simcoe, and Georgian Bay (ASI, 2004).

During the War of 1812, major battles were fought in the Town of York, and the town and the fort were lost by the British, only to be reclaimed a few months later (Benn, 1984; 1993). Troops used to move along the north shore of Lake Ontario, and several incidents of looting were reported (Benn, 1984; 1993). However, the action was confined to the lakeshore, and there was no action in the Preliminary Study Area.

Early Euro-Canadian Settlement and Survey of Townships

Euro-Canadian settlement in the Study Area spread west from the area nearest Yonge Street. Vaughan Township and King Township were part of lands purchased from the Mississaugas of the New Credit in 1784, and their surveys were initiated respectively in 1793 and in 1800. Within a few years, land patents were being registered. The early settlers in both townships were comprised of the children of Loyalists as well as immigrants. In Vaughan Township, American Pennsylvania Dutch, Huguenots and Quakers predominated while in King Township, the immigrants included English, Irish, and Scotch as well as American Quakers (Armstrong, 1985; Reaman, 1971).

The 1793 land purchase included the lands that would become Puslinch Township in Wellington County. The War of 1812 however, disrupted the economy and halted the flow of immigrants to Ontario and it was not until after the Treaty of Ghent was signed in 1814, that there was a renewed interest in emigration from overseas, particularly the British Isles, and from the United States. Puslinch was not surveyed until 1828. The Puslinch Township settlers were the children of Loyalists, soldiers from the War of 1812, and immigrants, particularly Highlanders and Germans (Puslinch Historical Committee, 1967; Armstrong, 1985).

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The Townships of Chinguacousy and Toronto Gore in Peel County were created from a portion of lands purchased from the Mississaugas of the New Credit in 1805. The lands for the remaining Preliminary Study Area townships were all part of lands acquired in 1818. They are Equesing and Nassagaweya in Halton County, Albion and Caledon in Peel County, and Eramosa and Erin in Wellington County. These townships were all surveyed in 1818 and 1819, and immediately settled by children of Loyalists, soldiers from the War of 1812, and immigrants, largely from England, Scotland and Ireland (Armstrong, 1985; Erin, 1967; McMillan, 1974; Day 1953; Tavender, 1967).

Transportation

First Nations Trails and Early Roads

Trails used by the First Nations people became the foundation for many of the early roads. Because these trails took into account topographical features, their non-linear patterns stand in contrast to the straight lines of the military grid used by later surveyors. Foot trails became wagon trails and, with increased traffic, later became roads. As settlements grew and traffic increased, toll gates, taverns, and other services for travelers were established where major roads crossed. For the most part, the early trails were later incorporated into present-day roads, although some original trail segments still exist.

Among the important primary roads were several routes that led to lake ports such as the Guelph Line to Port Nelson and the Centre Line to Aldershot (Port Flamborough) (Loverseed, 1988). These routes were of particular importance in the third quarter of the 19th Century before the construction of the railways.

Early Railways and Waterways

Rail lines were constructed in the 1850’s, and they provided increased capacity for moving goods to market. The first railway in the Study Area was the Northern Railway Company of Canada line constructed in 1853 which connected Toronto to Collingwood on Lake Huron (Andreae, 1997). Within three years, the Grand Trunk line had been built extending westward from Toronto through Georgetown, Guelph, and to points west. In the 1870s, in another period of railway growth, a number of interconnecting lines were constructed (Andreae, 1997). Their intersection at Georgetown, Guelph and Inglewood, resulted in a boom in the growth of those communities as transportation centres.

Economic Activity

The locations of the many scattered villages were originally determined by their proximity to water-powered mills and transportation routes. Where water power was available, saw mills were constructed to provide the ability to transform the ubiquitous timber into building materials. Soon after the saw mill, a grist mill was established, followed by a blacksmith and a variety of trades and services to support the needs of industry and settlers.

5.2.4 Previous Archaeological Research

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To compile an inventory of registered archaeological sites within the Preliminary Study Area, the Ontario Archaeological Sites Database (OASD) was consulted. Since 1974, all archaeological sites for the Province have been registered with the OASD and maintained by the Heritage Operations Unit of the Ministry of Culture. This database is the official, central repository of all site information for the Province collected under the Heritage Act (1974, 1980, and 2005). An associated Geographic Information System (GIS) has been developed by Ministry of Culture Staff.

Within the OASD, registered archaeological sites are organized within the “Borden” system, which is based on blocks of latitude and longitude, each measuring approximately 13 km east- west by 18.5 km north-south. Each block is assigned a unique four letter designator and sites within each block are numbered sequentially as they are found. The Preliminary Study Area includes lands within the AiGx, AiHa, AiHb, AjGw, AhGx, AjHa, AjHb, AhGv, AkGw, AkGx, AkHa, AkHb, AlGv, and AlGw blocks.

An inventory of some 823 registered archaeological sites for the Preliminary Study Area was compiled by the Ministry of Culture (von Bitter, 2007). The OASD records the site locations (for most sites) by Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates, and these coordinates were used to locate the sites on the Preliminary Study Area base mapping. Further enumeration of site attributes is not part of the present study, but will be included when the area of analysis is refined in subsequent phases of the EA study.

5.2.5 Modelling Criteria

Three criteria were employed for the purpose of defining a zone of potential for pre-contact First Nations archaeological sites: proximity to registered sites; proximity to water and soils. The rationale for employing these criteria is outlined in the following section. The mapped results illustrate the distribution of registered sites, as well as the buffers of these sites and the other modelling criteria.

Proximity to Registered Archaeological Sites

The presence of registered archaeological tend to support the increased potential for additional sites in the vicinity, as certain environmental factors often attracted repeated visits to, or settlement of, such localities. Accordingly, Ministry of Culture guidelines recommend a buffer of 250 m around registered sites. The archaeological master plans in the area employ buffers of 100 m around most sites, but 200 m around Late Woodland villages. For the purposes of the GTA West study, at this scale of analysis, a 250 m buffer around registered sites is assumed to be appropriate. UTM coordinates for registered archaeological sites within the Preliminary Study Area were obtained from the OASD together with the Borden site registration number. Together these were used to generate points in the GIS which were then buffered at 250 m to create the first component of the site potential zone.

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Distance to Water

The best “broad-spectrum” modelling criterion developed to date is the one originally identified in the “Ontario Hydro Distance to Water Model”, also known as simply “the Hydro Model”. Due to the fact that water is arguably the most fundamental human resource, distance to water has been shown repeatedly to be a powerful indicator of archaeological potential. Also, given the difficulty of medium-to-long-distance land travel, the proximity of navigable waterways is also considered to have had a significant influence on First Nations land use. Thus, the universality of the need for this resource, together with the fact that water sources have remained relatively stable in southern Ontario since the late Pleistocene, makes proximity to water a useful index for the evaluation of archaeological site potential.

Previous modelling exercises adjacent to the GTA West Preliminary Study Area provide some quantitative measures of the utility of the distance-to-water criterion. For example, the model devised for the Region of Halton Archaeological Master Plan determined that a 200 m buffer from water sources captured 85% of campsites, 87% of Late Woodland villages, and more than 80% of findspots and unregistered sites. The predictability of the model was even stronger when the zone of potential was measured from the top of the creek or river valley rather than from the water’s edge (ASI, 1998a).

The Ministry of Culture (2006) Standards and Guidelines for Consulting Archaeologists stipulates that undisturbed land within 300 m of a primary water source (e.g., lakeshore, river, or large creek), undisturbed land within 200 m of a secondary water source (e.g., stream, spring, marsh, or swamp), as well as undisturbed land within 300 m of an ancient water source (as indicated by remnant beaches, shore cliffs, terraces, abandoned river channel features, etc.), are considered to have archaeological potential. Since primary versus secondary water sources could not be distinguished at the resolution of the project GIS mapping for the GTA West study, all hydrographic features were buffered at 300 m in keeping with the master plan findings outlined above and Ministry of Culture guidelines.

It should be noted that previous studies have identified significant gaps in the hydrographic network as presented on the OBM 1:10,000 scale map series. Reviews of historic maps have illustrated how many watercourses have disappeared or have been extensively modified and/or wetlands drained in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries. Further ancient watercourses have not been mapped within the current GIS layers, therefore it will be necessary to address this issue in subsequent, more detailed archaeological assessments that will be carried out as the GTA West Corridor Planning and EA Study moves forward.

Soils

Previous studies have focused on identifying correlations between site location and soils. When the distribution of camps and villages in the Region of Halton was compared with soil texture, drainage, and capacity for agriculture, it was noted that the soils above and below the Escarpment differed remarkably. Below the Escarpment, on the South Slopes till plain, clay loams predominate: 76% are Class 1 or 2 for agriculture; and 14% are poorly drained or wetland. Above the Escarpment, on the Flamborough Plain, soil texture is more variable and only 24% are rated Class 1 or 2 for agriculture and approx 64% are poorly drained or wetland (ASI, 1998). The Region of Halton Archaeological Master Plan noted that few campsites have

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been identified above the Escarpment and below their locations (within 500 m catchment areas) do not appear to be correlated with soil texture, drainage or agricultural capacity. However, a strong correlation was identified between village locations and the best locally available soils for agriculture (ASI, 1998b).

These previous studies suggest that, in comparison with the distance-to-water criterion, there was much more latitude in First Nations land use with respect to soil texture, drainage, and capability for agriculture. Nevertheless, well-drained locations with good access to water were undoubtedly preferred, while poorly drained areas or areas of steep slope were less attractive. Many of these are quite localized and are therefore below the resolution of this study. However, since poorly drained soils have been mapped within the GIS soils layer, they were used to remove portions of the Preliminary Study Area from the archaeological potential zone.

5.2.6 Potential Model for Historic Euro-Canadian Archaeological Sites

5.2.6.1 Background

Certain aspects of Euro-Canadian settlement, particularly the early settlement, were conditioned by the same environmental constraints (hydrology, soils suitable for agriculture, and vegetation, topography) that played an important role in shaping the pre-contact First Nations occupation of the Preliminary Study Area, such as proximity to a permanent, potable water source. Moreover, the presence of a permanent water source for the establishment of water-powered mills was pivotal to the initiation of settlement. There will, therefore be some overlap between modelling criteria for pre-contact First Nations and historic Euro-Canadian sites, with the distance-to-water criterion tending to capture both site categories.

Several significant cultural or ideological differences were identified between these societies. Euro-Canadian settlement premised on the exploitation and domestication of the wilderness resulted in dramatic re-ordering of the environment. Colonial concepts of settlement, based on buildings located within blocks of land bounded by roads (typically a military grid system), often mitigated against the need to work closely within the constraints of the existing environment. Late 18th and 19th Century settlers, seeking greater permanence in their surroundings, cleared the forested landscape on a comparatively large scale for the purposes of agriculture and the industrial extraction of resources. Township surveys were conducted between 1764 and 1828 and centres of settlement eventually grew. These centres offered a range of specialized industrial and commercial services, attracting additional development in those communities. It should be noted that some of the more massive features associated with many historic period archaeological sites are likely to have survived as deeply buried deposits in areas that have been subject to modern development, particularly within the historic cores of urban areas. Therefore, extant urban development should not be automatically assumed to be a negative indicator of archaeological integrity.

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5.2.6.2 Previous Studies and Data Sources

Archaeological Master Plans for the Regional Municipality of Halton and the City of Toronto (ASI 1998a,b; 2003) have reviewed the Euro-Canadian land use history of portions of the GTA West Preliminary Study Area. These reviews identify a potential model of historic Euro-Canadian archaeological resources for the GTA West Preliminary Study Area. As with the pre-contact First Nations potential model however, it is important to note that these reviews have been generated using base mapping and historical data at a fairly broad scale and cursory level of detail as deemed appropriate for the objectives of this study.

The availability of historic maps provides a valuable resource for refining the archaeological potential model for the late 18th Century and later. These maps often allow for the determination of relatively precise locations for core settlement areas such as towns, crossroads communities, and military posts (i.e., areas throughout which there is generally potential for the presence of public, commercial, industrial, religious, and other institutional remains in addition to the remains of domestic and agricultural activity).

Primary source documents and various 18th and 19th Century maps were used to create the GIS layer of historic settlements and settlement features. It is recognized that these maps did not always illustrate historic features that may be of interest, therefore, it cannot be considered definitive.

With regard to the settlement centres, their boundaries have been plotted using the same maps. The boundaries of these settlements, as plotted polygons, serve to indicate those areas where most of the building activity was concentrated at the time the source maps were produced. In general, individual public buildings and homes have not been mapped within these centres. On the whole, however, the settlement centre overlay is indicative of those areas that exhibit potential for the presence of places of worship, meeting halls, school houses, blacksmith shops, stores, hotels, taverns, and other commercial service buildings.

All schools, places of worship and commercial buildings, such as inns, that occur outside of the major settlement centres have been mapped as points, if their locations were shown on the relevant maps. These features represent the earliest structures of social and economic significance and should be considered heritage features demonstrating significant archaeological potential.

While cemeteries and burials are often associated with areas of archaeological potential, predictive modelling cannot reliably account for all possible burial locations due to the complex cultural and ideological considerations that may be involved in the selection of burial sites. As well, the formerly mapped limits or existing limits of cemeteries dating to the 19th Century or earlier may not reflect the actual limits of the interment area.

5.2.6.3 Modelling Criteria

All historic Euro-Canadian settlement features were mapped as points buffered by a radius of 100 m, while historic Euro-Canadian archaeological sites (as with pre-contact First Nations sites) were buffered at 250 m in keeping with Ministry of Culture guidelines. The Ministry of

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Culture guidelines also stipulate that there is archaeological potential on properties and easements designated under the Heritage Act, and some of these properties have been included as settlement features.

Where identified on the historic maps, mill locations, lime kilns, and quarries are also mapped and buffered. It should be noted that mapping of historic features is relatively imprecise due to the lack of alignment between historic maps and the GIS base maps, as well as to the relatively imprecise placement of such features on some historic mapping.

All identified cemeteries were also considered to have archaeological potential, and have been mapped and buffered as points at 100 m. In subsequent, more detailed phases of the GTA West archaeological assessment, information concerning unmapped pioneer cemeteries and family burial grounds should be obtained from sources such as the Ontario Genealogical Society and from members of the public.

Outside of settlement centres, the majority of early and late 19th Century farmsteads, whose locations are rarely recorded on contemporary maps, are likely to be captured by the same physiographic criteria used to buffer pre-contact First Nations archaeological potential, namely, proximity to water and adequately drained soils. However, in addition to environmental considerations, settlement was guided by the developing network of roads and railways, and these transportation corridors frequently influenced the siting of farmsteads. Due to issues of resolution and scale, roads and railways were not mapped or buffered for this study, but they should be considered in future, more detailed phases of archaeological assessment.

5.2.7 Archaeological Potential Model

As described in previous sections, a zone of archaeological potential for the Preliminary Study Area was created by means of buffering various indicator criteria as mapped in GIS. The criteria employed are summarized on the following page in Exhibit 5-3.

Exhibit 5-4 illustrates the composite zone of archaeological potential created through this buffering exercise. As Exhibit 5-4 clearly indicates, there is considerable potential for the discovery of archaeological resources throughout much of the Preliminary Study Area. Given the fact that there are already over 800 registered archaeological sites within the Preliminary Study Area and that systematic archaeological survey has only been carried out on a small fraction of this land base, this estimate of vast archaeological potential is not surprising.

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Exhibit 5-3: Summary of Archaeological Potential Modelling Criteria Environmental or Cultural Buffer Distance (m) Buffer Qualifier Feature

Pre-contact Aboriginal Site Potential Registered archaeological sites 250 none

Hydrographic features 300 none

Poorly drained soils 0 remove from potential zone

Historic Euro-Canadian Site Potential Registered archaeological sites 250 none

Settlement features 100 none

Early settlement cores 0 footprint only

Heritage properties/easements 100 none

Known cemeteries 100 none

Early roads and railways 100 none

5.3 SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT/SENSITIVITY OF CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT Several factors can be used to assess an area’s potential for housing pre-contact First Nations sites. These include the presence of well drained sandy soils, rolling topography, impressive and elevated landscape features and proximity to both water and known archaeological sites. When these are taken together, much of the lands within the Preliminary Study Area have potential for archaeological sites.

Several factors influence a property’s potential for housing historic First Nations and Euro- Canadian sites. These include proximity to potable water, presence of well drained soils, and immediate access to an early transportation route. Cumulatively, much of the lands within the Preliminary Study Area have potential for sites related to historic era.

The Ministry of Culture has defined a set of criteria for determining archaeological potential in the Province (MCCR, 1997), many of which have already been discussed. These can be organized into the following categories: known archaeological resources; physiographic features and historic cultural features; and features specific to the Preliminary Study Area. These criteria are known to have influenced past settlement and, therefore, can be used to generate a predictive model for determining where previously undocumented archaeological sites are likely to be found within a particular area.

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GTA West Corridor Planning And Environmental Bathurst Street Assessment Jane Street Study - Stage 1 15 Sideroad KING King Road Highway 9

Highway 27 Weston Road Old Church Road Overview of Environmental Conditions and Mississauga Road Constraints Working Paper VAUGHAN Highway 407 Exhibit 5 - 4 Highway 50

The Grange Sideroad Highway 400 Mayfield Road Zone of King Street CALEDON EAST Archaeological

Dixie Road Olde Baseline Road Potential Hurontario Street Legend Erin-Garafraxa Townline

Highway 6 GTA West Preliminary Study Area BRAMPTON Municipal Boundary ERIN Roadway TORONTO Archaeological Potential Highway 6 7 Highway Royal York Road Highway 407Highway 410 Highway 124 Highway 401 Queen Street West

HALTON HILLS Trafalgar Road GUELPH/ERAMOSA

Highway 7

407 Highway Highway 403

Erin Mills Parkway

Marden Road GUELPH 401 Highway

First Line Queen Elizabeth Way

403 Highway Tremaine Road Date: MAY 2010 Highway 7 Derry Road West Campbellville Road 02.55km PUSLINCH Data were provided by the Ministry of Natural Resources through the Land Information Ontario (LIO) and Natural Highway 24 407 Highway Resources Value Information Services (NRVIS) databases, HAMILTON Ministry of Culture and Parks Canada.

401 Highway Mapping was prepared by Ecoplans Limited under licence Highway 6 with the Ministry of Natural Resources

(c) the Queens Printer for Ontario Highway 401 Derry Road Steeles Avenue East GTA West GTA West Corridor Planning & Environmental Assessment Study – Stage 1

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