PWOct09cover 21/9/09 12:58 Page 1

physicsworld.com Volume 22 No 10 October 2009

The energy puzzle A question of science, politics and communication JOIN THE WINNING TEAM

NKT Photonics - the power of light

- SuperK white light lasers - Koheras fiber lasers - Crystal Fibre specialty fibers - aeroLASE amplifier modules

NKT Photonics A/S design and manufacture ultra-low noise fiber lasers (Koheras), supercontiunuum lasers (SuperK), and microstructured fibers (Crystal Fibre). Applications for Koheras lasers include interferometric sensing for oil & gas exploration, perimeter surveillance, security, as well as wind LIDAR. The SuperK white light lasers address markets for biomedicine, metrology and R&D. The Crystal Fibre product line include all-glass double clad fibers for high power lasers and amplifiers, hollow core gyroscope fibers and supercontinuum fibers.

www.nktphotonics.com

Untitled-1 1 18/9/09 09:56:21 PWOct09contents 22/9/09 16:26 Page 1

physicsworld.com Contents: October 2009

Quanta 3 Frontiers 4 News & Analysis 6 New proposal to detect gravitational waves ● World’s quietest building opens ● CERN boss targets future accelerator ● China’s first space-based science mission delayed ● Panel reviews NASA’s Moon and Mars plans ● Indian lunar mission fails ● Teething troubles at US energy agency ● Spain powers ahead in solar-thermal

UK Meteorological Office/Science Photo Library energy ● Germany seeks to boost university research ● Bribe allegations rock German science ● New telescope array to shed light on early universe ● Australia launches astronomy centre ● Survey reveals risk of medical scans

A question of – science 33–35 Feedback 15 The energy puzzle Challenges in tackling climate change 20 Bold decisions are needed to halve greenhouse-gas emissions by 2050 to limit global warming. Lord Browne argues that the biggest barriers to a low-carbon economy are not scientific or technological but political Tony McConnell/Science Photo Library Publicize or perish 22 With the Copenhagen climate-change conference looming, Joseph Romm warns that scientists must do a much better job of alerting the world to the dangers of global warming

A question of – politics 20–21 The road to sustainability 24 Sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels do exist, but materials-science breakthroughs are needed to make some of the most promising technologies viable and cost-effective on a large scale, as George Crabtree and John Sarrao explain Photolibrary Wrong but useful 33 Gavin Schmidt describes how progress in modelling is leading to better predictions of the world’s climate that will be more useful for policymakers and politicians Extreme energy makeover 37 Paul Michael Grant outlines an ambitious proposal for a network of underground pipes carrying nuclear-power-produced hydrogen that serves both as a fuel and as a coolant for superconducting cables Does nanotechnology have the energy? 40 From new materials for wind turbines and supercapacitors to novel “third generation” A question of – communication 22–23 solar cells, nanotechnology could play a major role in future energy sources, as Alan Smith and David Tolfree explain On the cover The energy puzzle (Photolibrary) 19–45 Reviews 46 A physicist tackles sustainable energy ● Genius and persecution ● Web life: Clim’City Physics World is published monthly as 12 issues per annual volume by IOP Publishing Ltd, Dirac House, Temple Back, Bristol BS1 6BE, UK Careers 50 ● United States Postal Identification Statement Of time and tide Stephen Taylor Once a physicist: Kathryn Jackson Physics World (ISSN 0953-8585) is published monthly by IOP Publishing Ltd, Dirac House, Temple Back, Bristol BS1 6BE, UK. Annual subscription price is US $520. Air freight and mailing Recruitment 54 in the USA by Publications Expediting, Inc., 200 Meacham Ave, Elmont NY 11003. Periodicals postage at Jamaica NY 11431. US Postmaster: send address changes to Physics World, American Institute of Physics, Suite 1NO1, Lateral Thoughts 64 2 Huntington Quadrangle, Melville, NY 11747-4502 E is for energy Cormac O’Raifeartaigh

Physics World October 2009 1 PhyWrld Vac Sup Ad.qxd 4/10/06 10:30 AM Page 1 PWOct09quanta 18/9/09 08:41 Page 3

physicsworld.com Quanta

For the record Seen and heard To boldly go where no-one has gone before does not require coming bubble would burst, Sornette went on to make the bold prediction that the index home again would crash between 17–27 July. So did Lawrence Krauss, director of the Origins Rijksmuseum traders flock to take money out of the Initiative at Arizona State University, quoted in the exchange? Well, on 28 July the index stood New York Times at 3438 points before climbing slightly to Krauss was proposing the idea of a one-way ticket 3471 on 4 August. But by 31 August it had to Mars without the need to bring astronauts back tumbled to 2667 points – a fall of more to Earth. than 20%. As Physics World went to press, the index had recovered somewhat and My expectation was that researchers was nearing 3000. Green shoots of would propose risky ideas that were recovery, perhaps? completely new. Disappointingly, we Wood you believe it? Bolt out of the blue got rather little of that “With the compliments of the Few would doubt that Jamaican sprinter Ambassador of the United States Of Usain Bolt is now the fastest man on the Outgoing president of the International America, J. William Middendorf II, to planet after yet again breaking the world Astronomical Union Catherine Cesarsky quoted commemorate the visit to the Netherlands record for the 100 m sprint at the World in Science of the Apollo 11 astronauts.” So reads a Athletics Championships held in Berlin in Cesarsky, who was director-general of the plaque below one of the Rijksmuseum’s August. But, of course, we all knew that he European Southern Observatory from 1999 to most prized possessions – a small sample could run that fast. After his previous 2007, says that she tried to encourage innovative of Moon rock that was acquired by the record-setting time of 9.69 s at the Beijing projects under the director’s discretionary Amsterdam-based museum in 1988 after Olympics last year, astrophysicists at the time-allocation programme, but most of the the death of former Dutch prime minister University of Oslo in Norway worked out resources were instead used to get quick results Willem Drees. The brown-coloured rock that Bolt could have run even faster if he and publications. was a gift to Dress from Middendorf, who had gone flat out rather than slowing down apparently received it via the US State in the last 20 m of the race to celebrate his The first thing a freshman should Department. Yet tests carried out recently Olympic win. And they got it pretty much know is that college is never what on behalf of the museum have revealed spot on. The physicists calculated that Bolt that the “rock” is in fact nothing more than could have covered the 100 m in 9.55 s one expects a piece of petrified wood. Geologist (±0.04 s) if he had maintained his Nobel laureate Steven Weinberg quoted in the Frank Beunk from Vriije University in pre-celebration acceleration. The time he New York Times Amsterdam took a slice of the object with clocked in Berlin? 9.58 s exactly. “The Weinberg was talking about his time at Cornell permission of the museum and, using a agreement could almost not have been University, where he graduated in 1954. Although scanning electron microscope, found that better,” says Hans Kristian Kamfjord he says he found it difficult at first, he was left with it was entirely composed of quartz, which Eriksen from the University of Oslo. memories of inspiring professors and a love of is abundant on Earth but not present on music and Shakespeare. the Moon. “It may have originated from Space, not-so-rockin the Petrified Forest National Park in “To my ear all these songs While my body was sleeping, I think Arizona,” Beunk told Physics World. are universally awful” my spirit flew on a triangular-shaped Despite the mundane origin of the “rock”, was the response of which was last shown to the public in 2006 astronomer Sir Patrick UFO to Venus. It was an extremely at the museum’s “Fly Me to the Moon” Moore in an interview beautiful place and was very green exhibition, the museum is still planning with TheQuietus.com – a to keep the piece. But if you see it, don’t rock music and pop-culture website – when Miyuki Hatoyama, actress and wife of Japan’s be fooled. forced to listen to 10 songs with either a newly elected prime minister Yukio Hatoyama cosmic or scientific theme. So what did he Hatoyama wrote about her surreal space trip in a Bubble trouble think of David Bowie’s “Space Oddity”? book published last year entitled Most Bizarre You do not usually get stock-market “I wonder if any of these people could sing, Things I’ve Encountered. commentators predicting exactly to the even if someone showed them how to do day when a stock or index will crash or it.” And what of Muse’s “Supermassive Perhaps astrophysics stories should depreciate heavily in value. In early July, Black Hole”? “Dreadful.” As for the rather come with a health warning however, Didier Sornette of the more mainstream “No Matter What Sign Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in You Are” by Diana Ross & the Supremes, it Journalist Charlie Brooker quoted in the Guardian Zurich and colleagues predicted that did not impress Moore either. “All these Brooker was commenting on a BBC story last China’s Shanghai Composite Index on the songs are nasty noises.” Maybe the month about the discovery that Andromeda is Shanghai stock exchange would collapse as interviewer should have got the hint with expanding by digesting stars from other galaxies. it was showing “bubble-like” behaviour by the first song played to Moore – “Out of He says the human brain is not equipped to deal growing faster than an exponential rate Space” by hardcore rave outfit The Prodigy. with thoughts of this “humbling enormity”. (arXiv:0907.1827). But rather than just “I must be quite honest with you, this isn’t saying that at some point in the future the my type of music,” he complained.

Physics World October 2009 3 PWOct09frontiers 18/9/09 09:02 Page 4

physicsworld.com Frontiers In brief Molecules revealed in their full glory Lasers probe teeth for minerals Researchers in Australia and Taiwan have invented ical structure of a single molecule. The main a new technique for assessing dental health that practical challenge was to find a way of ed- may no longer require dentists to prod and poke in ging the AFM tip close enough to the sam- the mouths of patients. The technique involves ple without it being laterally displaced or shining a laser at a tooth in order to trigger even adsorbed owing to van der Waals ultrasonic surface acoustic waves (SAW) along the IBM Research, Zurich forces. Realizing that it is the atom or mole- tooth’s outer enamel coating. The velocity of a cule at the very tip of the AFM probe that SAW is governed by the elasticity of the material governs the contrast and resolution of the through which it is propagating, and in healthy Top tip A single molecule of carbon monoxide brought technique, Gross’s team replaced the metal teeth a high mineral content leads to high the five interlocking rings of benzene into view. tip of a conventional AFM with a single elasticity. Therefore, measuring the speed of the molecule of carbon monoxide (CO). CO is SAW vibration in a tooth should indicate how Physicists in the Netherlands and Switzer- chemically highly stable and is subject to sig- healthy it is (Optics Express 17 15592). land have designed a new type of atomic nificantly weaker van der Waals forces. force microscope (AFM) that can identify As a demonstration of their device, the Bespoke optical lattices created individual atoms within a molecule for the researchers turned their AFM tip to a well- Researchers in Germany have designed a first time. The technique could also shine studied hydrocarbon known as pentacene technique for creating customized optical lattices. new light on the nature of chemical reactions. (C22H14), which consists of five fused benzene Standard optical lattices are periodic potentials Invented some 20 years ago, AFMs give rings and measures just 1.4 nm in length. made by criss-crossing laser beams, in which scientists the best view of atoms on the sur- They produced an image showing all five car- ultracold atoms can be held in a symmetric grid. faces of both insulators and conductors. The bon rings as well as the individual carbon and Because the atoms can be manipulated, optical basic process involves scanning the sharp hydrogen atoms within the molecule. The lattices are often used as an analogue of metal tip of the AFM across a sample to gen- observed spacing between individual atoms quantum systems, which are otherwise difficult to erate images based on the balance of tiny was only 0.14 nm – the best resolution yet for study directly. The new technique involves first forces between the tip and the sample. On- an AFM. ionizing individual atoms with an electron beam going improvements to the technique have Gross and his team now intend to build up and then removing these ions from selected revealed surfaces in unprecedented detail, a catalogue of chemical signatures so that lattice sites with an electric field (Phys. Rev. Lett. including the breakthrough in 2007 when eventually the CO-tipped AFM could pro- 103 080404). isolated atoms on a material’s surface were vide a quick and easy way of identifying mo- imaged for the first time. lecules in chemical analysis. The researchers Breath test for cancer The new technique, developed by Leo believe that, in the longer term, the tech- Researchers in Israel have invented a new type of Gross of IBM Research in Zurich and col- nique could be applied to the study of chem- breath test for detecting lung cancer that uses leagues, improves the resolution of AFMs ical reactions and catalysis at the atomic level carbon-based sensors. When a patient breathes still further by revealing the detailed chem- (Science 325 1110). into the device, particulates from the lungs are attracted to the carbon layers. This makes the sensor swell, thus altering the resistance of the Magnetic ‘monopoles’ spotted in spin ices device. The presence of volatile organic compounds linked with specific forms of cancer Ever since magnetic monopoles were first magnet, but instead take the form of a knot- has a characteristic effect on the resistance. So, by predicted by Paul Dirac in 1931, physicists ted mess of flux lines, called “Dirac strings”, applying a potential difference across the sensor, have searched in vain for these elusive enti- connected by magnetic monopoles. The the presence of the particles can be inferred from ties in everything from particle accelerators team confirmed a prediction that at about 1 K fluctuations in the current (Nature Nanotech. to Moon rocks. Now, two independent re- the heat capacity of a spin ice should re- 10.1038/nnano.2009.235). search groups claim to have finally caught semble that of a gas of magnetic monopoles sight of monopoles – essentially magnets (Science 10.1126/science.1178868). Earth-like nature of exoplanet confirmed with only one pole – in magnetic materials Meanwhile, researchers at the Institute Astronomers have obtained the best evidence yet called “spin ices”. Although these spin-ice Laue-Langevin in France, along with phy- that a planet orbiting a star 400 light-years from monopoles have very different origins from sicists in the UK, used a beam of spin-polar- Earth is a solid, rocky world just like our own. The those predicted by Dirac’s original work, fur- ized neutrons to study a similar spin ice – extrasolar planet, known as CoRoT-7b, was ther observation could still help with the Ho2Ti2O7. They were particularly interested discovered earlier this year and found to have a development of magnetic memories and in studying the ground states of the spin radius less than twice that of the Earth. By other spintronic devices. ice to establish if these states can support observing the “wobble” it induces in its parent star, One team of researchers, based at the monopole excitations. CoRoT-7b has been found to have a mass about Helmholtz Centre in Berlin and working in At low temperatures and zero magnetic five times that of the Earth, which implies a similar collaboration with scientists in Argentina, field, physicists had predicted that, in order density and rocky composition (Astron. Astrophys. Germany and the UK, studied the crystalline to have monopoles, this knotty mess of a state at press). material Dy2Ti2O7, which is termed a spin ice must be a “magnetic coulomb phase” – which because the arrangement of spins is similar the Anglo-French team was able to confirm Read these articles in full and sign up for free to that of hydrogen atoms in frozen water. through the observation of “pinch points” in e-mail news alerts at physicsworld.com Dirac predicted that the spins in this kind of its neutron-scattering data (Science 10.1126/ magnetic material do not line up like a ferro- science.1177582).

4 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09frontiers 18/9/09 09:03 Page 5

physicsworld.com Frontiers

Innovation T A Rector Birds inspire new ultra-strong fastener

Now found in all manner of places from clothing to industry, Velcro was invented in the 1940s by Swiss inventor George de Mestral, who drew inspiration from the difficulty he experienced removing burrs from the fur of his dog. De Mestral named his product Velcro from the French for velvet (velours) and hook (crochet) on account of its underlying mechanism – a piece of fabric covered in tiny hooks fastening to a second piece of fabric covered in tiny hairy loops. The real beauty of this “wonder material”, writes James Dacey, is that it can seal with a relatively tight grip but still be released with minimal effort. However, the drawback with these fasteners is that their gripping mechanism tends to break down Galactic tussle will engulf Milky Way when exposed to high temperatures, aggressive An international team of astrophysicists has mapped the borders between two of our neighbouring galaxies cleaning chemicals, and harsh conditions. to reveal an ongoing galactic jostle that will eventually result in the formation of one super-galaxy Now, a team at the Technical University of incorporating the Milky Way. The finding has been made by Alan McConnachie of the Herzberg Institute of Munich led by Josef Mair, working with industrial Astrophysics in Canada, together with colleagues in Australia, Europe and the US. Using the Canada- firms based in Germany, may have created a France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) in Hawaii, the researchers carried out the most extensive survey to date of product that overcomes this problem. “Metaklett”, Andromeda – the closest large galaxy to the Milky Way – mapping stars over an area more than 100 times or “metal burr”, is a hook-and-loop fastener made larger than its well-photographed central disc. Next, the researchers turned their attention to one of using steel, which is chosen for its high resistance Andromeda’s smaller satellites, Triangulum – a densely packed galaxy about one-tenth the size of its spiral to mechanical loads and chemical corrosion. The neighbour. What they observed was an extended, stream-like structure protruding from Triangulum in the product is being developed with two separate hook direction of Andromeda. Using computer simulations (see image), the researchers have estimated that the designs, both of which are resistant to chemicals limb of stars was “ripped” from Triangulum roughly two billion years ago when the galaxies passed within and remain fastened in temperatures of up to 100 000 light-years of each other. The simulations predict that the next time that the two galaxies come 800°C, the researchers claim. into close contact, within the next two billion years, Triangulum will be completely engulfed by its larger The first hook mechanism is based on the neighbour. What is more, by the time Triangulum approaches Andromeda again, the Milky Way and shape of a flamingo, and it has been chosen for its Andromeda will have moved much closer together, which will probably result in a three-way merger and the strength. Depending on the direction of the formation of a new, larger galaxy (Nature 461 66). applied force, the fastener can withstand loads of up to 35 tonnes per square metre. The second type of hook, which resembles a “duck’s head”, Acoustic tweezers pinch living cells cannot support the same loads as the flamingo, but it is more flexible because it can remain Optical tweezers are a useful device for ers, the researchers arranged a series of fastened while subjected to stresses from a manipulating tiny objects using the mo- fluorescent polystyrene beads about 1.9 µm variety of directions. Mair and his team are now mentum of light. Now, physicists can also in diameter into a grid pattern. They then did working on a third design – the “hybrid” model – add another set of tweezers to their toolkit – the same thing using the red blood cells of a which combines the strength of the flamingo with “acoustic tweezers” that can manoeuvre cow and the bacteria E. coli. the flexibility of the duck. microscopic objects using sound. The researchers say that the new device The researchers have also been collaborating The new device was developed by re- offers several advantages over optical tweez- with their industrial partners to create bespoke searchers at Pennsylvania State University ers. One is that the acoustic tweezers can be metal fasteners for a range of applications. “I can by combining two surface acoustic waves used to manipulate living cells without dam- imagine Metaklett being used in hospitals – for (SAWs) on a chip. When a microscopic ob- aging or killing them. Another potential ad- example as a means of fastening curtains that ject is placed in the resulting standing wave, vantage, according to the researchers, is that does not get damaged when exposed to hospital it moves along a pressure gradient until it the tweezers could cost just $20 per set, com- cleaning,” says Mair. He also told Physics World reaches a node – that is, a point where the pared with $100 000 for optical tweezers. that he can envisage his new metal fastener being two waves cancel – when the object then The hope is that the optical tweezers can used both as a shield covering car exhaust pipes comes to a complete standstill. By combining be integrated into a single chip that can per- and as a means of holding panels together in several standing waves along the surface of form individual or multiple functions in a planes. “A car parked in direct sunlight can reach the piezoelectric chip, the researchers say so-called lab-on-a-chip. Such a device could temperatures of 80°C, while temperatures of they can manoeuvre tiny objects by varying be used for medical applications, including several hundred degrees can arise around the the frequency of the sound. blood analysis, cell studies and tissue engin- exhaust manifold,” he said. To demonstrate their new acoustic tweez- eering (Lab on a Chip 10.1039/b910595f).

Physics World October 2009 5 PWOct09news 21/9/09 17:01 Page 6

physicsworld.com News & Analysis Galactic-scale observatory planned

Physicists have drawn up ambitious Telescope in West Virginia, US, as plans to detect very low-frequency NRAO well as developing advanced software gravitational waves – ripples in the to process the huge amounts of data fabric of space–time that general re- involved. It estimates this would cost lativity predicts ought to pervade the a few tens of millions of dollars over universe. But rather than looking for the next 10 years, in addition to the them using existing facilities like the money spent by their European and LIGO detectors in the US, which are Australian collaborators. designed to detect tiny changes in the This is small fry compared with the interference patterns of laser beams hundreds of millions of dollars being sent down pairs of kilometre-long spent on gravitational-wave interfer- pipes positioned at right angles to one ometers. Indeed, NANOGrav mem- another, the idea is instead to use ber Fredrick Jenet of the University radio telescopes on Earth. The tele- of Texas at Brownsville says it is possi- scopes would measure tiny variations ble that the pulsar network could de- in the output of pulsars spread thou- tect gravitational waves before the sands of light-years apart. interferometers, although he points The galactic observatory, proposed not been technically feasible until Listening in out that having different approaches by the North American Nanohertz now. The NANOGrav team says that The Green Bank not only expands the astrophysics that Observatory for Gravitational Waves it should be possible to correlate the Telescope in West can be studied, but also improves the (NANOGrav), would rely on minute output of 40 pulsars, each with a ti- Virginia, US, could be chances of detecting gravitational changes in the relative timing of emis- ming precision better than 100 ns, used to study the waves in the first place. sions from different pulsars – rapidly within the next decade. This would emissions of pulsars Jim Hough, a gravitational-wave rotating neutron stars that emit very allow astronomers to observe gravita- to detect signs of researcher at the University of Glas- regular pulses of radio waves. A gra- tional waves with wavelengths of sev- gravitational waves. gow and a member of the GEO-600 vitational wave passing between a eral light-years coming from sources gravitational-wave observatory based pulsar and a radio telescope affects such as the black-hole binaries that in Germany, says that pulsar timing the time it takes for the emissions to form when galaxies merge, as well as “looks a very good way” to search for arrive, and so an array of pulsars with early-universe phenomena such as gravitational waves at extremely low different lines of sight to the Earth cosmic strings or inflation. frequencies. He believes that by ob- would reveal the presence of any wave The NANOGrav consortium says serving 20 pulsars with a timing pre- as well as its direction of propagation that this could be achieved by ex- cision of better than 100 ns for five and polarization. panding the time currently devoted to years, Jenet and colleagues “have a This idea was first put forward in pulsar observations on existing facil- very good possibility of observing the late 1970s but requires such high- ities such as the Arecibo Observatory gravitational-wave signals”. precision measurements that it has in Puerto Rico and the Green Bank Edwin Cartlidge Facilities Scientists welcome world’s ‘quietest’ building

The University of Bristol in the UK ground under the building consists of measurements. Each lab in the base- has opened what it claims is the solid rock. Engineers excavated a one- ment also sits inside a Faraday cage, quietest building in the world. The storey deep hole in the rock and filled and the temperature, air flow and

£11.5m Bristol Centre for Nano- Michael Banks it with concrete to make a solid foun- acoustic noise in the room can also be science and Quantum Information dation upon which the building was strictly controlled. (NSQI) will be a hub of interdisci- constructed. “The centre is the right The centre incorporates two clean- plinary research involving groups from building, in the right place,” says Fred rooms, a wet lab, a sound-proof lab, the university’s biology, physics, chem- Hale, building manager of the NSQI. eight low-noise labs and two cell-cul- istry and engineering departments. The four-storey building has a ture labs. The NSQI is also home to Staff will use the new facility for a number of “quiet rooms” in the base- one of the UK’s newly launched doc- range of experiments in condensed- Quiet, please! ment, where most of the experiments toral training centres. Funded by the matter physics to biochemistry. The Bristol Centre for are housed. Each experiment sits on Engineering and Physical Sciences Construction of the NSQI facility Nanoscience and an additional 24 tonne block of con- Research Council, the centre for func- has taken over two years to complete Quantum Information crete separated from the floor by tional nanomaterials will train up to and the site in Bristol is well suited to features eight rubber bearings to dampen vibrations 10 PhD students every year. hosting such a “quiet” lab since the low-noise labs. that could interfere with sensitive Michael Banks

6 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09news 21/9/09 17:01 Page 7

physicsworld.com News & Analysis

Particle physics CERN director-general set his sights on linear collider

The director-general of CERN wants what the LHC discovers. the next big experiment in particle CERN Heuer also confirmed the timetable physics after the Large Hadron Col- for switching the LHC back on fol- lider (LHC) to be built at the Geneva lowing the electrical fault that oc- lab. Speaking in an exclusive video curred on 19 September last year and interview with Physics World, Rolf- led to 53 magnets having to be re- Dieter Heuer says that CERN should paired or replaced (Physics World host the experiment, which would September p7). Beams will be in- collide electrons and positrons in a jected into the 27 km circumference linear accelerator. Although a design circular accelerator in mid-Novem- for the machine has not been finalized ber, with collisions taking place a few by the international particle-physics weeks later. “I am pretty confident community, Heuer is keen to bring that we will have the first collisions the collider to CERN. this year,” says the CERN boss. “I would be a bad director-general CERN engineers will begin by col- if I did not push for CERN at least liding protons at an energy of 450 GeV bidding for the next global project,” per beam, before attempting collisions Heuer told Physics World. “CERN is Planning ahead US have already helped to build the at 3.5 TeV per beam. “We will stay [at a fantastic place. [It] has proven that CERN boss Rolf- LHC and its detectors, and Heuer is that energy] for several months, de- it can host such a project and there- Dieter Heuer hopes keen for links with non-European pending on what experiments find and fore I think CERN should do it.” to land the next nations to become more permanent. on running experience,” says Heuer. However, Heuer is aware that it is far big experiment in “Why not involve some of the na- “Then in the course of the next year we from certain that the Geneva lab will particle physics – tions from the Americas or Asia as will go up to 10 TeV in the centre of host the facility – Fermilab in the US an electron–positron members [of CERN]?” he asks. “This mass [i.e. 5 TeV per beam].” The LHC is likely to be a contender – and the linear collider – for would enable us to start the next will be kept online until the end of CERN chief is looking forward to bids the lab. global project as a global project from 2010 before it is shut down to prepare from rival labs. “Competition is al- the very beginning – be it at CERN or the way for collisions at a maximum ways welcome,” he says. elsewhere.” CERN is already devel- energy of 14 TeV (i.e. 7TeV per beam) Heuer’s desire to host the linear col- oping a blue-print for a future linear at some point during 2011. “But if we lider is part of his plan to make CERN collider, known as CLIC, while a rival find something interesting at 10 TeV, a much more global laboratory. Al- design known as the International then we will continue running at though CERN was set up in 1954 as a Linear Collider is being drawn up by 10 TeV,” Heuer adds. European facility, its convention does a team led by Barry Barish of the Ca- Matin Durrani not prevent countries from outside lifornia Institute of Technology. The ● Watch the Heuer interview in full Europe from becoming members. precise energy at which such a collider at physicsworld.com/cws/channel/ Several thousand physicists from the should operate will depend in part on multimedia Astronomy Cash shortfall spells trouble for Chinese space probe

The launch of China’s first satellite needed as X-rays emitted from space China’s space “China’s space technologies are said designed for astronomy has been delayed cannot reach the Earth’s surface as they to be world leading, but the space-based because money for the project, promised are absorbed by the atmosphere. technologies scientific discoveries are shamefully by the government, has not been The HXMT was selected in 2000 as a are said to be zero,” says Chen Xuelei, a scientist at the allocated. The 1-billion-yuan ($147m) civil science satellite project for the world leading, CAS’s National Astronomical Hard X-ray Modulation Telescope (HXMT) 11th five-year (2006–2010) Space but the space- Observatories. Chen explains that the was due to be launched in 2010, but will Science Plan. Li complains that disputes Chinese space programme is dominated now be delayed until 2012 at the earliest. between the Ministry of Finance, the based scientific by military officials, who do not give “As a scientist, I feel ashamed, as the State Administration of Science discoveries are attention to civil space science. plan has been widely announced by the Technology and Industry, which governs shamefully zero Meanwhile, Li Xueyong, vice-science Chinese government,” HXMT’s chief the country’s space industry, and the minister, announced on 17 September scientist Li Xipei told the Beijing-based Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) are that China will increase its investment in magazine Science News Bi-weekly. The the main reason for the funding delay. space science and technologies, HXMT satellite aims to study the physical However, he says that if the budget can be particularly manned space programmes. characteristics of areas surrounding allotted within this year, then the launch Yuan Yue and Jia Hepeng black holes. A space-based probe is could take place by 2012. Beijing

Physics World October 2009 7 PWOct09news 21/9/09 17:58 Page 8

News & Analysis physicsworld.com

Space port, “the ultimate destination for human exploration”. Kip Hodges, director of Earth and Panel slams NASA’s lunar vision Space Exploration at Arizona State University, welcomes the committee’s recognition that manned missions The US manned spaceflight pro- are useful in exploring the solar sys- gramme is on an “unsustainable tra- NASA tem. “There are many things we can jectory” according to a committee do with robotic assets,” he says. “But reviewing the country’s ambitious there are many things that humans plans to send astronauts to the Moon can do that robots can not do – and and Mars. The committee, chaired by may not be able to do.” Hodges also former Lockheed Martin chief exe- hopes that any flexible option will in- cutive Norman Augustine, asserts in clude manned landings on the Moon a report issued last month that send- and also the Martian moons, where ing astronauts beyond low-Earth orbit astronauts could command robotic will require NASA’s budget to be in- instruments on the Martian surface in creased by $3bn a year. The Augus- real time. “There is a great tactical tine report adds that even with extra advantage to exploring the surface of funding, NASA should try to colla- Mars from a moon,” he says. borate with other countries and ex- The committee will soon present a ploit commercial launch services. final report to the Obama Adminis- The report puts forward five op- Guided tour by the mid-2020s, but one would de- tration’s Office of Science and Tech- tions for future US manned space- The Augustine orbit the ISS, while the other would nology Policy (OSTP) and NASA. flight. Two involve holding the space committee examine let it remain in position until 2020. With the Administration due to make agency’s annual budget at the cur- NASA’s Michoud The final option is a “flexible path” its request to Congress in February for rently proposed limits. These would Assembly Facility in that would start with sending astro- the 2011 financial year, both parties force NASA to either deorbit the New Orleans. nauts on manned lunar and Martian will have to react fast to the recom- International Space Station in 2016 fly-bys by 2020 and the option to visit mendations. NASA Administrator and wait for a manned lunar lander Lagrange points and asteroids. The Charles Bolden has said the agency until the 2030s, or abandon plans for a path would also include possible will work with the OSTP to review and Moon lander and instead develop rendezvous with Mars’s two moons evaluate the options put forth by the commercial services to take crews into Phobos and Deimos or a human re- committee. “Ultimately, of course, low-Earth orbit. turn to the Moon by the late 2020s. the president will make the final de- The other three options all require All these three options would be a cision,” says Bolden. an extra $3bn in annual funding. Two preparation for a manned mission to Peter Gwynne would return astronauts to the Moon Mars, which is, according to the re- Boston, MA

higher orbit meant a loss of resolution India analyses loss of lunar orbiter in imaging but an increased speed of data collection. The final, abrupt, loss of radio contact on 29 August may After a flawless launch last year, Down and out have been due to the failure of the Chandrayaan-1, India’s first lunar ISRO Chandrayaan-1 – back-up control unit, Alex speculates. orbiter, has come to a disappointing India’s first mission On 20 August, Chandrayaan-1 at- end. In the early hours of 29 August, to the Moon – has tempted a first-ever coordinated the tracking network of the Indian failed halfway “bistatic radar” experiment with Space Research Organization (ISRO) through its two- NASA’s recently launched Lunar Re- lost its link with the satellite, just year programme. connaissance Orbiter (LRO). The 312 days into a planned two-year mis- plan was for the radars on both sat- sion. However, ISRO scientists have ellites to point simultaneously at the concluded that the 11 onboard ex- Moon’s permanently shadowed Er- periments had “largely met their ob- langer Crater and receive reflected jectives of studying the Moon from radio waves from different angles different perspectives”. but according to T K Alex, head of the and reveal the presence of ice near A failure-analysis committee is ex- ISRO Satellite Centre, one of the the lunar north pole. But ISRO and pected to focus on various anomalies, computers in the control unit failed NASA scientists disagree over why including temperature swings owing soon afterwards. the attempt failed, with NASA ascri- to the harsh lunar environment, that A sequence of malfunctions fol- bing it to the inability of the Indian may have contributed to a series of lowed, including a device used to fix craft’s radar to point accurately at the minor failures prior to the communi- the spacecraft’s direction by locking crater because of more-than-anti- cation loss. Each instrument on the the orientation of the on-board gyro- cipated gyroscopic drift. The ISRO orbiter had its own characteristic op- scope with respect to a distant star. An scientists, however, say that the tricky erating temperature, varying from improvized substitute technique to manoeuvres were achieved as plan- –17 to 40 °C, but in November 2008, determine the spacecraft’s attitude ned but that the LRO had signal- the satellite’s temperature soared to required frequent orbit corrections, reception problems. 50 °C. Mission specialists solved the so the satellite was raised to a higher, Ramaseshan Ramachandran problem by re-orienting the satellite, more stable orbit on 19 May. This New Delhi

8 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09news 21/9/09 17:02 Page 9

physicsworld.com News & Analysis

Energy Sidebands

Spain powers ahead with solar-thermal Physicist advises UK on energy The Cambridge University physicist Spain is rapidly becoming a world leader David MacKay has been appointed chief in solar-thermal power generation with scientific adviser to the UK government’s the inauguration last month of a new Department of Energy and Climate 11 MW plant in Sanlúcar. It follows hot Change. MacKay, 42, who works on Acconia Energía on the heels of the opening in July of two machine learning and information theory, 50 MW similar plants in Guadix and is author of the book Sustainable Energy – Badajoz. Costing 7300m, the Guadix Without the Hot Air, which offers no- plant occupies an area of 2 km2 and will nonsense numerical estimates of the UK’s produce enough electricity for an future energy production and consumption estimated 15 000 homes; while the after fossil-fuels run out. Last month 7236m Badajoz plant has an area of MacKay described climate change and 1.3 km2 and will produce enough secure energy as “two of the most urgent electricity for 28 000 homes. issues facing the UK and the global According to Carlos Muñoz, head of the community” and added that “the solutions thermoelectric section of the APPA, the The heat is on the liquid is placed in a container above a must be rooted firmly in science”. A review Spanish association of producers of The 50 MW solar- tower and mirrors on the ground focus the of his book appears on pp46—47. renewable energies, Spain has a further thermal plant at light onto it. 10 solar thermal plants in construction. Badajoz in Spain will Solar-thermal is especially attractive Aage Niels Bohr: 1922–2009 When complete, they would meet – and produce electricity for because heat can be stored before The Danish physicist and Nobel laureate probably exceed – the Spanish 28 000 homes. converting it into electricity, thus allowing Aage Niels Bohr died on 8 September at government’s objective to reach 500 MW the plant to produce energy when there is the age of 87. The fourth son of quantum- from solar-thermal plants by 2010. no sunlight for up to seven hours. About physics pioneer Niels Bohr, he shared the However, the country still lags behind the 35 projects for new thermo-solar plants 1975 Nobel Prize for Physics with US, which currently generates 350 MW were presented to the Spanish Ministry Ben Mottelson and Leo Rainwater for their from such facilities. of Industry between June and July. work on the structure of the nucleus. The Solar-thermal plants work by focusing “If they are all approved, we expect trio combined the liquid-drop model of the light through parabolic-shaped mirrors 2200–2500 MW installed in Spain by atomic nucleus, which pictures it as an onto oil, molten salts or water. The heated 2011,” says Muñoz. This, he says, would incompressible fluid, with the “shell” liquid is then used to produce steam that be about 5% of the country’s annual model to produce a “collective model” of drives turbines. Another mode of energy consumption. the nucleus. Bohr studied physics at the operation, as used at the new plant in Michele Catanzaro University of Copenhagen in 1940 before Sanlúcar, involves a tower design. Here, Barcelona he and his family were forced to flee Denmark because of their Jewish background after the Nazis invaded the High-risk energy plans yield low rewards country. Bohr later worked on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos with his Scientists have complained that a new I had no idea sons for rejection is Martin Hoffert father, whom he also succeeded in 1963 research body run by the US Depart- what the from New York University. “I had no as head of the Institute for Theoretical ment of Energy (DOE) is suffering idea what the referees had said or Physics in Copenhagen. from management problems and is referees had the expertise of those involved in the rejecting funding proposals without said or refereeing,” says Hoffert, whose team Alan Turing receives official apology stating why. The DOE’s Advanced the expertise had proposed research on the feasi- UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown has Research Projects Agency–Energy of those bility of space-based solar-power tech- issued a posthumous apology to the (ARPA-E) – created in 2007 – is de- nology using diode lasers rather than mathematician Alan Turing over the signed to fund high-risk, high-payoff involved in the microwaves as the transmission me- “appalling” way he was treated by the research and development projects in refereeing dium. Even though NASA had pre- British government for being gay. In a letter energy. However, the agency, which viously endorsed the concept, Hoffert to the Daily Telegraph, Brown said that he received its first budget in April, has says he was treated like other research- was “very proud to say: we’re sorry. You so far turned down almost 95% of ers who had “off-the-wall ideas”. deserved so much better.” The apology proposals after the first round. The problem stems in part from came after thousands signed an online ARPA-E is meant to fund new pro- ARPA-E not having a director – al- petition created by computer scientist jects that could help to reduce emis- though Arun Majumdar from the John Graham Cumming. In addition to sions of greenhouse gases and the Lawrence Berkeley National Labor- helping crack the codes of the German US’s dependence on foreign sources atory is expected to be appointed soon Enigma machine during the Second World of energy. Since April, the agency has – and too few programme managers. War, Turing pioneered modern computing received 3500 eight-page “concept But the agency says that applicants and was a key thinker in artificial proposals” asking for a share of the can submit full proposals even if they intelligence. In 1952 he was convicted of $150m in research cash. However, all receive a “rejection” letter. “It is just a “gross indecency” for being gay. Faced but 200 of the applicants received a different way of operating from what with the choice of incarceration or letter stating that their proposals were scientists are used to,” a DOE spokes- “chemical castration”, Turing opted for the “unlikely to be funded”. person told Physics World. latter, but committed suicide two years One scientist to have complained Peter Gwynne later aged just 41. that the letters did not state the rea- Boston, MA

Physics World October 2009 9 PWOct09news 21/9/09 17:02 Page 10

News & Analysis physicsworld.com

cipating universities are given all the cash, which it distributes to the other Clusters propel German universities partners. Although there are two clus- ters that feature two universities in Science in Germany may be world class but many of the best researchers different parts of Germany, most are Michael Banks formed between universities and re- are not in the university system. looks at an initiative to search institutes in the same city or strengthen the country’s universities by creating “clusters of excellence” surrounding region. “I think that being local means that it is easier to The annual publication of a list of demonstrate that the cluster benefits the world’s top universities by the the university,” says Wehrberger. Times Higher Education newspaper must make grim reading for research- Matin Durrani A shining light ers in Germany. The list, drawn up in One particularly successful cluster partnership with education provider is the Munich-Centre for Advanced Quacquarelli Symonds, last year in- Photonics (MAP) based at Garching, cluded only three German univer- north of the city. Consisting of four sities in the top 100 – Heidelberg in partners – the LMU, the TU, the Max 57th spot, followed by the Technical Planck Institute for Quantum Optics University (TU) in Munich (78th) and and the military’s Bundeswehr Uni- the Ludwig-Maximilians-University versity Munich – MAP has about 300 (LMU), also in Munich, coming in researchers working on everything a lowly 93rd. The US in contrast, has from quantum optics and radiological 37 of the top 100 universities, while imaging to quantum information. the UK boasts 17. The photonics centre receives Yet Germany is, of course, a power- about 77m per year in funding, which house in scientific research, publish- has been used to employ seven new ing more than 100 000 papers in associate professors and two full pro- physics each year. One reason for the fessors who are based at the three relative weakness of the country’s uni- participating universities. “A sub- versities is that many top researchers stantial fraction, almost 50%, of the are attracted to Germany’s 76 Max funding went directly or indirectly Planck Institutes, where staff are well into new positions,” says Ferenc funded, do not have to teach and can Krausz, a director of the Max Planck instead focus fully on research. Scat- Big impact to help universities and technical Institute for Quantum Optics and co- tered across the country, the institutes Ferenc Krausz at the schools recruit more students, the ini- director of MAP. are recognized for leading their fields Max Planck Institute tiative also includes a 72.7bn fund According to Krausz, the cluster is in basic research in everything from for Quantum Optics, specifically designed to boost research good for the university groups as they biophysics to plasma physics. which is collaborating at German universities, via what is get the chance to access cutting-edge Other scientists, meanwhile, are with local universities known as the “excellence initiative”. equipment at the Max Planck Insti- drawn to the Helmholtz Association on research into Launched in 2006, the initiative has tute, while the Max Planck Institutes of German research centres, which advanced photonics. so far led to nine universities – inclu- can use it to attract PhD students include world-leading labs such as ding the LMU, TU and Heidelberg – or postdocs. Krausz says that more DESY in Hamburg and the GSI receiving extra funds in order to cre- than 300 papers have been published heavy-ion facility in Darmstadt. Ger- ate a German-style “Ivy league” and by the cluster, with about 25 of these many’s research base is further streng- so push more German universities appearing in top journals such as thened by the Leibniz Association, into the top 100. The excellence ini- Nature and Science. which has a total of 84 institutes, while tiative also includes a programme to Although the clusters of excellence the 60 Fraunhofer institutes work on create “clusters of excellence” . It gives operate on five-year funding cycles, applied research in association with cash to universities to not only fund some say it makes sense to limit how German industry. Indeed, such is the their own research but to also colla- long they are supported for so as to strength of German science that in the borate with nearby research centres foster competition. However, the Ger- last 10 years five Germans have been such as the Max Planck institutes. The man government is now considering awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics, 71.9bn programme now incorporates allowing the clusters to be funded for of whom two – Peter Grünberg (2007) 37 clusters across social science, engin- an extra five years. “The current time and Theodor Hänsch (2004) – spent eering and the physical sciences. frame of five years is really not long most of their careers in the country, We have to “The aim was to strengthen very enough to establish research pro- but not in the university system. strengthen the good universities and departments grammes,” says Wehrberger. “We be- In an attempt to make Germany’s universities. that are strong in their field,” says lieve that a 10-year funding period will universities more competitive inter- They are the Klaus Wehrberger, head of the re- be necessary to fully develop the po- nationally, in June the chancellor search centres division at the German tential of these clusters.” Angela Merkel, who is a physicist by centre of Research Foundation (DFG). Suc- But for Krausz in Munich even “five training, unveiled a 718bn 10-year education for cessful clusters are chosen for the plus five” may still not be enough. plan for German science and educa- the young and originality of their research, the level “You have to hire people and then tion. In addition to 77.5bn for the four for the future of interdisciplinary of that work and build the structure in the university national scientific institutions men- the ability of a university to be able to and that needs reforms,” he says. “My tioned above between 2011 and 2015, of German create a cluster. wish would be to fund the clusters for and a 77.9bn “higher education pact” science Once a cluster is successful, parti- 20 years.”

10 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09news 21/9/09 17:03 Page 11

physicsworld.com News & Analysis

Driving excellence done by groups at the university, with each receiving three institutes within Although it was launched in 2006, in the remainder done at the Forschung- the last 15 years. But although Wehr- fact the 71.9bn cluster of excellence zentrum Karlsruhe. “I would say that berger says that there is no selection programme grew out of an earlier “re- the cluster has increased collabor- bias when picking the clusters that are search centres” programme launched ation between groups quite substan- funded, the clusters of excellence in 2001 by the DFG to make inter- tially,” says Schön. “We have seen a initiative has so far favoured universi- nationally visible research groups at significant number of joint publica- ties in the west, with only five of the universities and to fund them with tions between the university and the 37 clusters being in the east. about 75m per year. One project that Forschungzentrum, and about a quar- “The lower concentration is eastern emerged from this is the Centre for ter of published papers between dif- Germany is not really unexpected,” Functional Nanostructures (CFN) in ferent groups within the university.” says Wehrberger. “They know that Karlsruhe, which is a collaboration is they have to do more to get a good between the University of Karlsruhe Moving east? foundation, upon which they can form and the Forschungzentrum Karlsruhe. But two decades after the fall of the clusters of excellence.” For him, the Having run for eight years, it now sup- Berlin Wall, which led in 1990 to the key is to strengthen Germany’s uni- ports about 250 scientists, including reunification of Germany, the bigger versities wherever they are. “We have 47 professors or group leaders, who question is whether the universities in to strengthen the universities. They together work on over 90 research former East Germany have been im- are the centre of education for the projects in areas like nanophotonics, proved as a result of programmes like young and for the future of German nanoelectronics and nanomaterials. the excellence initiative. Research has science,” he says. According to physicist Gerd Schön certainly been boosted by the creation The 2009 list of the world’s top 100 at the CFN, nearly 80% of the re- of Max Planck Institutes in the east, universities, due out this month, is search carried out at the centre is with Dresden, Berlin and Leipzig sure to make interesting reading.

Research ethics cult” cases are likely to drag on for at least another year. Prosecutors do not, however, expect to file criminal Germany in ‘cash for PhDs’ scandal charges against doctoral candidates, because there is currently no evidence that the people involved were aware German prosecutors are continuing that the consultancy service was bri- to investigate about 100 professors bing professors on their behalf. suspected of taking cash bribes to help The 100 academics work in various students obtain doctoral degrees – a disciplines, including natural sciences, national academic scandal that re- but only a few are full professors with search minister Annette Schavan has tenured positions. Breloer, citing Ger- said could tarnish Germany’s inter- many’s strict privacy laws, declined to national reputation in science. provide further details about the pro- News of the investigation broke fessors or to name the universities in- in the German press in late August Lawrence Lawry/Science Photo Library volved. However, the daily newspaper during the general-election campaign, Neue Westfälische reported that the triggering calls for stricter academic universities allegedly affected are in controls in a nation where the title Bayreuth, Berlin, Bielefeld, Cologne, “Doktor” can greatly improve careers. Frankfurt, Hagen, Hamburg, Han- However, Carolin Breloer, a prose- nover, Ingolstadt, Jena, Leipzig, Tü- cutor in Cologne, told Physics World bingen and Rostock. that none of the professors under March 2008, both the consultancy’s Cash in hand Gunnar Berg, secretary for natural investigation had supervised candi- managing director and a University of German prosecutors sciences at the German Academy of dates for PhDs in physics. Hanover law professor – who was are investigating Sciences Leopoldina, told Physics The problem came to prosecutors’ adjudged to have been paid about 100 professors World that news of the investigation attention during a court case last year 7184 000 in bribes for accepting accused of taking will no doubt harm Germany’s inter- involving the Institute for Academic dozens of doctoral candidates – re- bribes to accept national reputation, but not irrepar- Consultancy, a Cologne-based firm ceived prison sentences for bribery. doctoral students. ably. “Colleagues around the world that charged potential doctoral can- Charges against other academics in- who are familiar with Germany’s insti- didates up to 720 000 for advice in volved in the scheme may follow, tutes and labs will know that the inves- selecting dissertation topics and su- Breloer says, because the supervision tigation is an exception and does not pervisors. Such services are not ille- of dissertations for doctoral degrees reflect the whole system,” says Berg. gal, but officials at the 20-year-old is considered a public service in Ger- Nonetheless, he believes any pro- company may have crossed the line many, so professors paid outside fessor convicted of accepting bribes by paying participating professors money for the service can be crim- should be subject to disciplinary pro- between 72000 and 75000 for each inally charged with bribery. ceedings by their university with the client they accepted for supervision. Potential punishments for aca- possibility of losing their academic po- In some cases, the weak academic re- demics who either plead guilty to sition. “There must be consequences cords of clients would have made it avoid court proceedings or are con- to show outsiders that the great major- difficult for them to be accepted into victed in court will depend on the ity of the scientific community cannot doctoral programmes, Breloer says. severity of their crimes and their accept such behaviour,” he says. After the authorities confiscated cooperation in the investigation, she Ned Stafford files and computers at the firm in says, noting that some “more diffi- Hamburg

Physics World October 2009 11 PWOct09news 21/9/09 17:03 Page 12

News & Analysis physicsworld.com Telescope for a digital age Astronomers are exploring the largely untapped low-frequency end of the radio spectrum by combining thousands of antennas with cutting-edge computer technology. Edwin Cartlidge reports on their “software telescope”

Think of a radio telescope and what is eight different directions at the same likely to come to mind is a huge white time. As the various stations are ASTRON dish pointing skyward, such as the spread out over Western Europe, 76 m Lovell Telescope at Jodrell Bank combining the signals from all these in the UK or the 100 m Green Bank different locations provides LOFAR Telescope in West Virginia. Indeed, with its high resolution. such dish telescopes have been the LOFAR will use antenna divided mainstay of radio astronomy for the into two kinds – low-band antennas last 50 years, allowing astronomers to operating from 10–90 MHz and high- discover new kinds of celestial objects, band devices operating between 110 such as pulsars and masers, not visible and 250 MHz. Several hundred of at optical frequencies. However, such each type will be placed together at dishes do not work well when it comes a single station, and there will be 18 to observing the lowest frequency such stations distributed over several radio waves – below about 100 MHz – square kilometres at the core site, cur- because their diameter is too small rently being built in Drenthe, a pro- relative to the wavelength to provide Overcoming the ionosphere LOFAR so good vince in the north of the Netherlands. adequate resolution. Radio astronomy was in fact born More than 50 000 There will be a further 18 stations To open up this largely unexplored at very low frequencies. In 1931 Bell antennas spread within 50 kilometres of this site and section of the electromagnetic spec- Telephone engineer Karl Jansky was across Europe will then several other stations in France, trum, astronomers are developing a investigating the origin of interfer- make up the 7100m Germany, Sweden and the UK. The number of facilities consisting of di- ence in shortwave communications Low Frequency Radio long baselines that result will provide a pole antennas – simple wires that across the Atlantic when he discov- Array (LOFAR). high enough resolution that radio work just like FM receivers. Since ered radio waves at 20 MHz coming sources can be identified with visual they are very cheap to make, many from the centre of the Milky Way. But objects, even at the lowest frequencies. such antennas can be placed together because these low-frequency signals to create a huge and therefore sen- are heavily distorted by the Earth’s Looking back in time sitive telescope at low cost. The only ionosphere, radio astronomers have LOFAR was originally an interna- catch is that these arrays rely on huge since concentrated on the higher end tional consortium, comprising astron- amounts of computing power, with of the spectrum, where such distor- omers from Australia, Europe and the signals from the antennas being tions are less important the US. However, after disagreements digitized, sent to a central processor Since the early 1990s, astronomers over where to site the project, the con- and then combined using software have been using computer programs sortium split, with the result that the so that they emulate the output of a to correct for such ionospheric in- Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) conventional telescope. terference for an array of dishes. is now being built in Western Aus- The largest such telescope that is However, such corrections are harder tralia, with separate plans for similar currently under construction is the to make when radio signals are com- facilities in the US and China. 7100m Low Frequency Radio Array bined using interferometry from One of LOFAR’s specific aims (LOFAR), which, when complete, arrays of dishes separated by up to will be to study “reionization” – the will consist of 50 000 antenna stations several hundred kilometres – a tech- period that began a few hundred thou- throughout the Netherlands and nique that is needed to improve the sand years after the Big Bang when nearby countries such as Germany, otherwise poor resolution of radio the neutral hydrogen filling the uni- Sweden and the UK. Being developed astronomy. It is in order to achieve verse at that time began forming into by a consortium under the leadership high resolutions while also overcom- stars and galaxies. These stars and of ASTRON, the Netherlands Insti- ing the blurring effects of the iono- galaxies then ionized their environ- tute for Radio Astronomy, LOFAR sphere that astronomers are now ment, destroying neutral hydrogen in will allow scientists to look back to the turning to arrays of dipole antennas. the process and leaving a marker for formation of the first stars in the uni- Dish telescopes bring incoming the evolution of the universe. LOFAR verse, scan the skies for rare transient waves from a particular direction to It places most can observe this neutral hydrogen phenomena, and study high-energy a focus at a single point by virtue of of the costs not because its redshifted emission prob- cosmic rays. their parabolic geometry. An antenna in some huge ably lies at about 140 MHz. However, Michael Garrett, general director of array, in contrast, works by calculating more sensitive instruments will be ASTRON, points out that this project the difference in arrival times of a steel parabolic needed to chart the evolution of this represents a fundamental change in wave at neighbouring antennas and antenna, but in star-forming period by mapping neut- the development of radio telescopes. then introducing an equal delay when commercially ral hydrogen as a function of fre- “It places most of the costs not in some combining the signals from these an- available back- quency (i.e. the redshift). huge steel parabolic antenna,” he says, tennas. In fact, by carrying out many In addition, the fact that LOFAR “but in commercially available back- such calculations simultaneously, end digital can observe eight different patches of end digital electronics.” LOFAR can observe “beams” from electronics the sky at the same time (and retro-

12 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09news 21/9/09 17:03 Page 13

physicsworld.com News & Analysis

spectively look at the whole sky) Astronomy means that it is ideal for carrying out surveys and monitoring very short- lived phenomena. These include New labs boost Australian array bid supernovae explosions and the con- sumption of companion stars by su- Australia has opened one new astronomy Murchison radio-astronomy observatory,

permassive black holes. The telescope centre and announced plans for another CSIRO which will form the “core” of Australia’s will also be used to study the solar as part of the country’s bid to host the SKA bid, and where installation of a wind, the structure and evolution of Square Kilometre Array (SKA) radio pathfinder array, known as ASKAP, is cosmic magnetism, and ultra-high- telescope. The A$100m International scheduled to begin later this year. energy cosmic rays via the radio emis- Centre for Radio Astronomy Research The centre is being funded by the sion produced by showers in the (ICRAR) in Perth, Western Australia, West Australian state government and Earth’s atmosphere. was formally opened last month, while the universities of Western Australia The computing and data-transport a planned A$80m high-performance Looking up and Curtin, and will eventually employ power of the facility might also be computing centre nearby will serve An artist’s impression 50–60 staff, including international used in more down-to-Earth appli- SKA-related projects and others in the of the ASKAP collaborators, Tingay says. cations by attaching other instruments physical sciences. The two facilities are pathfinder array at The computing centre, meanwhile, is to the array. For example, a set of geo- designed to help realize SKA and also the Murchison to be supported by federal funds. Named phones will be used to carry out seis- boost Australia’s chances against a rival Radio-Astronomy after Australian radio-astronomy pioneer mic imaging of the way the low-lying South Africa-led proposal to host it. Observatory. Joe Pawsey, it will be open to all Netherlands is sinking due to natural The SKA concept is based on an array Australian researchers requiring access gas being pumped out of the ground. of 2000–3000 linked antennas, which to supercomputing resources. Initially, Namir Kassim, a radio astronomer will be scattered from a central “core” to however, its main focus will be the signal- at the Naval Research Laboratory in remote stations, giving the array the processing tasks associated with ASKAP Washington, DC, who was project same collecting area as a hypothetical and another radio-astronomy facility, the scientist for LOFAR in its previous 1 km-diameter steerable dish. Key Murchison Widefield Array, which is incarnation, is confident that the scientific challenges include designing currently under construction. facility will do valuable science. “The the antennas and developing the Meanwhile, New Zealand has formally low-frequency end of the radio spec- computing capacity to handle the joined Australia’s SKA bid, raising the trum is so poorly explored that it terabytes of data that both SKA and possibility that up to 20 antennas could is quite a safe bet that LOFAR will smaller prototype arrays – known as be built on the country’s North and South lead to important new discoveries for “pathfinders” – will generate. Islands, some 5000 km away from the astrophysics,” he says. That senti- Steven Tingay, ICRAR’s deputy director, candidate core site in Western Australia. ment is echoed by Philip Diamond, says that projects at the new centre will Such a long “baseline” would boost an director of Jodrell Bank, who regards include designing and testing arrays of Australia-based telescope’s ability to LOFAR as “an instrument that has all-electronic telescopes like those resolve distant objects. been designed to do science we may planned for SKA. The centre will also Peter Pockley not yet have thought of”. provide operational support for the Sydney Five stations have now been com- pleted in Germany and the Nether- Medical physics lands. The first interferometric fringes have since been produced and Garrett says that the vast majority of the Dutch Study warns of radiation risk in medical imaging and European stations should be com- plete by the time of the formal open- A study of a million US patients sug- If a procedure sociated with the procedures. ing of the facility, which is scheduled gests that some who undergo medical is used The data revealed that 0.2% of the for June next year. imaging could be exposed to more patients received an annual dose of But Diamond warns that getting ionizing radiation than those who appropriately, more than 50 mSv – equal to the limit LOFAR fully up and running will be a work with radioactive materials in then the benefit for occupational exposure to workers challenge. “The team has needed to nuclear power plants. The study, re- far outweighs in nuclear power plants and other develop techniques to deal with radio- ported in The New England Journal sources of ionizing radiation. The frequency interference, and the re- of Medicine (361 849), implies that any risk authors suggests that, generalizing the searchers will also have to cope with current exposure to radiation from from ionizing results to the entire US population, the solar maximum predicted for 2013 conventional X-ray equipment as well radiation about 400 000 adults could be exposed and the resultant disruption to the as computed tomography (CT) and to such a high dose; whereas four mil- ionosphere,” he says. “They are also positron-emission tomography (PET) lion could receive annual doses above going to test the new computational scanners could lead to tens of thou- 20 mSv – the occupational limit for techniques to their limit.” Still, Dia- sands of extra cases of cancer in the airline crews. mond adds that this experience should US alone. Brahmajee Nallamothu of the Uni- prove valuable in the construction of The study was carried out by a team versity of Michigan, a co-author of radio astronomers’ next hoped-for led by cardiologist Reza Fazel of the paper, notes, however, that the monster telescope, the Square Kilo- Emory University, who used data risk to any individual for a single test metre Array (see right). As its name from insurance claims to identify the may be small. “If a procedure is used suggests, this facility would use detec- number and types of procedures that appropriately, then the benefit far tors with a combined area of a square patients underwent between 2005 outweighs any risk from ionizing radi- kilometre, an undertaking that is likely and 2007. The team then estimated ation,” adds Fazel. to cost at least $1.5bn. LOFAR, in individuals’ exposure to ionizing radi- Peter Gwynne comparison, will be a snip. ation based on the effective doses as- Boston, MA

Physics World October 2009 13 CrossBeam® Workstations (FIB-SEM) from Carl Zeiss

AURIGA® Information Beyond Resolution

Unique Imaging | Precise Processing | Advanced Analytics | Future Assured

1µm 1µm

Key components of the AURIGA® CrossBeam®: Layer stack of a CdTe based thin film solar cell prepared Cross section through the front contact of a Si GEMINI® electron optical column (center), focused ion by focused ion beam. Courtesy of Prof. W. Jaegermann, wafer-based solar cell. Courtesy of Dr. F. Machalett, beam (left) and gas injection system (right). TU Darmstadt, Germany. ersol Solar Energy AG, Erfurt, Germany.

Carl Zeiss SMT Nano Technology Systems Division Carl Zeiss NTS GmbH Carl Zeiss SMT Ltd. A Carl Zeiss SMT AG Company 511 Coldhams Lane Carl-Zeiss-Str. 56 Cambridge CB1 3JS, UK 73447 Oberkochen, Germany Tel. +44 12 23 41 41 66 Tel. +49 73 64 / 20 44 88 Fax +44 12 23 41 27 76 Fax +49 73 64 / 20 43 43 [email protected] We make it visible. [email protected]

Untitled-18 1 22/9/09 10:00:15 PWOct09feedback 18/9/09 09:28 Page 15

physicsworld.com

cosmology. I agree with Susskind that the STFC idea of a “cosmic watchmaker” is not science – it is faith and belief expressed via Feedback religion. However, it seems to me that a multiverse of mutating universes is not Letters to the Editor can be sent to Physics World, strictly science either, because it is, and Dirac House, Temple Back, Bristol BS1 6BE, UK, probably always will be, untestable. or to [email protected]. Please include your address and The author rightly refers to theories, but a telephone number. Letters should be no more than often these straddle what can be tested 500 words and may be edited. Comments on articles (“science”) and what cannot (“philosophy” from physicsworld.com can be posted on the website; or “belief”). The fact that scientists do not an edited selection appears here all believe the same thing about the existence of a cosmic watchmaker, let alone what that cosmic watchmaker might be like, shows there are areas of human Alternative MRI limits enquiry that cannot be scientifically proved Denis Le Bihan’s article on magnetic or disproved. That should not, however, resonance imaging (MRI) clearly shows stop us asking the questions, nor seeking to the incompatibility of the International provide models and hypotheses based on Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Neutron scattering what we can test. Protection (ICNIRP) guidelines with MRI Accepting the reasonable hypothesis of a practice (August pp16–17). Although the gets short-changed multiverse as described in the article only ICNIRP recently relaxed its limits on static leads to more questions, such as “Why does magnetic fields, the stringent limits on In your excellent coverage of the latest the multiverse exist at all?”. Surely, when low-frequency magnetic fields remain round of funding cuts by the UK’s Science science leads to questions beyond its means incompatible with certain MRI and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), to answer, it is revealed – alongside religion procedures. Moreover, the ICNIRP limits you highlight the problems that will be and art – as a basic part of human enquiry, contrast sharply with those of the Institute caused by the severely reduced operations experience and expression. of Electrical and Electronics Engineers of the ISIS neutron source (August p7 and Elaine Pierpont (IEEE), even though both are derived p15). As a frequent neutron scatterer, I can Chipping Sodbury, South Gloucestershire, UK from the same scientific database. only echo your sentiment that it makes no [email protected] The ICNIRP’s extreme precaution was sense at all for the UK to build a superb criticized in a series of letters to the journal new facility like the £148m ISIS second I very much appreciated Lee Smolin’s Health Physics as long ago as 1998, and the target station if it can be switched on for article on “The unique universe” incompatibility with MRI procedures was only 120 days per year. (June p21–26), which argued against the foreseen. However, this excessive However, I cannot agree with your idea of a timeless multiverse. Perhaps precaution – which at frequencies in the analysis that this crisis has been triggered people who remain keenly interested in kilohertz range amounts to exposure limits by a fall in the value of the pound. physics well beyond retirement tend to that are lower than the IEEE limits by According to STFC’s own press release, its become more “middle of the road” considerably more than an order of budget includes additional funding to when the subject becomes linked with magnitude – only became a practical compensate for the effect of international philosophy, but, whatever the reason, problem when the European Commission exchange-rate movements on its large most thinking people I know appear to mandated the ICNIRP limits in its 2004 international subscriptions. This extra accept that time must exist. directive restricting occupational funding kicks in once the cost due to Even if its existence can be regarded as exposures to electromagnetic fields. currency fluctuations exceeds a £3m annual a series of timeless “snapshots”, to be As of July, the ICNIRP is inviting cap. The STFC annual budget of £491m is interested in the progress of existence comments on a draft revision of its therefore well above its baseline allocation requires the concept of “rate”, as in low-frequency guidelines (covering the of £429m from the 2007 comprehensive “rate of change of temperature” etc, which 0–100 kHz range). This draft includes a spending review. is easier to conceive and to quantify if the partial relaxation of limits towards the Next year will mark the 75th anniversary participation of time is accepted. Because IEEE values (although it does not refer of James Chadwick’s physics Nobel prize of this, I have come to regard time as the to these specifically). But why stop there? for the discovery of the neutron. As things dimension in which change takes place. Why not eliminate all the excessive caution stand, we could end up marking this event If this view is taken, a timeless universe in its guidelines and adopt the IEEE values by switching off ISIS, the UK’s flagship would also be a changeless one. At my even up to 100 MHz? The IEEE standards neutron-scattering facility. age, I cannot believe that I live in a are based on the same science used by the Neal Skipper changeless universe! ICNIRP, and differ only in the magnitude University College London D P Donegan of their “safety factor”. As past chairmen [email protected] Chorley, Lancashire, UK of IEEE who have been involved in standards-setting for the safe use of I would like to thank Robert Crease electromagnetic energy for more than for writing about the responses to the 40 years, we feel that there is a scientific Time, the multiverse question on religion in Physics World’s case for international harmonization. 20th anniversary survey (August p18), and John M Osepchuk and belief for highlighting the deep ignorance that Ronald C Petersen prevails over “religion” even in our well- Concord, Massachusetts, US I read with interest Leonard Susskind’s educated community. To equate religious Bedminster, New Jersey, US article on “Darwin’s legacy” (July pp42– belief with the tooth fairy, as one survey [email protected] 45) and how these ideas relate to respondent did, is to be unaware of our

Physics World October 2009 15 PWOct09feedback 18/9/09 09:28 Page 16

Feedback physicsworld.com

Comments from physicsworld.com Recently physicsworld.com has been abuzz with looking artificial trees that convert light, heat, sake of “progress”. The geoengineering argument is debate on geoengineering, thanks to the cover sound, rain and wind energy into electricity; in fundamentally flawed because it doesn’t first story “Engineering the climate” in the addition, these trees can capture and store CO2 recognize that it is our technologies that created September issue of Physics World and a series of and other pollutants. And they look much nicer. this problem to begin with. Throwing another online articles on technology-inspired ways to hankw technology at a problem is not the only solution, rejig the environment. The first article described but it is the only one that allows us to continue what how tree-shaped sodium-hydroxide absorbers Wouldn’t it just be easier to plant trees? we are doing and maintain the status quo for could scrub carbon dioxide from the atmosphere opalescent, US humans. We should think very carefully about how (“Engineers call for ‘artificial trees’ to reduce to proceed and why we are proceeding in that CO2” 27 August). Planting trees instead of creating artificial ones direction. We should consider our personal lifestyle seems to be a good idea, but the question is, do we choices and the impacts they have on the ecology. Using sodium hydroxide to absorb CO2 is just have enough room for all these trees we’d need to Instead of scientists pursuing activities to promote entropically stupid. Sodium hydroxide is a co- plant? And I’m afraid the answer is no. I’m also their research agendas, it would be much better to product in the energy-intensive electrolysis of salt. afraid that these artificial trees will need some see us trying to clarify much of the obfuscation What happened to “cradle to grave” economic energy to create, even more energy to run, and that surrounding the use of technology in everyday life. accounting? Algae scrubbers for coal-fired power they will run on a type of energy that produces CO2 Which is easier to change: the world or yourself? stations are a better idea as a short-term solution in some other place, probably defeating their heliostat, Germany while we wean ourselves off fossil-fuel energy. purpose. The same goes for algae. Let’s let algae hughlaue, South Africa absorb CO2 for a while (check mark: absorbed CO2 Unfortunately, within the current economic and quota), then let’s use them as biofuel (check mark: technological framework, it may just be easier to Sodium hydroxide is energetically costly, but used biofuels quota) and happily release all change the world. Rather than causing discomfort alkaline earth orthosilicates – like olivine (aka captured CO2 back to the atmosphere. to the over-consumptive masses, we’d tinker with peridot) and wollastonite – are not, and finding kasuha, Czech Republic redoubtable global systems we just don’t cubic myriametres of them is easy. Pulverizing the understand. Look, I have a sense of curiosity as necessary smaller amounts is harder, but not as Days later, physicsworld.com reported on a much as the next scientist, but when most of our hard as making and remaking NaOH, and when study by the Royal Society that discussed the scientific and technological advancements have pulverized Mg2SiO4 sucks down CO2, entropy costs and benefits of several methods been made ultimately in the name of consumerism increases. Thus, mining operations have (“Geoengineering could be needed to halt or war, I am led to question the fundamental value demonstrated carbon capture and storage on a far climate change” 1 September). of progress. larger scale than artificial trees ever will, and have Jarrod, South Africa done so at zero marginal cost and without any Geoengineering is a form of technology that could forethought on the part of the miners. be employed on a massive scale and cause GRLCowan, Canada unknown cascading effects (both positive and negative) to human existence. Scientists are too A British company, SolarBotanic, has developed quick in implementing technologies without Read these comments in full and add your own at something similar, except they make natural- contemplating the consequences first – all for the physicsworld.com

cultural history. One obvious example (of in the local Bayer group, and the camera’s many) is the conception underpinning our Astrophotography issue software then interprets the star image as great cathedrals, which ought at least to be white, rather than the correct colour. considered a great humanist achievement. Regarding David Pye and Ray Crundwell’s Simon Fedida The religious thought that supports these picture of Sirius (July p21), I think it is London, UK concepts is clearly not empty. possible that the colours shown in the star [email protected] I would further argue that it is streak are artefacts of the Bayer pattern on Christianity that taught us how to think the front of the camera’s CCD, particularly David Pye and Ray Crundwell reply: scientifically in the first place (although if the track is only a few pixels wide. The While we recognize that digital later, brilliant contributions from Muslim Bayer pattern is a layer of dye filters coated photography can sometimes lead to scholars also deserve acknowledgement). over the CCD glass in a red–green–blue artefacts, we feel sure that Simon Fedida is Ancient Greek thought was mathematical, (RGB) dot pattern. Single CCD cameras incorrect in the case of our Sirius streak not scientific. It is widely acknowledged use software to synthesize the final colour image. First, his theory would suggest that that while Aristotle was an outstanding of a pixel from the relative response of a each coloured component of the streak biologist, he was too deeply misguided as a group of CCD pixels depending on would only be about as long as it is wide, physicist to be considered as such. And whether each CCD pixel is behind an R, but the length actually depends entirely on Ptolemy’s geocentric synthesis – the G or B filter. So a point source like a star, how fast the camera shakes (faster shaking crowning achievement of Greek finely focused, may not cover enough CCD equals longer streaks). Secondly, we have mathematics – was considered just that: pixels and their filters to give the correct many out-of-focus images that show the a mathematical fiction that saved the colour balance. Moving the camera to give colour sequences just as clearly; phenomena but was not actually true. It a streak just illuminates different groups of incidentally, measurements of the sharper, was the Christian Galileo who was bold pixels, resulting in a varying colour balance. published image show that the streak is enough to say that it was true that the So, how wide (in pixels) is the star streak, consistently 4–4.5 pixels wide. Thirdly, the Earth went round the Sun. Truth is what and does it cover an adequate number of phenomenon of coloured scintillation is we are after. pixels to give the correct colour balance? already well known; all we did was to Chris Jeynes A related, but opposite, problem in record the effect with a camera in order to Ion Beam Centre, University of Surrey, UK astrophotography is that a bright star (all share its beauty. It can be seen easily with [email protected] stars are coloured!) saturates all the pixels binoculars and we would encourage

16 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09feedback 21/9/09 13:49 Page 17

physicsworld.com Feedback

readers to try this for themselves when combined gas and electricity bill (for a 2 °C. By the time the central heating is Sirius appears again this winter. family of four) is now £28 per month. switched off sometime in April, the solar Had I gone with the standard set-up that panels are providing the domestic hot our installer was offering, I am sure that water except on very wet days, when I the savings would be nothing like as good: manually switch on the immersion heater In hot water, again it pays to do your homework before for a short time. Regarding Norman Willcox’s letter about specifying a system. Electric immersion It is difficult to know precisely how the problems of using solar panels for heaters should be avoided, since, much money the system saves. However, domestic heating (August p21), I also have environmentally, it is poor form to use a before I installed it, I kept the gas boiler thermal solar panels installed. However, high-grade energy source such as electricity running for most of the year just for hot contrary to his disappointing experience, for heating. Also, given that a kilowatt- water. Now it is turned off for at least five I have found that they provide my family hour of electricity costs about four times as months, which has presumably extended with a useful amount of hot water. In our much as a kilowatt-hour of gas, it does not its useful life. Moreover, after I installed it, system, the solar energy is used to heat a make economic sense. The solar industry the gas company queried the very low store of water, which has no other source of (at the installation level) could do with a gas consumption in summer and heat. Mains-pressure cold water passes good physics lesson. continued for three or four years to send through this store via a heat exchanger, Alastair Basden estimated bills for far more than the removing heat from it and warming up. Durham, UK system had consumed. If the water becomes warm enough, an [email protected] If you insist on having a full tank of unpowered thermostatic valve allows it to piping hot water at all times, then solar go straight to the hot taps (mixing it with I have been using solar water heating for panels are not for you. Whatever your cold if it is too hot). However, if it is not hot 20 years, so although I am not a physicist, system, the output will vary from day to day enough, then the water is directed first I feel able to comment from years of and season to season, and you must through our previously installed gas- experience. My system works in monitor it to get the best out of it. But I powered combination boiler and then to combination with gas central heating in would be sorry to be without either the the taps. winter and an electric immersion heater in solar water system or the photovoltaic This year, the first day we did not require the summer. The pump supplying the hot- system I have been using to feed energy the combination boiler for water heating water storage tank kicks in when there is a back to the grid for the past two years. was in March. Between May and August, 6 °C difference between the temperature Sheila Watkins we used the boiler only about 20% of the of the panels and the bottom of the tank, Wincanton, Somerset, UK time, despite a wet July. As a result, our and it cuts out when the difference falls to [email protected] Next month in Physics World C Carreau, ESA Recipes for planets With new observations of exoplanets pouring in, astronomers are obtaining valuable information about the temperature and composition of these new worlds that may help us understand how planets form

Unravelling the threads Mystery still surrounds a work of art created in 1913 by the artist Marcel Duchamp, who dropped three threads exactly a metre long from a height of a metre on to a piece of canvas

Beyond the quantum Quantum mechanics is a hugely successful theory, but it is also strange and incomprehensible. Now, though, some physicists think there may be another level of reality beyond the quantum world

Plus News & Analysis, Forum, Critical Point, Feedback, Reviews, Careers and much more physicsworld.com

Physics World October 2009 17 pco.1300 solar maxim NIR sensitivity for EL applications izethe moment

Highlights • QE of up to 11 % @ 900nm • excellent resolution of 1392 x 1040 pixel • low noise of 7 e- rms @ 10 MHz • cooled 12 bit dynamic range • designed for electroluminescence (EL) applications

www.pco.de in America: www.cookecorp.com

XRF Solutions • Solid State Design • No Liquid Nitrogen!! • Thermoelectric Cooler • Easy to Use • USB Controlled • Low Cost

Complete XRF System Complete X-Ray Spectrometer OEM Components

Your choice of Si-PIN Detector or Silicon Drift Detector or CdTe-diode Detector

Si-PIN Spectrum SDD Spectrum CdTe Spectrum 5.9 5.9 57Co keV keV 122 keV 55 Fe 55Fe 14.4 keV 149 eV FWHM 136 eV FWHM 850 eV FWHM Counts Counts 6 mm2 x 500 µm 7 mm2 x 450 µm Counts 530 eV FWHM 6.4 6.4 25.6 µs peaking time keV 9.6 µs peaking time keV P/B Ratio: 6200/1 P/B Ratio: 7000/1 Energy (keV) Energy (keV) Energy (keV) OEM’s #1 Choice for XRF AMPTEK Inc. 14 DeAngelo Drive, Bedford, MA 01730-2204 USA Tel: +1 781 275-2242 Fax: +1 781 275-3470 E-mail: [email protected] www.amptek.com

PWOct09_p18.indd 1 22/9/09 09:36:52 PWOct09leader 21/9/09 17:34 Page 19

physicsworld.com The energy puzzle Physics is just the start Physics World Dirac House, Temple Back, Bristol BS1 6BE, UK Tel: +44 (0)117 929 7481 Dealing with climate change requires more than just scientific and technical solutions Fax: +44 (0)117 925 1942 There is sure to be plenty of discussion over the next few months about climate E-mail: [email protected] Web: physicsworld.com change as politicians and policymakers prepare to meet in Copenhagen in Decem- ber, where a successor to the Kyoto protocol is due to be hammered out. No doubt Editor Matin Durrani Associate Editor Dens Milne there will be lots of big promises, horse-trading and behind-the-scenes deals struck News Editor Michael Banks at the eleventh hour, culminating in a protocol or communiqué stating that, yes, Features Editor João Medeiros the world really must cut greenhouse-gas emissions. Reviews and Careers Editor Margaret Harris Web Editor Hamish Johnston But the issue will, as always, be how to put words into Web Reporter James Dacey Photolibrary action. After all, carbon-dioxide emissions have kept Advisory Panel John Ellis CERN, Peter Knight on rising since the Kyoto deal was agreed in 1997. Imperial College London, Martin Rees University The main message of this special issue of Physics of Cambridge World is that tackling climate change, while meeting Publisher Jo Allen the world’s current and future energy demands, is not Marketing and circulation Angela Gage just a scientific and technical challenge but a matter of Display Advertisement Sales Edward Jost politics and communication too. That theme is under- Recruitment Advertisement Sales Chris Thomas lined by the physicist and former BP chief executive Advertisement Production Mark Trimnell Lord Browne, who offers four messages for politicians of whichever persuasion Art Director Andrew Giaquinto (p20). In addition to rethinking the state’s role in the energy market and seeking a Diagram Artist Alison Tovey worldwide solution to global warming, Browne warns that governments should not Subscription information 2009 volume compartmentalize climate change and must encourage action in areas where “eco- The subscription rates for institutions are nomic prosperity, national security and environmental integrity come together”. £295/7435/$555 per annum. Single issues are £24.00/734.00/$45.00. Orders to: IOP Circulation Whether politicians take any real action to reverse emission trends, depends in Centre, WDIS Ltd, Units 12 & 13 Cranleigh Gardens part on scientists like Browne voicing their concerns about climate change more Industrial Estate, Southall, Middlesex UB1 2DB, UK strongly to the public, opinion-makers and political leaders. As Joseph Romm, a (tel: +44 (0)845 4561511; fax: +44 (0)20 8606 7303; e-mail: [email protected]). Physics World is available physicist at the US think tank Center for American Progress, points out (p22), on an individual basis, worldwide, through membership of unless scientists – and physicists in particular – do more to warn the world of the the Institute of Physics dangers of climate change, we could end up being blamed by future generations Copyright © 2009 by IOP Publishing Ltd and individual for “the havoc our ignorance and myopia has brought them”. contributors. All rights reserved. IOP Publishing Ltd permits Climate modellers will no doubt argue that they have done their best to shed light single photocopying of single articles for private study or research, irrespective of where the copying is done. Multiple on global warming, but, elsewhere in the issue (p33), Gavin Schmidt of NASA’s copying of contents or parts thereof without permission is in Goddard Institute for Space Studies argues that such models need to be made more breach of copyright, except in the UK under the terms of the agreement between the CVCP and the CLA. Authorization of useful to politicians. As Schmidt explains, climate scientists have typically studied photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or the impact of carbon dioxide separately from, say, aerosols or the emissions that personal use of specific clients, is granted by IOP Publishing Ltd for libraries and other users registered with the Copyright cause ozone. What we need now, says Schmidt, is an increasing focus on models Clearance Center (CCC) Transactional Reporting Service, that can take into account all of these factors – and the interactions between them provided that the base fee of $2.50 per copy is paid directly to – at the same time. That should give better answers to policymakers’ questions, such CCC, 27 Congress Street, Salem, MA 01970, USA as how to supply power to the growing populations in China and India. Bibliographic codes ISSN: 0953-8585 None of this is to say that we should ignore scientific solutions. Elsewhere in this CODEN: PHWOEW Printed in the UK by Warners (Midlands) plc, The Maltings, issue, two US scientists, George Crabtree and John Sarrao, describe the materials- West Street, Bourne, Lincolnshire PE10 9PH science challenges that we need to overcome in the quest for clean, long-lasting and sustainable energy (p24). Meanwhile, Alan Smith and David Tolfree from the UK outline how nanotechnology could transform the energy industry (p40). Finally, US energy consultant Paul Michael Grant (p37) offers an even more am- The Institute of Physics 76 Portland Place, London W1B 1NT, UK bitious solution to solving the world’s energy needs – a network of underground Tel: +44 (0)20 7470 4800 pipes carrying nuclear-power-produced hydrogen that serves both as a fuel and as Fax: +44 (0)20 7470 4848 a coolant for superconducting electricity-carrying cables. It is the most ambitious E-mail: [email protected] Web: iop.org of all the technologies presented in this issue, but typical of the bold vision that Physics World has an ABC audited physicists can bring to solving the energy puzzle. circulation for 2008 of 35 183 The contents of this magazine, including the views expressed above, are the responsibility of the Editor. They do not represent the views or policies of the Institute of Physics, except where explicitly stated.

Physics World October 2009 19 PWOct09browne 15/9/09 15:10 Page 20

The energy puzzle: Political hurdles physicsworld.com Challenges in tackling climate change

In order to limit global warming by reducing carbon emissions, Lord Browne argues that the biggest barriers to a low-carbon economy in the UK are not scientific or technological but political Tony McConnell/Science Photo Library

When it comes to climate change, the gap between the vision of both scientists and engineers and the will of politicians is some- times very stark. The problems caused by the changing climate are now better understood than ever, yet there is a frustrating sense of inertia when it comes to taking action. The Fourth Assessment Report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) suggests that we must halve global greenhouse-gas emissions by 2050 in order to stand a good chance of limiting global warming from pre-industrial times to 2 °C. The UK’s independent Committee on Cli- mate Change has recommended an 80% do- mestic reduction in the same period – a target The heat is on Politicians in Westminster may be hampering the UK’s battle against climate change. now enshrined in the pioneering Climate Change Act passed in 2008. food crops are already in use, while second- might also prove to be a viable alternative to Meeting these challenging targets will generation “ligno-cellulosic” biofuels from natural-gas boilers. require nothing less than a revolution in the energy crops are nearing the commercial With so many technologies to choose three areas of the UK’s energy mix: elec- development stage. Even in aviation, a sec- from, it is clear that the greatest barriers to tricity, transport and heating. There are no tor that attracts its fair share of criticism, the low-carbon revolution are not scientific silver bullets when it comes to low-carbon tests have shown that biofuels can be blen- or technological. Nor, indeed, are they re- energy and governments should refrain from ded with kerosene in jet-engine fuel. There is lated to macroeconomic cost – various inde- picking winners at this stage. also growing momentum behind electric pendent analyses put the figure at just a few cars, run on either renewable electricity or percentage points of gross domestic product Energy barriers hydrogen fuel cells. lost over the coming decades. The biggest So what might the future energy mix look In heating, which is often forgotten in barriers are in fact political. like? In power generation, the UK could debates on energy policy, the UK could deploy a whole suite of renewable technol- learn from other countries’ experiments Combating climate change ogies currently at different stages of devel- with combined heat and power co-genera- I would suggest four imperatives for politi- opment: from mature technologies such as tion plants and district heating networks – cians constructing energy policy in response onshore wind plants and biomass energy using waste heat from small- and mid-scale to climate change. The first is not to com- plants to emerging technologies such as off- power plants productively, close to where it partmentalize climate change as an issue. Its shore wind facilities and photovoltaic solar is generated. Ground-source heat pumps effects will be extensive – affecting every- cells to experimental technologies in wave that make use of natural geothermal energy thing from weather patterns to defence pol- and tidal power. icy – and our response to it must be equally Integrating large amounts of renewable Politicians must broad. Politicians must lead from the front, energy while also keeping costs down will demonstrating to their citizens that environ- require the development of a more flexible, mental integrity is a tangible part of other “smarter” grid network that is able to intelli- demonstrate that social priorities such as economic prosperity gently manage consumer demand by com- and national security. municating with meters installed in our environmental Of course, there will be trade-offs between homes. Energy from nuclear plants and fos- climate change and other social priorities. sil-fuel plants fitted with carbon capture and integrity is a tangible A potent example is the question of whether storage facilities could then provide clean, to build new coal-fired power plants, which low-cost base-load generation from secure would enhance energy security but at the sources of nuclear fuel and indigenous coal. part of other expense of “locking in” harmful emissions In transport – which is currently 95% re- for decades to come. We should not be un- liant on oil – first-generation biofuels from social priorities charitable – decisions such as these repre-

20 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09browne 21/9/09 15:45 Page 21

physicsworld.com The energy puzzle: Political hurdles

sent a political dilemma of the highest order What the politicians say politicians must seek a global solution to cli- and there are few easy answers. mate change. The immediate battle against For this reason, the second imperative is to Climate change cannot be tackled by politicians climate change will be mostly waged in the pursue action in areas of activity in which eco- on their own but through politicians and people developing world. In the next decade, op- nomic prosperity, national security and en- working together portunities to reduce emissions in develop- vironmental integrity come together. Using Ed Miliband, Secretary of State for Energy and ing countries represent two-thirds of the public money for green-energy infrastructure Climate Change global potential. What is more, this could be and for energy-efficiency improvements achieved at half the cost of action in the would not only help reduce greenhouse-gas No other major European country generates less developed world. emissions, but also guide the path towards of its electricity from renewables [than the UK], What these four imperatives point to is a economic recovery and energy security. although we have some of the best wind, wave and new direction for government policy in re- There are some who argue that it is not the tidal resources in Europe sponse to climate change. In previous years role of government to stimulate investment Greg Clark, Shadow Secretary of State for Energy energy policy has been judged by two met- in new energy industries. But governments and Climate Change rics: security and cost. To this we must now have been doing this for decades and with add a third: low-carbon generation. great success. The UK offshore oil and gas Developing our renewables as quickly as possible The impact of this will affect every sector industry was created from virtually nothing must be the highest energy priority of the UK economy – from agriculture to during the 1970s and 1980s due, in part, to Simon Hughes, Liberal Democrat Shadow finance, and from software management to generous tax incentives and government Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change civil engineering. It may feel a lot like step- help to build strategic infrastructure. There ping into the unknown but humanity has is an even greater cause for government in- energy infrastructure that we urgently need. thrived in those moments where it has most tervention today because climate-change And in troubled economic times, it is pushed itself. For this generation, the task mitigation is a public good that would not important that the government has a hand remains to bridge the gap between the scien- otherwise be recognised by the free market. in directing financial resources to projects tifically possible and the politically feasible. Given this need for greater government where they are urgently needed. In April the intervention, the third imperative is for po- UK’s Chancellor of the Exchequer, Alistair Lord Browne of Madingley is President liticians to rethink the state’s role in energy Darling, announced £525m of support for of the Royal Academy of Engineering. markets. The market is the most effective offshore wind facilities that has been imme- A physicist by training, he is also a delivery system available to society, but it diately successful in unlocking projects worth former chief executive of BP needs strategic direction and a framework of a combined 3000 MW. rules if it is to provide the more diversified The fourth, and final, imperative is that

1 METALS & ALLOYS Standard 18 Hydrogen Helium 1 H Catalogue Items 2 He 1.0079 June 2006 4.0026 0.090 0.177 -252.87 2 13 14 15 16 17 -268.93 Element Name Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Atomic ADVENT 3 Li 4 Be No. Symbol 5 B 6 C 7 N 8 O 9 F 10 Ne

6.941 9.0122 Atomic weight 10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180 0.54 1.85 ¦ 2.46 2.27 1.251 1.429 1.696 0.900

180.5 1287 Density Solids & Liquids (g/cm3) Gases(g/l) 2076 3900 -195.79 -182.95 -188.12 -246.08 Sodium Magnesium M.pt./B.pt.(˚C) ¦ Melting point (Solids & Liquids) • Boiling point (Gases) Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon 11 Na 12 Mg 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar 22.990 24.305 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.065 35.453 39.948 0.97 1.74 2.70 2.33 1.82 1.96 3.214 1.784 97.7 650 3456789101112660.3 1414 44.2 115.2 -34.04 -185.85 Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton 19 K 20 Ca 21 Sc 22 Ti 23 V 24 Cr 25 Mn 26 Fe 27 Co 28 Ni 29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As 34 Se 35 Br 36 Kr 39.098 40.078 44.956 47.867 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933 58.693 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.64 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80 0.86 1.55 2.99 4.51 6.11 7.14 7.47 7.87 8.90 8.91 8.92 7.14 5.90 5.32 5.73 4.82 3.12 3.733 63.4 842 1541 1668 1910 1907 1246 1538 1495 1455 1084.6 419.5 29.8 938.3 816.9 221 -7.3 -153.22 Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon 37 Rb 38 Sr 39 Y 40 Zr 41 Nb 42 Mo 43 Tc 44 Ru 45 Rh 46 Pd 47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb 52 Te 53 I 54 Xe 85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.94 [98] 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29 1.53 2.63 4.47 6.51 8.57 10.28 11.5 12.37 12.45 12.02 10.49 8.65 7.31 7.31 6.70 6.24 4.94 5.887 39.3 777 1526 1855 2477 2623 2157 2334 1964 1554.9 961.8 321.1 156.6 231.9 630.6 449.5 113.7 -108.05 Caesium Barium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine 0Radon 55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Cs Ba 57-70 Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 132.91 137.33 174.97 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 [209] [210] [222] 1.88 3.51 * 9.84 13.31 16.65 19.25 21.02 22.61 22.65 21.09 19.30 13.55 11.85 11.34 9.78 9.20 – 9.73 28.4 727 1652 2233 3017 3422 3186 3033 2466 1768.3 1064.2 -38.83 304 327.5 271.3 254 302 -61.85 Francium Radium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Unununium Ununbium Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium 87 Fr 88 Ra 89-102 103 Lr 104 Rf 105 Db 106 Sg 107 Bh 108 Hs 109 Mt 110 Ds 111 Uuu 112Uub 113 Uut 114 Uuq 115 Uup 116 Uuh [223] [226] [262] [262] [262] [266] [264] [277] [268] [281] [272] [285] [284] [289] [288] [292] – 5.0 ** – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 700 1627 – – – – – – – – – – – – – Order on line Visit our website for www.advent-rm.com latest Catalogue prices £ • € • Sfr • US$ Advent Research Materials Ltd • Eynsham • Oxford • England OX29 4JA + new stock lines Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium 57 La 58 Ce 59 Pr 60 Nd 61 Pm 62 Sm 63 Eu 64 Gd 65 Tb 66 Dy 67 Ho 68 Er 69 Tm 70 Yb 138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 [145] 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 Lanthanoids 6.146 6.689 6.64 6.80 7.264 7.353 5.244 7.901 8.219 8.551 8.795 9.066 9.321 6.57 * 920 795 935 1024 1100 1072 826 1312 1356 1407 1461 1497 1545 824 Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium 89 Ac 90 Th 91 Pa 92 U 93 Np 94 Pu 95 Am 96 Cm 97 Bk 98 Cf 99 Es 100 Fm 101 Md 102 No [227] 232.04 231.04 238.03 [237] [244] [243] [247] [247] [251] [252] [257] [258] [259] **Actinoids 10.07 11.72 15.37 19.05 20.45 19.816 – 13.51 14.78 15.1 – – – – 1050 1842 1568 1132 637 639 1176 1340 986 900 860 1527 827 827 METALS & ALLOYS • Foils • Sheets • Plates • Wires • Insulated wires • Wires straight cut lengths • Woven wire meshes • Rods • Tubes Pellets • Lumps • Ingots • Polymers • for Research/Development & Industry • Small quantities • Competitive prices • Fast shipment Tel + 44 1865 884440 Fax + 44 1865 884460 [email protected]

Physics World October 2009 21 PWOct09romm 15/9/09 15:41 Page 22

The energy puzzle: Climate communication physicsworld.com Publicize or perish The scientific community is failing miserably in communicating the Photolibrary potential catastrophe of climate change. Joseph Romm urges scientists to start engaging with the public – now

The fate of the next 50 generations may well be determined in the next few months and years. Will the US Congress agree to a shrinking cap on greenhouse-gas emissions and legislation to achieve the transforma- tion to clean energy? If not, you can forget about a global climate deal. But even if the bill passes and a global deal is achieved, both will need to be continuously streng- thened in coming years, as the increasingly worrisome science continues to inform the policy, just as in the case of the Montreal Protocol on ozone-depleting substances. The International Scientific Congress on climate change held in Copenhagen in March, which was attended by 2000 scien- Something to shout about Scientists must get better at messaging about climate change before it is too late. tists, concluded that “Recent observations confirm that, given high rates of observed not help lead the way in reversing emissions, percentage of Republicans saying the effects emissions, the worst-case Intergovernmental then we will justifiably bear serious blame of global warming had already begun had Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scenario from future generations, who will no doubt dropped to a mere 42% (an amazing statistic trajectories (or even worse) are being real- become increasingly bitter about the havoc in its own right given the painfully obvious ized.” That would mean that by 2100 there our ignorance and myopia has brought them. evidence to the contrary). But the percent- would be atmospheric concentrations of Nobody will be writing books calling us “the age saying most scientists believe global carbon dioxide of more than 1000 ppm, total greatest generation.” warming is occurring had risen to 54% – a planetary warming of 5 °C and sea-level rises As one example of how bad scientific mes- stunning 12-point differential. probably on the high end of recent projec- saging has been, let me go through Gallup In short, a significant and growing number tions of 1–2 m followed by a rise of as much polling over the past decade as discussed in a of Republicans – one in eight as of 2008 – as 2 cm per year or more for centuries. We 2008 article in Environment magazine enti- simply do not believe what they know most would also see one-third of inhabited land tled “A widening gap: Republican and De- scientists believe. That is quite alarming news, reaching dust bowl levels of aridity, half or mocratic views on climate change”. given that it is inconceivable that the US will more of all species becoming extinct, and the The article reported that in 1997 some take the very strong action needed to avert oceans increasingly becoming hot, acidic, 52% of Democrats said that the effects of catastrophe unless it comes to believe what dead zones. And if we do not change course global warming had already begun and 52% most scientists believe, namely that we are in quickly, the latest science predicts that these said most scientists believe global warming big, big trouble and can delay no further. impacts may be irreversible for 1000 years. is occurring. In 2008 some 76% said warm- Here is the lesson for scientists: in the last In short, the fate of perhaps the next 100 ing had begun and 75% said most scientists decade, we have apparently become less billion people to walk the Earth rests with believe warming is occurring. It would ap- convincing to Republicans than the deniers scientists (and those who understand the sci- pear that Democrats believe most scientists. have been. They have apparently become ence) trying to communicate the dire nature Few leading climate scientists or major better at messaging, while we have perhaps of the climate problem (and the myriad solu- scientific bodies would disagree that the become worse. tions available now) as well as the ability of scientific case that the planet is warming – In part, this has occurred because there the media, the public, opinion-makers and and that humans are the dominant cause is an organized disinformation campaign political leaders to understand and deal with of recent temperature rises – has become promoted by conservative think tanks like that science. stronger in the past 10 years. That is clearly the Competitive Enterprise Institute and seen in the scientific literature – as summar- well funded by fossil-fuel companies like Disinformation and scientific illiteracy ized in the IPCC reports. ExxonMobil, with key messages repeated by So far, we are failing miserably. Neither the And yet for Republicans, in 1997 some conservative pundits and politicians like US nor the world as a whole has taken any 48% said warming had begun and 42% said George Will, Rush Limbaugh and Repub- consequential action to reverse emissions most scientists believe warming is occurring lican Senator James Inhofe. At the same trends. And if the scientific community does – a modest six-point differential. By 2008, the time, the media have treated this more as a

22 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09romm 21/9/09 13:54 Page 23

physicsworld.com Pssst! Need a low-noise amplifier? political issue than a scientific one, thereby necessitating in their view a “balanced” pre- The fate of perhaps Go to www.femto.de to learn more sentation of both sides, notwithstanding about … the fact that the overwhelming majority of the next 100 billion scientists understand humans are warming the planet and dangerously so. Also, increas- … Low-Noise Voltage Amplifier – ingly profit-driven media have been abdica- people rests with Series DLPVA-100 ting their role in science education. Science writer Chris Mooney and scientist Sheril scientists trying to Kirshenbaum offer these grim statistics in their recent book Unscientific America: communicate the How Scientific Illiteracy Threatens our Future (2009, Basic Books): ● For every five hours of cable news, one dire nature of the minute is devoted to science; n Input Noise down to 400 pV/√Hz ● Some 46% of Americans believe that the climate problem n Variable Gain up to 100 dB (x 100,000) Earth is less than 10 000 years old; n Input Impedance up to 1 TΩ ● The number of US newspapers with sci- 2006 article in the Bulletin of the American n Manual and Remote Control ence sections has shrunk by two-thirds in the Meteorological Society explained (87 1025), last 20 years; “For a scientist whose reputation is largely ● Just 18% of Americans know a scientist invested in peer-reviewed publications and personally; the citations thereof, there is little profes- … High Speed Current Amplifier – ● The overwhelming majority of Americans sional pay-off for getting involved in debates Series HCA polled in late 2007 either could not name a that mix science and politics.” scientific role model or named “people who The scientific community must figure out are either not scientists or not alive”. how to effectively engage the public on this crucial issue. The physics community in par- The lack of scientific messaging ticular must help lead the way. After all, it Yet just when the media are abandoning sci- was effective at warning the public and pol- ence coverage, many scientists are increas- icymakers about the dangers of that other ingly reluctant to address politicized issues existential threat to the human race – nuc- like global warming. lear weapons. We appear to have walked n Bandwidth DC up to 400 MHz, Rise-Time Scientists who are also great public com- back from the precipice of global nuclear war down to 1ns municators, like Carl Sagan or Richard only to face an equally grave threat from our n Optimized Models for Large Source Feynman, have grown scarcer as science has unbridled consumption of fossil fuels. Capacitances up to 2 nF become increasingly specialized. Moreover, I believe that the major scientific bodies n the media like the glib and the dramatic, and leading scientists in the US must come Ideal for Fast and Large Area Photodiodes which is a style that most scientists deliber- together immediately to develop and quickly ately avoid. Scientists like to focus on the implement a serious communication strat- things that they do not know, since that is egy. We are again at the precipice. Indeed, it … 19” Lock-In Amplifier Board – the cutting edge of scientific research. So is, as the current Presidential Science Ad- Series LIA-BV(D)-150 they do not keep repeating the things that visor and physicist John Holdren has said they do know, which is one reason that the many times, too late to avoid dangerous public and the media often do not hear from anthropogenic warming of the planet. Now scientists about the strong areas of consen- the only question is whether we can avoid sus on global warming. And as the physicist unmitigated catastrophe. Mark Bowen writes in Thin Ice (2006, Holt), One final point. If the scientific community his book about glaciologist Lonnie Thomp- is unable to help persuade the public, opin- son, “Scientists have an annoying habit of ion-makers and political leaders to take the backing off when they’re asked to make a necessary action now, then the entire rela- plain statement, and climatologists tend to tionship of science to the broader world will be worse than most.” change forever. When the US and the world n Working Frequency up to 120 kHz As scientist and writer Jared Diamond do get desperate about global warming in the n Phase Independent Output wrote in a 1997 article in Discover magazine next decade or two, then the entire focus of n Manual and Remote Control on scientific messaging (or the lack thereof), society, of scientists and engineers, and of n For Low Cost, Multi-Channel and OEM “Scientists who do communicate effectively academia will be directed toward a Second- Applications with the public often find their colleagues re- World-War-scale effort to mitigate what we sponding with scorn, and even punishing can and adapting to the myriad miseries that them in ways that affect their careers.” After our myopic dawdling has made inevitable. I Sagan became famous, he was rejected for do not think that the scientific community has membership of the National Academy of even begun to think about that. Sciences in a special vote. This became widely known, and, as Diamond writes, “Every sci- Joseph Romm is a physicist and FEMTO® Messtechnik GmbH entist is capable of recognizing the obvious climate expert, and a senior fellow at Berlin / Germany implications for his or her self-interest.” the Center for American Progress in Scientists who have been outspoken about Washington, DC, where he edits the [email protected] n www.femto.de global warming have been repeatedly at- blog ClimateProgress.org, e-mail tacked as having a “political agenda”. As a [email protected]

Physics World October 2009 23 PWOct09crabtree 22/9/09 16:28 Page 24

The energy puzzle: Sustainability physicsworld.com

The road to sustainability “Sustainability” is the hottest topic in energy research today, but what does it actually mean? George Crabtree and John Sarrao describe what makes a technology sustainable, and outline the materials-science challenges standing between us and clean, long-lasting energy

George Crabtree is a The oil shock of the 1970s triggered worldwide aware- higher than they were before the Industrial Revolution, Distinguished Fellow ness of oil dependency and launched a search for alter- and they are rising at an accelerating pace, driven by in the Materials native sources of energy. But three decades on, these the human combustion of fossil fuels. The potential Science Division of efforts have barely had an impact: oil still accounts for implications for global warming and climate change the Argonne National almost 40% of global energy use, and fossil fuels make are sobering. Left unchecked, climate change could Laboratory, up 85%. The US, for example, imported 20% of its oil produce dislocations in the agricultural, trade and e-mail crabtree@ in 1970; today the figure is 60%, and other countries demographic patterns that define global economic and anl.gov. John Sarrao is a physicist and import even larger fractions of the oil they consume. social structures. Program Director for The problem of oil dependency is compounded by cost. A particularly worrying feature of global warming is the Office of Science Before the current recession, the price of oil peaked at the timescale involved. It takes 400–1000 years for car- Programs at the $140 a barrel – five times its price in 2002 and 10 times bon dioxide in the atmosphere to equilibrate in the Los Alamos National its price in 1976 – rewriting the economics of trans- deep ocean. Hence, the carbon dioxide that we have Laboratory, e-mail portation, food, manufacturing and trade that underlie already added – and continue to add – to the atmo- [email protected] the operation of society. In addition to dependency and sphere will affect not only our grandchildren but also cost, energy security is a pervasive threat. The concen- their grandchildren and many generations beyond. The tration of oil production in a few regions of the world long-term impact of global warming requires a sus- makes the supply of oil vulnerable to unpredictable tained investment of intellectual resources to under- events such as weather, terrorism, and geopolitical stand the dynamics of climate change, rather than the manoeuvring. Because oil provides so much of our en- short-lived interest and spending surge that followed ergy, severe reductions in its flow would dramatically the oil shock of the 1970s. change the way we live. The dual challenges of energy and climate are cap- The current outlook for energy adds a crucial new tured in a single term: sustainability. Our current re- dimension that was not present in the first oil shock: liance on oil and other fossil fuels (see figure on page carbon-dioxide emissions and climate change. The 26) and our unfettered emission of carbon dioxide to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has docu- the atmosphere are not sustainable activities. We are mented global warming through rising sea levels, using oil and fossil fuels at far greater rates than nature shrinking snow cover in the northern hemisphere and creates them, and their cost and supply are fragile and higher surface temperatures. These increases in tem- volatile. Our carbon-dioxide emissions are growing by perature track similar increases in the concentration 22% per decade and they threaten to overwhelm the of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere – a remarkable ability of the ocean–atmosphere system to absorb them correlation that extends over four ice ages covering the and maintain a stable climate. These activities not only last 400 000 years. Carbon-dioxide levels are now 30% deplete the fossil resources required for our current

24 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09crabtree 17/9/09 16:21 Page 25

physicsworld.com The energy puzzle: Sustainability Hank Morgan/Science Photo Library

energy system, but also undermine the environment harm”. Burning fossil fuels releases pollutants such as and climate essential to our future prosperity. sulphur and mercury that endanger human health, as The transition to sustainable energy technologies well as greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide that requires fundamental changes in the way we do busi- threaten climate stability. Some alternatives to fossil ness. Oil and emissions have become woven into the fuels have their own degrees of potential harm, inclu- fabric of our economy and society, thanks to fossil fuels’ ding the underground migration and leakage of se- unprecedented success in delivering cheap energy questered carbon dioxide and the hazards of storing when and where we need it. Changing these patterns spent nuclear fuel. will involve major disruptions of business as usual. Fun- The third and most strict criterion for sustainability damentally new ways of producing and using energy is “leaves no change”. When the material outputs of are needed, and they will require massive amounts of energy generation and use are recycled to replace the innovation in materials and chemical processes. inputs, the chemical cycle is said to be closed and the chemical state of the world is unchanged. The process Defining sustainability of converting renewable energy sources like sunlight Although most people agree that more-sustainable and wind to carriers like hydrogen or electricity comes energy technologies are desirable, they often find it closest to fulfilling this restrictive definition. Fossil harder to agree on exactly how sustainable these tech- energy systems, in contrast, usually operate as once- nologies need to be, and even precisely what is meant through processes, irreversibly converting hydrocar- by sustainability. To clarify the debate, we suggest three bons to carbon dioxide and water. Some such systems criteria for sustainability, each of which captures a dif- could, however, be retrofitted to collect and recycle the ferent feature of the problem. While we do not have combustion products to make new hydrocarbon fuel. the luxury of achieving full sustainability for all of our If this process used the Sun as its energy source, fossil next-generation energy technologies, we can use these fuels, too, could meet this criterion. definitions to select our strategic sustainability targets and track our progress toward achieving them. As Solar, wind and sequestration will become clear, the most sustainable energy technol- Solar electricity comes close to satisfying all three cri- ogies require the most challenging fundamental sci- teria in the sustainability profile. In this electricity-gen- ence breakthroughs (see figure on page 27). eration method, a solar photon strikes a semiconductor The first criterion for sustainability is “lasts a long photocell, excites an electron that travels through time”. This quality has been a feature of many energy transmission lines to be used for, say, lighting, trans- sources we have used historically, including wood in portation or information processing, before returning ancient times and oil throughout most of the 20th cen- tury. The definition of “long time” is, of course, relat- At a Glance: Sustainability ive: the world’s demand for energy long ago outpaced the ability of wood to supply it, and the production of ● In order to be considered sustainable, an energy technology must last a long time, oil is likely to peak sometime within the next few dec- do no harm and leave the environment unchanged ades. Substantial reductions in the rate of oil con- ● The technologies that come closest to meeting these criteria are also those that will sumption through higher-efficiency processes can require significant breakthroughs in materials science and processes to become significantly impact on how long non-renewable re- cost-effective or viable on a large scale sources last. In applying the “long time” criterion, we ● The key to achieving such breakthroughs lies in making the transition from observing need to distinguish between energy sources that are materials and processes on the nano-scale to controlling these phenomena effectively limitless and those that are finite but, for ● Biology is one source of inspiration for developing new technologies that are more the moment, adequate. sustainable and that will help solve the energy–climate problem The second criterion for sustainability is “does no

Physics World October 2009 25 PWOct09crabtree 17/9/09 16:22 Page 26

The energy puzzle: Sustainability physicsworld.com

net electricity solar imports 0.06 0.07 12.45 nuclear 6.37 electricity 27.06 8.21 generation rejected 2.83 20.46 39.52 energy hydro 57.43 2.86 2.17 0.26 4.61 wind 0.26 0.30 residential 0.06 10.88 8.70 geothermal 0.01 1.29 0.34 0.41 4.47 1.63 0.01 4.43 natural gas commercial 8.15 6.52 energy 22.19 2.90 0.62 services 42.32 0.02 0.06 4.97 0.10 3.45 coal 7.81 industrial 22.44 24.88 19.90 9.71 1.91 1.96 0.41 biomass 21.60 3.37 0.48 0.02 0.64 0.62 transportation 27.67 28.80 petroleum 7.20 39.95

Where the energy goes Data from 2006 on how energy (in quads) is produced and used in the US. The numbers on the left indicate what percentage each type of energy contributes to the total primary supply. Following each energy “stream” to the right shows how much of that energy is consumed for useful services and how much is unused. (Note that all the numbers have been rounded.) Despite decades of research and development, sustainable-energy technologies (top left) account for only a tiny fraction of the total energy flow. Altering this landscape will require breakthroughs in nanomaterials and chemical processes that convert energy efficiently between photons, electrons and chemical bonds. Source: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and DOE

to the photocell, where it replaces the hole left by the days and long-distance transmission capacity to deliver original electronic excitation. Once completed, the wind energy from its remote sources to urban popu- electron round trip does no harm and leaves no chem- lation centres. The output of wind turbines is limited ical change. However, although solar electricity may by the weight of the generator that can be supported be fully sustainable in operation, it is not necessarily on the tower. Superconducting generators can, how- fully sustainable in the construction or disposal of its ever, lower the cost and land area required for wind infrastructure – both steps require energy and emit car- electricity by a factor of two because they produce bon dioxide. These often-ignored full-life-cycle issues twice the output but are the same size and weight as must be considered when evaluating the sustainability conventional generators. of energy technologies. As for fossil-fuel electricity plants, they can be made Despite the appeal of solar electricity, serious tech- more sustainable by capturing their carbon-dioxide nical challenges block its widespread deployment. emissions and sequestering the gas in underground Before the reach of solar electricity can expand, its costs geologic formations. Carbon sequestration prevents the must fall below those of fossil electricity and must be carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere – a pos- low enough to attract the majority of future demand itive step toward “doing no harm”. This positive step is growth without artificial incentives. Achieving this will balanced, however, by the challenges associated with require breakthroughs in understanding and control- injecting the carbon dioxide underground. We know ling the fundamental nano-scale phenomena of photo- little about how carbon dioxide reacts with the porous excitation, charge separation and charge transport in, rocks in which it would reside, and less still about how for example, high-efficiency mulitjunction solar cells far it might migrate during the thousands of years it and in low-cost organic and thin-film solar cells (see must remain there. Carbon dioxide is supercritical Without the “Nanotechnology: does it have the energy?” on pp40– under sequestration conditions, and the high tem- ability to store 45). An even greater and less-explored challenge is perature and pressure alter its reaction chemistry and electricity, utility-scale electricity storage to bridge the day–night enable it to diffuse quicker through porous rocks. solar power and cloudy–sunny cycles. Without the ability to store These primary scientific challenges require a host of can never be electricity, solar power can never be more than a sup- studies of surface-reaction chemistry to identify re- more than a plement to fossil energy generation. action pathways, intermediate species, chemical kin- As a derivative of solar energy, wind electricity shares etics and diffusion phenomena under simulated supplement to its sustainability profile, with the potential to satisfy sequestration conditions. fossil energy all three criteria. The barriers to wind electricity are Beyond reaction chemistry, techniques for monitor- generation cost, utility-scale storage of electricity to bridge calm ing and modelling the migration of large quantities of

26 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09crabtree 18/9/09 11:07 Page 27

physicsworld.com The energy puzzle: Sustainability

sustainability profile

technology lasts a long time does no harm leaves no change breakthroughs needed

lower-cost, high-efficiency solar electricity photovoltaics; third-generation materials and nanostructures; electricity storage

understanding chemical reactivity carbon sequestration ? in extreme environments and migration emissions risk through rocks; geological monitoring of leaks and predictive modelling materials for extreme environments ? (high temperature, radiation flux nuclear electricity and corrosivity); geological emissions radioactive monitoring and modelling; new strategies waste for chemically separating fission products new methods for cellulosic cellulosic biofuel breakdown to sugar or fuel; new catalysts for converting carbon dioxide to fuel

higher energy density in batteries; electric transportation better catalysts, membranes and electrodes in fuel cells; renewable production of electricity and hydrogen

Making the grade One of the most important factors to consider when evaluating sustainable technologies is the scientific advances needed to make them viable. This table is only a rough guide, since several currently unknown factors still need to be explored.

supercritical carbon dioxide are also needed, so that lifetimes, reduces the number of nuclear plants that will we can anticipate where and how far it might travel over need to be built. the thousands of years it must remain underground. These increases in efficiency can be achieved by The potential for contaminating an aquifer or finding operating reactors at higher temperatures (1000 K an escape route to the atmosphere must be thoroughly instead of the current 650 K) and at neutron fluxes an understood for every sequestration site. Leakage is order of magnitude higher than the current values of indeed one of the biggest challenges. A sequestration 4 × 1013 ncm–2 s–1. However, at such high temperatures system with a leak rate of 1% per year exhausts all the and fluxes, chemical corrosion is an additional serious carbon dioxide stored in its first year of operation in challenge. Next-generation reactors will require a new just a century – a blink of an eye on the timescale of generation of “extreme materials” that can not only ocean–atmosphere dynamics. During release, heavy survive, but also function under the triple extremes of carbon dioxide can displace lighter oxygen in low-lying high temperature, high neutron flux and aggressive areas, possibly leading to the suffocation of people chemical corrosion. Advanced ferritic steels hold and animals, as happened in a catastrophic incident at promise in these environments; developing them by Lake Nyos, Cameroon, in 1986. design rather than serendipitously will accelerate From a sustainability perspective, sequestration al- deployment significantly. lows us to use the Earth’s coal resources (which will last The scientific challenge for next-generation extreme longer than oil, though not as long as the Sun) with materials – whatever their composition – is to under- reduced harm to the atmosphere. Storing carbon di- stand their failure modes, and to prolong their useful oxide underground, however, carries potential risks lifetimes by interrupting or arresting these failures. of contamination and leakage that are largely un- Damage starts with atomic displacements that create explored. Sequestration also leaves clear chemical interstitials and vacancies, which then migrate and Like carbon changes as coal is removed from the Earth and carbon aggregate to form clusters and ever-larger extended sequestration, dioxide is injected. structures. Eventually, the damage reaches macro- nuclear scopic dimensions, leading to degradation of perform- The nuclear options ance and failure. This problem is massively multiscale, electricity Like carbon sequestration, nuclear electricity keeps covering nine orders of magnitude in its spatial dimen- keeps greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere, and thus rep- sion, and neither experiment nor theory has yet cap- greenhouse resents a step towards sustainability. Next-generation tured this complexity in a single framework. gases out of the reactors based on new materials could last longer than On the experimental side, in situ measurements of atmosphere, reactors designed in the 1960s – typically 80 years or neutron irradiation with atomic or nano-scale resolu- and thus more instead of 60 – and can turn 50% of the heat pro- tion are needed to observe the initial damage processes, duced by fission into electricity, compared with 32% followed by coarser-grained experiments to capture represents a for existing reactors. Higher efficiency also allows the migration, aggregation and ultimately macroscopic step towards uranium supply to last longer; this, together with longer failure. The modelling challenge is equally dramatic: sustainability

Physics World October 2009 27 PWOct09crabtree 17/9/09 16:22 Page 28

The energy puzzle: Sustainability physicsworld.com

uct, helium, is likewise kind to the environment and 30 electro-chemical climate. The fusion process, however, is even more storage gasoline extreme than fission, requiring neutron fluxes ap- proximately 100 times greater than in fission reactors. Designing materials to withstand these exceptional 20 ethanol irradiation conditions is a major scientific challenge. hydrogen methanol compounds Biofuels and electric cars

electrical storage (target) Replacing conventional oil with biofuels has the poten- 10 tial to achieve greater sustainability by recycling carbon

energy/volume (MJ/l) chemical storage and combustion dioxide and enabling fossil resources to last longer. compressed However, it is now generally accepted that the energy hydrogen gas balance and carbon footprint of corn ethanol and gaso- 0 010203040line are only marginally different. In terms of lasting a long time and doing no harm, therefore, the two are supercapacitors batteries energy/weight (MJ/kg) approximately equally sustainable. Cellulosic ethanol How to store it Chemicals like gasoline and ethanol store energy at much higher densities than made from the stalks and leaves of plants offers more batteries. With scientific advances, the gap can be filled with electro-chemical storage where hope. The scientific challenge for cellulosic ethanol is chemical energy is converted to electricity in fuel cells. to discover or design a better chemical-conversion route from cellulose, nature’s evolution-hardened con- kinetic energy from an incident particle is transferred struction material, to fermentable sugar or liquid fuel. successively to electronic, atomic, vibrational and struc- The known chemical and enzymatic routes are too tural systems, requiring a diverse mix of theoretical for- expensive and inefficient to be competitive. Biofuels mulations appropriate for different spatial scales. from algae offer an alternative route, since cultivating To create new extreme materials that operate effect- algae requires far less land than other biofuel crops, ively in reactor environments we will have to go beyond but a cost-competitive conversion route is not yet avail- observation and modelling to controlling the evolution able and the science is still in its infancy. of defect structures and interrupting their development Recycling carbon dioxide and water to produce fuel before they can degrade performance. Introducing can also be done without biology, by using concentrated designer interfaces that collect and trap nano-scale solar heat to drive high-temperature thermochemical defects before they cluster is one strategy for making reactions or electronic excitation from solar photons materials defect-tolerant or self-healing. Treating de- to drive photochemical reactions at room temperature. fected regions with targeted photon or particle beams Both routes face materials challenges, and neither is to anneal out the damage before it grows beyond a crit- scientifically ready to deploy. Thermochemical re- ical size is another. Although developed for nuclear cycling requires advanced hybrid materials that can applications, next-generation materials with these fea- physically withstand and chemically promote the tar- tures should find wide application in other areas, in- geted reactions at high temperatures, and photochem- cluding high-temperature turbines and coal-fired ical recycling requires new cost-effective catalysts that boilers, thus bringing overall energy efficiency closer to split carbon dioxide and water to drive the synthesis of thermodynamic limits. hydrocarbon fuel. These challenges are firmly in the The sustainability profile of nuclear electricity shares realm of discovery. Overcoming them will require use- many qualitative features with carbon sequestration. inspired basic research (see box opposite). Like coal, terrestrial uranium resources will last a few The sustainability profile of recycling carbon diox- hundred years, longer than oil but not as long as the ide through biofuels (other than corn ethanol) and Sun, and nuclear reactors emit no carbon dioxide into thermochemical or photochemical cycles is promising. the atmosphere. The threat to the atmosphere is, how- These technologies can be fully or partially renewable ever, replaced by a new potential danger: spent fuel and thus last a long time. They reduce harm to the en- that must be stored, perhaps underground, for hun- vironment by lowering greenhouse-gas emissions, and dreds or thousands of years to reduce its radiation level they have the potential to close the chemical cycle and by natural decay. Developing fuels that fission a larger leave no change. fraction of the available nuclei in a fuel rod – the cur- Electrifying transportation breaks the exclusive de- rent average is 4% – would mean that uranium supplies pendence of transportation on oil, thereby enabling would last longer, and that the storage requirements flexibility in fuelling as more sustainable alternatives for spent fuel would be less. Still, nuclear waste, like se- for electricity generation become available. Electric questered carbon dioxide, has the potential to leak, motors are also far more efficient (over 90%) and threatening water supplies and human health. New mechanically much simpler than gasoline engines, and methods of treating, containing, monitoring and mod- so are able to transport people and goods at a much elling nuclear waste are needed. Finally, like fossil-fuel lower cost per mile. The challenge is onboard storage electricity, nuclear electricity leaves substantial chem- or generation of electricity to power the electric motor. ical change by removing uranium from the Earth and For batteries, the energy density must be increased by a replacing it with radioactive waste. factor of two to five from current levels before the jour- Fusion electricity is more sustainable than fission ney range of electric vehicles becomes competitive with because it replaces hazardous heavy-element fuel with multipurpose gasoline vehicles (see figure above). The benign, light and abundant hydrogen. The fusion prod- materials challenges are to develop electrodes for

28 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09crabtree 17/9/09 16:23 Page 29

physicsworld.com The energy puzzle: Sustainability

From observation to control A remarkable string of advances over the last recycled to carbon dioxide by respiration in half-century has allowed us to probe and animals and other living things, closing the understand energy-conversion phenomena at chemical cycle and leaving no change. Cellulose ever smaller lengths and shorter timescales. in the leaves and stalks of plants is rich in sugars Aberration-corrected transmission electron that can be converted to ethanol and other microscopy, a wealth of scanning probe biofuels, provided we can break down the microscopies, laser- and accelerator-based protective coating of lignin that shields cellulose ultrafast photon pulses, intense neutron from physical and chemical attack during its life. beams and massively parallel teraflop We can learn from biology by observing how computing are all helping us to unravel lignin breaks down on the forest floor and how the structures and dynamics of the sunlight splits water and carbon dioxide in the macromolecules, proteins and complex growing plant, and adapt these processes to materials architectures that carry out energy create and control our own sustainable conversion on the nano-scale. hydrocarbon fuel cycle.

The next step is to not only observe, but also Promising materials TiO2 nanotubes like these can Another emerging guide is numerical control these fundamental energy-conversion catalyse processes that produce hydrogen from water materials simulation, which allows us to imagine phenomena. To do this, researchers need to using sunlight. complex nano-scale structures and then exploit the remarkable progress that has been simulate their behaviour to see if they function made in nanoscience, numerical modelling and decorated to promote surface catalytic activity. as we intend. Such simulations dramatically complex materials. Nanoscience has given us On the modelling side, the past decade has shorten nature’s design process, which proceeds techniques for nearly atom-by-atom construction seen computational speeds increase from by incremental random mutations of existing of complex atomic and molecular architectures, teraflops (1012 operations per second) to structures. Once filtered and refined by computer including “top-down” techniques such as optical petaflops, with exaflops on the horizon. These simulation, the most promising nano-scale and electron beam lithography and “bottom-up” remarkable hardware advances allow the energy-processing structures can then provide approaches like molecular beam epitaxy, ink-jet simulation of million-atom assemblies and the inspiration for fabrication. printing and the rich potential of directed detailed nano-scale energy conversions they Complexity is an essential ingredient in any self-assembly – as exemplified by DNA-driven perform. The potential of this large-scale functional design. Like information processing, biological construction. These fabrication tools atomistic simulation is not just incrementally energy processing requires many sequential give us the means to make nano-scale structures better, but game-changing. steps, including manipulating quanta of energy with the complexity, precision and functionality With these tools in hand, our challenge is to in photonic, electronic and molecular of computer chips, which we now routinely design materials and molecular assemblies that excitations, as well as chemical transformation. manufacture on the micro-scale. can convert energy among photons, electrons Not only must each step in the sequence be Nanotubes offer versatile and promising and chemical bonds with minimum losses. One understood and controlled, but also the opportunities for controlling energy conversion at guiding example is nature. Green plants individual steps must be integrated into a the nano-scale. TiO2 nanotubes like those manufacture their internal nano-scale seamlessly functioning assembly that efficiently pictured above are inexpensive, chemically inert, architectures from abundant, environmentally links the functions of its constituent parts. photostable, provide high surface-to-volume friendly elements and recycle them harmlessly to Information technology and biology provide two ratio and have band gaps that support the environment at the end of their useful life. shining examples of the value and impact of sustainable energy technologies like solar water They split water and carbon dioxide at room complexity on functionality. We have mastered splitting, dye-sensitized solar cells and temperature using sunlight and use the liberated the micro-scale complexity of information transparent conducting electrodes. They can be carbon and hydrogen to synthesize sugar to fuel technology; the next frontier is the nano-scale prepared by a variety of electrochemical their growth and reproduction. Plants emit complexity of biological function and processes, doped to tune their band gaps and unwanted oxygen to the atmosphere, where it is sustainable energy technology.

higher energy density and longer life-cycles; non-aque- viable long-term option for transportation. ous electrolytes for higher operating voltages; and The sustainability profile of electric transportation entirely new electrochemistry approaches such as is potentially high because electricity, once produced, lithium–air electrodes or doubly ionized cations that is environmentally benign and leaves no chemical can lower the battery’s charge-to-mass ratio. change. The primary sustainability issue is the large- Fuel cells offer an alternative to batteries by gen- scale production of electricity for battery-powered erating electricity onboard via hydrogen oxidation. vehicles or of hydrogen for fuel-cell vehicles. Existing Developing this alternative requires scientific break- production routes use fossil fuels to generate electri- throughs in catalysis for the oxygen-reduction reaction city and the reformation of natural gas to produce at fuel-cell cathodes, high-density storage of hydrogen hydrogen; both deplete finite natural resources and in lightweight solid compounds and the production emit substantial amounts of carbon dioxide. In con- of hydrogen from renewable resources. Substantial trast, using renewable electricity produced by solar and progress has been made in the last five years towards wind to charge batteries or solar-powered water split- overcoming these barriers to using hydrogen as an ting to produce hydrogen has the potential to last a long energy carrier, as indicated by the rise in the number time, do no harm and leave no change. Achieving these of researchers and published papers in the field. Such renewable production routes will require break- advances raise the probability that fuel cells will be a throughs in discovery and use-inspired basic science.

Physics World October 2009 29 PWOct09crabtree 17/9/09 16:23 Page 30

The energy puzzle: Sustainability physicsworld.com

tide 0.0004% also control these nano-scale conversion processes. This new capability promises powerful breakthroughs other 0.5% wind 0.064% in raising the efficiency and lowering the cost of sus- nuclear 7% renewables 13% solar 0.039% tainable energy technologies. gas 21% hydro 2.2% Breaking the scientific bottleneck Despite 30 years of research and development, the de- ployment of sustainable energy technologies has hardly combustible affected the global energy mix. The world is still over renewables and geothermal coal 25% waste 10.6% 0.414% 80% dependent on fossil fuels, much as it was in 1970. The reason is remarkably simple: the cost of alterna- tive energies is significantly higher than fossil fuels, and the energy enterprise, driven by economics, will always oil 34% choose the lowest available cost. This simple fact clearly identifies the basic deployment challenge for sustain- A long way to go A breakdown of the world’s total primary energy supply in 2004 shows that less able energy: we must make fundamental scientific than one-sixth of our energy comes from renewable sources. Within this category, the lion’s breakthroughs in materials and chemical processes, share consists of combustible renewables, which usually fall short of the “do no harm” criterion and exploit them to make sustainable energies cheaper for sustainability. than fossil fuels. That we have not succeeded in doing so in three Pick and mix decades indicates the magnitude of the challenge. Ex- So which of these more sustainable energy alternatives isting sustainable technologies do not control mater- should we develop? The expected doubling of global ials and chemistry at the sophisticated level needed to energy demand by 2050 is too daunting a challenge to cost-effectively convert sustainable sources into useful be met by any single technology – we are likely to need energy. But unlike fossil energy, which after a century many or even all of them. Some of the most sustain- of development operates near its theoretical maximum able options require significant scientific break- efficiency, sustainable energy technologies are still in throughs before they can be implemented. We can, their infancy. There is generous room for improvement however, follow a dual course of phasing in portions in raising efficiency and lowering cost before intrinsic of sustainable technologies as breakthroughs make limits are reached; we are, in effect, where we were with them cost-competitive, while aggressively pursuing the the steam engine in James Watt’s day. Multijunction research needed to meet the remaining challenges and solar cells, for example, where two or more semicon- achieve even greater sustainability. In this framework, ductors tuned to different band-gap energies are con- carbon sequestration, high-efficiency nuclear elec- nected in series, have a theoretical efficiency of over tricity and plug-in hybrid vehicles are near-term solu- 50%, well above the 22% of the best single-junction tions that will precede the deployment of large-scale silicon solar cells now in commercial production. solar and wind power generation, utility-scale electri- Indeed, silicon solar cells themselves symbolize the city storage and all-electric vehicles. impact of materials breakthroughs on sustainable en- The scientific advances needed for these more sus- ergy technologies. Their efficiency has risen from 6% tainable energy technologies reflect a fundamental sea in the 1950s to 22% today because of dramatic improve- change in the role of materials in energy technologies. ments in control of the purity, perfection and precision With traditional fossil energy, the important materials doping of silicon. Similar big improvements in efficiency are the fuels, which are valued for their high energy and cost await other sustainable-energy technologies – content and low cost. Burning fuels to produce heat is provided we aggressively pursue scientific research the first step in the traditional energy-use chain. This to control the materials and chemical processes that heat is then converted by an internal combustion en- govern nano-scale energy conversion. Discovering and gine to mechanical motion for transportation or by a designing these hi-tech materials and processes is the turbine and generator to electricity for a diversity of grand challenge of sustainable energy. ■ energy services. Sustainable energy technologies, in contrast, tap into More about: Sustainability underused energy flows like sunlight or wind and use V S Arunachalam et al. 2008 Harnessing materials for energy these to produce electricity or fuel directly, without a (special issue) MRS Bulletin 33 261–477 combustion step. The important components are the hi- Basic Energy Sciences Advisory Committee 2007 Directing tech materials and chemical processes that initiate and Matter and Energy: Five Challenges for Science and the control the conversion of energy between photons, elec- Imagination; 2008 New Science for a Secure and Sustainable trons and chemical bonds via nano-scale phenomena. Energy Future www.sc.doe.gov/bes/reports/list.html Unlike the fuels of fossil-energy technology, which are J Baxter et al. 2009 Nanoscale design to enable the revolution valued as a raw commodity, the hi-tech materials of sus- in renewable energy Energy and Environmental Sci. 2 559 tainable energy are valued for their ability to coordinate M Eikerling et al. 2007 Driving the hydrogen economy A new leaf sophisticated nano-scale energy-conversion processes. Physics World July pp32–36 Biology incorporates Many decades of advances in observing and model- D Hafemeister et al. (ed) 2008 Physics of Sustainable Energy many exemplary ling phenomena at ever smaller length scales and (Berkeley, 2008) (AIP Conf. Proc. 1044) (Melville, AIP) sustainable-energy shorter timescales mean that science is poised to enter Science 2007 Energy and sustainability (special Issue) Science strategies. a new era where researchers will not only observe, but 315 737–815

30 Physics World October 2009

Document1 8/8/06 10:44 Page 1

PWOct09_p31.indd 1 22/9/09 09:37:41 EO_Qtr_193wx125h_sign.qx7:Layout 1 9/9/09 16:06 Page 1

Safety, in numbers All your quality laser safety equipment and compliance services from the world leaders.

Products: Services • Interlock systems • UKAS accredited testing • Illuminated warning signs to EN60825-1 • Labelling • Training • Laser safety software • Consultancy • Shutters • FDA registration • Protective eyewear • Laser protection • Protective curtains and adviser service screens • Risk assessment • Filter windows • Laser safety audit • Power meters • Power meter calibration • Enclosures / cabins

Tel +44 (0)1202 770740 [email protected] www.lasermet.com

www.opto-mechanics.co.uk

An extensive range of opto-mechanics available with on-line ordering, including; CAPTURE 6 MILLION EVENTS PER SECOND The new MPA-3 turns your PC into the fastest PC-based Multiparameter Multichannel Analyzer System for acqui- ring and histogramming time-coincident events with up to 6.000.000 events/s. Features: L Up to 16 digital inputs (16 bits each) for outputs from ADC ’s, Positioning stages Optic mounts TOF’s, Multiscalers, TAC/ADC’s etc. L “High throughput“ version with 7072 ADC L PCI-bus interface for fastest data transfer L LIST-MODE and REPLAY software compatible with WINDOWS-2000/XP L Versatile LIST-Mode data storage in RAM, on hard disk or special Disk-Array-System RAID L Optional 12-input, 100 MHz scaler board, synchronized to MPA-3 Fine screws and Optical rails micrometers We provide complete solutions. Grünwalder Weg 28a, D-82041 Oberhaching/Germany Phone: 49-(0)89 665180-0,FAX: 49-(0)89 665180 40 Visit our e-store and compare our prices. for USA call (831) 429-5227,e-mail: [email protected] ORLIN Technologies Ltd, www.fastcomtec.com 50 Station Road, Ridgmont, MK43 0UH. THE WORLDWIDE LEADER IN ULTRA FAST PHOTON AND ION COUNTING TECHNOLOGIES Tel: 01525 306100

OrlinPWAdvertOct09.indd 1 18/9/09 11:05:42 MPA_viertel.indd 1 06.12.2006 9:22:15 Uhr

PWOct09_p32.indd 1 22/9/09 09:39:18 PWOct09schmidt 17/9/09 10:10 Page 33

physicsworld.com The energy puzzle: Climate models UK Meteorological Office/Science Photo Library

Wrong but useful Many policymakers have traditionally seen climate models as irrelevant, but Gavin Schmidt argues that recent advances are making such models an essential tool in informing policy choices

A quick tour of the Internet reveals some very strong (though imperfect) representations of cloud forma- feelings on the subject of climate models. Unsur- tion and rainfall, floating sea ice and ocean turbulence, prisingly, on climate contrarian sites, such models are rivers and lakes, and soil and vegetation. Each repre- described in all sorts of unflattering terms and dis- sentation is based on direct observations of the pro- missed out of hand as fundamentally useless. How- cesses in question and is tested against many different ever, in more rational forums, and sometimes even constraints. The models (and there are many) have among scientists themselves, one occasionally comes numerous common behaviours – they all cool follow- across a basic ignorance of whether climate models are ing a big volcanic eruption, like that at Mount Pinatubo any good, and, even more importantly, what they are in 1991; they all warm as levels of greenhouse gases are good for. By the time one gets to policymakers, climate increased; they show the same relationships connect- models are seen at best as black boxes, and at worst as ing water vapour and temperature that we see in ob- simply irrelevant to their detailed concerns. However, servations; and they can quantify how the giant lakes climate models – appropriately used – might have a left over from the Ice Age may have caused a rapid vitally important part to play in breaking through some cooling across the North Atlantic as they drained and Gavin Schmidt is a of the log jams now hampering policymakers. changed ocean circulation patterns. climate scientist at This gives us a hint: models are useful for tying to- NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space The complexity of climate gether causes and effects in complex systems where Studies in New York Models of any stripe are simply quantitative or numer- answers are often only obvious in hindsight. We can and co-author with ical expressions of the theories we have for how the real apply them for climate changes in the past – global Joshua Wolfe of world works. Climate models encapsulate what we changes in temperature or rainfall patterns inferred Climate Change: know about how the Sun’s rays travel through the from the paleoclimate data for instance – and help Picturing the Science atmosphere and how heat from the surface of the attribute events to causes. Indeed, the attribution of any (2009, Norton), Earth gets absorbed by clouds, water vapour and, of particular climate trend or set of events is inherently a e-mail gavin.a. course, carbon dioxide. They contain sophisticated model-based exercise. Without a way of telling the dif- [email protected]

Physics World October 2009 33 PWOct09schmidt 17/9/09 10:10 Page 34

The energy puzzle: Climate models physicsworld.com

the second tries to average over that variability to pre- dict changes in the mean state. For this second kind of prediction, you always need a scenario for what might happen to the drivers of climate change. Will carbon dioxide concentrations continue to increase? Will air pollution continue to de- crease in the developed world but increase in the developing world? How fast will tropical deforestation progress? These scenarios are highly dependent on economics or political decisions and so qualify easily NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies for the “hard prediction” category. Nonetheless, econ- omists do their best to make a range of reasonable esti- mates for plausible futures and calculate the resulting changes in emissions. But climate is complex. There are multiple causes, giving rise to multiple effects such that the interactions Show and tell There are many different climate models, but they all make some common among the various components – like low-level ozone, predictions. One is that volcanic eruptions like that of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 always result in a aerosols (airborne particles) and clouds – can get drop in global temperature due to the injection of aerosols into the stratosphere that block hideously complicated. Ozone near the ground is sunlight from reaching the surface. The different colours in this simulation represent particles at created from the soup of emissions from car exhausts, different heights two months after the eruption, from red (highest) to blue (lowest). factories and fires, and it is a public-health problem as well as a greenhouse gas. Aerosols too can come from ference that any particular cause might have, how can multiple sources: sulphur-dioxide emissions from coal- we recognize its fingerprint in the real world? This is the burning power plants produce sulphate aerosols in the basis of the conclusion of the Intergovernmental Panel air; black carbon (soot) and organic-carbon aerosols on Climate Change (IPCC) that human activities are come from incomplete combustion of biomass and behind the rise in global temperature in recent decades. even from the complex organic molecules emitted by The other use is in helping chart the course of the plants. They all interact directly with the Sun’s radi- future. People are quick to dismiss model projections ation to either block it (for sulphates) or increase ab- of climate as being inferior to observations, but as Tom sorption (black carbon). They also have indirect effects Knutson and Robert Tuleya, from the Geophysical by changing how easy it is for clouds to form, or by Fluid Dynamics Laboratory at Princeton University changing how reflective snow is (black carbon effect- and Old Dominion University, Virginia, pointedly no- ively makes the snow dirtier). ted in 2005, “If we had observations of the future, we obviously would trust them more than models, but Solving the puzzle unfortunately observations of the future are not avail- Science, however, has made tremendous progress by able at this time.” trying to break things down into their component However, prediction is hard, particularly of the parts. Thus, we have traditionally studied the impact future (to paraphrase Niels Bohr). For the climate, of carbon dioxide separately from the impact of sul- there are two kinds of possible predictability. The first phate aerosols and separately from the impacts of the is based on extrapolating seasonal and interannual emissions that cause ozone (the “precursors”). Fre- changes based on precise knowledge of today’s state of quently, these studies are carried out by separate sci- the atmosphere and ocean combined with an under- entists, in separate institutions under separate grants standing of how the various modes of variability in the and with separate goals. While this has led to a great ocean might develop. Whether these efforts can pro- deal of insight, it has also tended to divorce the science vide useful information on regional climate on year-to- from policy. year and longer timescales is currently being explored. Let me give some examples. In the last IPCC report The more usual source of predictability, however, is there is an iconic figure that shows the magnitude of considering the long-term changes related to increases the effects on climate for the 20th century. Carbon di- in greenhouse gases, a volcanic eruption or other oxide is the largest warming factor, followed by me- changes in the composition of the atmosphere. The thane, nitrous oxide, low-level ozone and black carbon. first relies on a thorough understanding of patterns like On the cooling side, there are sulphate and nitrate El Niño or the North Atlantic ocean circulation, while aerosols and land-use changes. There is nothing wrong with this picture, but how helpful is it in deciding what Climate is complex – there are to do about the power generation in China that pro- duces carbon dioxide but also sulphates, or for assess- ments of mileage standards that will affect ozone multiple causes, giving rise to multiple precursors, black carbon from diesel exhaust as well as gasoline use? In each case, we have mixed results effects such that the interactions for the climate and potential impacts on other public- policy issues as well (air quality for instance). Because among the various components can of scientists’ focus on single-factor experiments (change carbon dioxide, or change black carbon, or get hideously complicated change sulphates), we have not historically provided

34 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09schmidt 17/9/09 10:11 Page 35

physicsworld.com The energy puzzle: Climate models

Finely honed Climate models are becoming increasingly useful in setting policy because they are being extended to take into account many more of the interactions that matter. Shown here are the changes in annual average surface temperature, ranging from a cooling of 2°C (blue) to a warming of 2.4°C (red), due to short-lived gases and particles between 2000 and 2030 (left and centre columns) and due to long-lived gases between 2000 and 2050 (right column). Each row shows results for a different model. Hatching indicates a statistical significance of 95% for the response. Source: Drew Shindell, NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies

enough information for policymakers to properly controls mean that the mix of emissions is much more weigh up these different effects. Neither have we complicated – carbon dioxide, of course, but also large clearly identified the key sectors around the world that amounts of carbon monoxide, black carbon and sul- might provide win–win–win scenarios for people wor- phates. Together, these emissions contribute strongly ried about climate, air quality and ecosystems. to the “Atmospheric Brown Cloud” phenomenon and However, scientific and computational advances in to the appalling air quality in the region. This implies climate modelling and validation over the last few that efforts to improve rural electrification for instance years now mean that we can do a much better job. – even if the power is generated in a modern coal power Models now include many more of the interactions plant – could still reduce net climate warming because that matter: atmospheric chemistry that can predict of the impacts on reducing ozone, methane and black ozone concentrations as a function of the methane or carbon. These kinds of strategies are already being carbon-monoxide precursors; or aerosol physics for pushed by the Indian government because of the more multiple kinds of particles – those directly emitted, like direct impact on indoor and regional air quality and to soot and mineral dust, and those created in the atmo- reduce the deforestation associated with biomass col- sphere from other emissions. More importantly, the lection, but a recognition of the net climate impact may models now include myriad interactions: the chemistry help bridge the current gaps in the international nego- that takes place on the surface of dust aerosols that in tiations on a climate treaty. turn affects sulphates; the impact of increasing me- Other surprises include the recognition that redu- thane on atmospheric oxidation, which affects aerosol cing methane emissions from whatever source has concentrations; or the affects that aerosols have on important indirect impacts on a range of other drivers clouds or snow albedo. and is a more effective strategy for short-term reduc- We can therefore now start to directly answer the tions in global warming than had been previously re- questions that policymakers are raising – and some of cognized. As we move forward, we should be able to the results may be surprising. assess the net climate impact of any particular policy In Europe, for instance, the use of coal for power given the changes in emissions that will result. generation produces very little sulphate aerosol or Like a full life-cycle analysis for judging the impact black carbon because of existing air-quality controls. on net emissions of a switch in energy-generation tech- Thus, the only options for reducing the climate impact nologies, a full Earth-system analysis should become of coal relate to specific reductions in coal burning or the new standard in judging climate-policy proposals. investment in carbon capture and sequestration. All climate models are wrong, but some of them are However, in India and China a lot of coal and bio- useful, and by working more closely to answer the ques- mass is burned in domestic settings where inefficient tions that are actually being posed by policymakers, we low-temperature combustion and a lack of pollution can make them more useful still. ■

Physics World October 2009 35 AD-070908-EN.qxp:AD-070908-EN (OLE) 16/07/09 9:37 Page 1

Introducing the Unison™ Amplifier Terawatt and kHz Performance

Autocorrelation of Unison amplifier output showing sub-40 fs pulse width.

Terawatt class laser beam focused into gas jet.

Single System. Dual Experiments. More Results. Newport Spectra-Physics introduces the Unison™ ultrafast amplifier system – a single system optimized to deliver fsec pulses both at terawatt class intensities at 10 Hz frequency and mJ energies in the kHz frequency regime. This unprecedented breadth of capabilities makes the Unison amplifier ideal for applications from highenergy VUV spectroscopy, multiphoton and above threshold ionization, and higher order harmonic generation to standard time-resolved Belgium spectroscopy experiments such as CARS, pump-probe, and THz generation. Tel: +32 (0)0800-11 257 e-mail: [email protected] For more information visit www.newport.com/unison or call us. France Netherlands Tel: +33 (0)1.60.91.68.68 Tel: +31 (0)30 659 21 11 e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] Germany United Kingdom Tel: +49 (0) 61 51 / 708 – 0 Tel: +44 (0)1235 432710 e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] © 2009 Newport Corporation.

MAKE LIGHT | MANAGE LIGHT | MEASURE LIGHT AD-070908 -EN

Take the lead with Evatec… the Thin Film Powerhouse

Winning solutions using evaporation, sputter, PECVD, ICP Evatec Ltd. and RIE for optics, UK Sales: Tel +44 7802 784406 optoelectronics and Headquarters: Tel +41 81 720 1080 [email protected] semiconductors. www.evatecnet.com

PWOct09_p36.indd 1 22/9/09 09:40:35 PWOct09grant 17/9/09 12:02 Page 37

physicsworld.com The energy puzzle: The SuperGrid Extreme energy makeover With the world’s population expected to reach 10 billion by 2050, how will we cope with the energy demand? Paul Michael Grant presents the SuperGrid concept NOAA/Science Photo Library According to a report by the US Department of Energy recent years, an “extreme makeover” will be required. Paul Michael Grant (DOE), world energy consumption is expected to grow But whereas these entertainment productions ad- is head of W2AGZ from its present level of about 120 EWh (120 ×1018 watt- dressed radically changing the physical appearance of technologies, a hours) per annum to well over 180 EWh by 2025, a rise people and houses, this article will consider what may private energy- of more than 50%. Moreover, many demographers be necessary to transform the world energy culture and consultancy company predict that the world’s population will approach 10 bil- economy to accommodate the challenge – in other based in San Jose, California, e-mail lion by mid-century, with global industrialization rates words, how to effect an “extreme energy makeover”. [email protected] far outpacing those of the US. As the entire planet as- A principal uncertainty in this social equation is how pires to reach a Western standard of living, the DOE much further the Earth’s remaining fossil fuel reserves predicts that the current energy consumption rate, can be exploited. The link between the observed in- 63 EWh per year in the industrialized nations and crease in global temperature and concomitant increase 55 EWh in emerging countries, will evolve towards in carbon-dioxide emissions (currently 6000 million 80 EWh and 97 EWh, respectively. tonnes of carbon emitted per year and expected to How to supply and configure the energy economy and reach 10 000 by 2025) remains controversial, but all infrastructure for such a world is perhaps the principal agree that it is physically plausible. The coming decades long-term challenge facing civilization in the 21st cen- are likely to see an internationally agreed upon “no tury. A major component of the challenge will be attain- regrets” policy adopted that severely restricts the use ing this energy goal in the most environmentally benign of fossil fuels for both transportation and the produc- and least eco-invasive manner possible. To paraphrase tion of thermal and electrical energy. It would be most the titles of several popular reality-TV programmes of wise for humanity not to oxidize every remaining atom

Physics World October 2009 37 PWOct09grant 17/9/09 12:03 Page 38

The energy puzzle: The SuperGrid physicsworld.com

school home SuperSuburb hydrogen households: 300 000 electricity: 1800 MW supermarket hydrogen: 800 MW SuperNuke family car electrons and protons => 2600 MW nuclear plant

O2 250 km

SuperCable “Diablo Canyon” voltage: +/– 20 Kv hydrogen current: 45 kA DNA-to-order.com hydrogen storage: 28 GWh –1 > –1 high-temperature superconductor hydrogen flow: 2 m s = 6.8 kg s

Superstars The figure above left depicts a light-industrial, commercial/residential complex powered by nuclear-generated “hydricity” delivered over a hydrogen-cooled SuperCable using high-temperature superconductivity wires. The “sun” represents the presence of photovoltaic roof panels as an adjunct power source, and the “pond” by the nuclear plant represents the processing of sewage and other organic waste. Note the hydrogen-powered truck transporting “waste” oxygen resulting from the electrolysis of water, which can be sold for commercial purposes or used to process or combust locally produced biowaste. DNA-to-order.com represents a hypothetical biotech firm of the future. Above right is conceptual depiction of the SuperSuburb and its baseline hydricity power supply and distribution to 300 000 end-users based on the energy consumption of the author’s family household and provided by a “SuperNuke” of the approximate capacity of the Diablo Canyon facility located on the California coast 250 km south of San Jose. On the opposite page is an example of a continental SuperGrid. This figure is simply illustrative, not literal. Various rearrangements can be imagined and visualized to accommodate US regional political interests.

of carbon in the Earth’s crust. invasive – that is, to impress as small a footprint as One major harbinger of this trend is the effort cur- possible on the environment and ecology. This latter rently under way globally to develop technologies to requirement makes massive-scale renewables, such as replace hydrocarbons with hydrogen as surface ve- wind, solar and biomass, unnecessary, but not indus- hicular transportation fuel. In 2003 I estimated, as an trial–commercial–residential solar photovoltaics on example of the enormity of this challenge, that the pro- roofs, as one has to live and work somewhere and duction of sufficient quantities of hydrogen to replace the land area deployed is thus available for dual use. the then-current annual consumption of petroleum in Similarly, by necessity, community provision is needed cars and trucks in the US alone, either by electrolysis for the disposal of both sewage and discarded food, or thermal splitting of water or methane, would re- which can subsequently be converted into methane to quire additional power production equivalent to generate hydricity. I estimate that perhaps 85% of the roughly 420 GW, which is one-third of the nation’s elec- energy requirements of SuperCity can be provided by tricity generation capacity, currently about 1.3 TW nuclear-generated hydricity, abetted by an additional (Nature 424 419) . Given the massive amounts of car- 15% from solar power and biowaste. Finally, all the bon dioxide that would be need to be captured should technologies required for SuperCity already exist or this hydrogen be generated either directly or indirectly are on the immediate horizon – no new breakthroughs from fossil fuels, and given the enormous land areas or discoveries are needed. needed for biomass, wind or solar required in its place, In order to quantify the SuperCity concept, I under- one is brought to the conclusion that only nuclear took a detailed study of a “SuperSuburb” modelled power can feasibly enable a complete hydrogen-trans- using data that describe the energy consumption of a portation economy in developed and developing typical family home – mine – in a Silicon Valley resi- nations. An expansion of nuclear power for electricity dential community such as San Jose. The study takes and hydrogen production worldwide must be accom- into account individual residential electricity require- panied by the creation of a new international organiza- ments for appliances, lighting, air conditioning and tion capable of ensuring, by armed force if necessary, cooking, and hydrogen for the storage of electricity and that the actinide materials employed are not diverted, personal transportation (50 000 km per year per fam- from mine to enrichment through reprocessing and ily). Not included are community-support services such breeding, for military purposes. as shopping centres, electric rail rapid transport and street lighting. Only nuclear The SuperCity In 2004 and 2005, I collaborated with Chauncey power can I have a vision of an energy society based on a symbi- Starr from the Electric Power Research Institute and osis of nuclear power generation of hydrogen and elec- Thomas Overbye from the University of Illinois on an feasibly enable tricity, dubbed hydricity, distributed via a “SuperCable” extension of the SuperCable concept to encompass an a complete employing high-temperature superconductors cooled entire continent, essentially comprising a continental hydrogen- by cryogenic hydrogen. The latter would also be used SuperGrid (2006 Scientific American July pp76–83). transportation as an intrinsic power agent at the end delivery point in The figure on the opposite page shows how this con- economy in addition to electricity. cept might apply to the “lower 48” states of the US. An urban embodiment is suggested in the form of a However, similar scenarios can be constructed for developed and light-industrial, commercial/residential “SuperCity”. China, India, South America, existing East–West Euro- developing The “boundary conditions”, or ground rules, are that pean energy corridors and the Middle East – in partic- nations the technologies employed be carbonless and non-eco- ular Saudi Arabia, as that nation moves from oil to

38 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09grant 21/9/09 15:10 Page 39

physicsworld.com

urban biomass Generation IV nuclear plant hydrogen

commercial electricity hydrogen solar roofs hydrogen electricity

electricity hydrogen

energy storage electricity residential

heavy industry

nuclear and solar. Particularly interesting is Canada, where several gas-pipeline construction projects are already under consideration, principally the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline, which would run from the Arctic fields near Inuvik 1220 km south to Alberta and the US trans- porting 18 GW (thermal) of natural gas, planned to start construction in 2010, the energy equivalent to China’s Three Gorges hydroelectric generation. When this gas crosses the US–Canada border, some 23% will be combusted to generate electricity. When the Delta gas fields are depleted, why not plan to construct a Generation IV nuclear plant on the site to generate hydricity that would be sent southward over a Super- Cable to be laid in the same right of way already devel- oped for the natural-gas pipeline?

A quixotic dream? Are SuperCities, SuperSuburbs and SuperGrids, al- though in principle feasible with today’s emerging tech- nologies, merely quixotic dreams? As mentioned earlier, the various technologies required are already available. The eco-impact of transmission corridors would be about the same as a current oil or gas pipe- lines. Regarding cost, it is estimated that the 1220 km Mackenzie Valley Pipeline, including supporting pumping stations, will cost about $18 000m, to which would be added SuperCable materials and packaging, which I estimate to be approximately $6000m over an equivalent distance. The footprint required for hy- dricity generation by nuclear power is far less than for fossil fuels and especially renewables, but it is more expensive than the former. Estimates of the costs of future Generation IV plants run from $1400 per kW to $4000 per kW (for comparison, coal plants capitalize at $800 and natural gas at $450). Having said this, it is important to point out that the energy economy, unlike most of the private sector, is driven by a multitude of factors in addition to tech- nology. The next round of iGadgets will succeed in the marketplace only if they are smaller, run faster and cooler, cost less and create an addicted user commu- nity. Technology is, at best, only 50% of the energy equation, the remaining terms being driven by social and political policies together with public perception, which is often not guided by sound science (witness, for example, the irrational fear of electromagnetic fields emanating from overhead transmission lines). A thorough energy makeover must also find ways to address these other, non-technical factors. That will arguably be a far more difficult challenge. ■

Physics World October 2009 39 PWOct09tolfree 17/9/09 11:10 Page 40

The energy puzzle: Nanotechnology and energy physicsworld.com Does nanotechnology have the energy? From new kinds of solar cells and improved wind turbines to supercapacitors and novel hydrogen-storage techniques, developments in nanotechnology could transform the energy industry, as Alan Smith and David Tolfree explain

Alan Smith is The single most important problem facing humanity containing titanium-dioxide nanoparticles that help managing director of today is the need to secure a supply of sustainable protect against skin cancer. It is even possible to pro- AZ-TECH Ltd and energy to meet the world’s current and future de- duce strong, thin coloured plastic films where the David Tolfree is vice- mands. It is indeed the greatest challenge of the 21st colour comes not from pigments but from the diffrac- president of the Micro century and how we deal with it will determine the path tive properties of the film’s nanostructure. and Nanotechnology of our civilization and dictate the course of the world’s The challenge now is to harness such developments Commercialisation and Education future economic development. The aim is simple: to in nanotechnology for the benefit of the world’s energy Foundation, provide clean, cheap and abundant energy to the six supply. Indeed, in 2006 when the Nanotechnology Law Manchester, UK, billion people who live on the planet today – a figure and Business Journal published a list of the top 10 ways e-mail dtolfree@ that is expected to rise to over 10 billion by the middle in which nanotechnology will affect our lives (4 401), gmail.com of this century. four were concerned with different aspects of energy: Our best hope lies in exploiting new technology – and solar energy; new batteries; lighter, stronger and more nanotechnology in particular. Nano-scale materials are conductive materials; and clean water. not, of course, new. Blood is a nanofluid, milk contains the nanoparticulate casein, millions of adhesive nano- Look on the sunny side scale “hairs” on a gecko’s foot let it dash upside down Where nanotechnology will have the biggest impact is along ceilings, while the colour of a butterfly’s wings on renewables, which currently account for about 16% arises from light diffracting off crystalline nanostruc- of the world’s primary energy supply. Although the UK tures. Nanomaterials have also been used in commer- now generates only 4% of its energy from renewables, cial products for decades, despite not being so named – it and other members of the European Union together photographic paper and printing inks, for example, plan to increase this proportion to 20% by 2020 as part contain nanoparticles, as the relatively large surface of a binding target agreed in March 2007. Solar energy, area allows the solvent to evaporate off rapidly. in particular, is set to benefit from the nanotech revo- In the last decade, however, research into nano- lution. We know that about 89PW (89 ×1015 W) of solar science and nanotechnology has led to over 1000 new power continuously hits the Earth’s surface, and cap- nanomaterials – many with unique properties – com- turing just 0.02% of that radiation would be more than ing onto the market, according to data from the Wood- enough to satisfy the world’s current energy require- row Wilson International Center for Scholars. Tennis ments of about 16 TW (16 × 1012 W). superstar Roger Federer uses a racket made from a Most of the Sun’s energy is currently captured by composite material containing nanotubes – tiny, rolled- “first generation” solar cells, which in 2007 accounted up sheets of carbon – while you can now buy sunscreens for 90% of solar-generated electricity. They are so com- mon that even the Vatican now has an array of 2000 At a Glance: Nanotechnology and energy solar panels on the roof of one of its buildings, which were installed in 2007 by the German firm SolarWorld, ● Nanotechnology is set to play a big role in the energy industry – from conversion generating over 315 kWh of electricity each year. In and storage to transmission and distribution these cells (figure 1a), part of the silicon is doped to cre- ● The renewable sector will be a particular beneficiary through, for example, new ate an excess of holes (i.e. a p-type semiconductor), kinds of high-efficiency “third generation” solar cells that use quantum dots, while another is doped to contain an excess of electrons quantum wells and molecular dyes, while new nanostructured materials could (an n-type semiconductor). When photons of sufficient lead to bigger, stronger but lighter wind turbines energy strike the cell, they promote electrons from the ● Energy-storage devices like supercapacitors and batteries will benefit from valence to the conduction band, thus creating electron– developments in nanotechnology too hole pairs. Pairs formed on or near the p–n junction ● Durable, highly insulating and light-but-strong nanomaterials could help to reduce separate, with electrons flowing in one direction and carbon-dioxide emissions by lowering energy consumption holes in the other to create a DC current. First-generation devices can convert up to 31% of

40 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09tolfree 17/9/09 11:10 Page 41

physicsworld.com The energy puzzle: Nanotechnology and energy Puru Jena, Virginia Commonwealth University

incoming photons in electron–hole pairs – a limit cal- threshold and have efficiencies of up to 60%. One type High potential culated by the Nobel laureates William Shockley and of third-generation cell involves stacking multiple cells Nanotechnology has Hans Queisser back in 1961. The downside is that they with different semiconductor band gaps on top of one led to molecules such are expensive because they need highly pure, single- another, which lets the device generate a current from as this lithium-coated crystal silicon wafers. “Second generation” solar cells a much wider range of photon wavelengths than a buckyball that can aim to reduce these costs by coating a glass or ceramic single-crystal cell. For example, Gavin Conibeer and store hydrogen to power fuel cells. substrate with a thin film of semiconductor, such as cad- colleagues at the University of New South Wales in mium telluride, copper indium gallium selenide, amor- Australia have been able to control the size of the band phous silicon or micromorphous silicon. gap by using silicon quantum dots (tiny pieces of semi- But where second-generation cells win on cost, they conductor), the diameters of which can be adjusted by lose on efficiency, and the main focus of research is varying the thickness of the deposited thin films from now on “third generation” devices. These are made which they are precipitated. Another option to boost from thin semiconducting films, which makes them efficiency is to use carbon nanotubes or quantum dots cheap, but they can beat the Shockley–Queisser embedded in thin-film conductive polymers that are

Physics World October 2009 41 PWOct09tolfree 17/9/09 11:11 Page 42

The energy puzzle: Nanotechnology and energy physicsworld.com

1 Solar cells – old and new

ab sunlight load

current titanium-dioxide nanoparticles coated with dye molecules transparent conductor

n-type – silicon junction photons electron flow p-type electrolyte _ _ silicon

+ + “hole” flow + catalytic conductor (a) Conventional “first generation” photovoltaic cells have a single crystal of silicon containing a p-type region with an excess of holes and an n-type region with an excess of electrons. Photons striking the cell promote electrons from the valence to the conduction band, thus creating electron–hole pairs. Any pairs formed near the p–n junction separate, with electrons flowing in one direction and holes in the other. (b) “Dye sensitized” solar cells – also known as “Grätzel” cells – are examples of “third generation” devices and contain semiconducting titanium-dioxide nanoparticles coated with a layer of dye. Photons are absorbed by the dye molecules, which become excited and eject an electron. This electron can then be “injected” into the conduction band of the titanium dioxide, from where it moves to the top transparent electrode and out to an external circuit. The dye then strips an electron from the electrolyte, which recovers its missing electron by diffusing to the bottom of the cell, where a cathode reintroduces electrons that have flowed through the external circuit.

placed on conventional silicon cells. By varying the size trick is to include an electrolyte – typically an iodine- of the quantum dots, the cells can be tuned to absorb based organic solvent – from which the dye can strip different wavelengths, which means that efficiencies an electron. The electrolyte then recovers its missing of more than 40% may be possible. electron by mechanically diffusing to the bottom of the An alternative third-generation device that also takes cell, where a cathode reintroduces the electrons after advantage of nano-scale structures is the “quantum flowing through the external circuit. One of the advant- well” solar cell, which was first developed by Keith ages of the cell is that the band gap of the semicon- Barnham and colleagues at Imperial College London ductor does not have to be matched to the spectrum of in 1989. Such devices typically consist of 50 or so nano- light shining on the cell: the absorption spectrum of the metre-sized slices of gallium arsenide, each sandwiched dye can be easily tuned to this, which is why the cheap between slightly thicker layers of gallium-arsenide semiconductor titanium dioxide can be used. Last year phosphide – a structure that lowers the band gap of the Grätzel, who is now at the Changchun Institute of Ap- gallium arsenide so that it can capture a bigger fraction plied Chemistry in China, was able to obtain cell effi- of the incoming photons. Efficiencies of 27% have so ciencies of 8.2% using a new solvent-free electrolyte far been obtained but this figure could rise substantially consisting of a mixture of three different salts. with further development. And because a bigger frac- tion of photons generate electron–hole pairs, fewer The leap from the lab photons are simply absorbed by the semiconductor and Although third-generation solar cells are currently far converted into heat. less efficient than the best first-generation devices, An entirely different kind of third-generation device much of the research is still at an early stage and big is the “dye sensitized” solar cell, pioneered by Michael strides have been made in recent years. Indeed, those Grätzel and co-workers at the Swiss Federal Institute working in the field are confident that third-generation of Technology in 1991. Also known as Grätzel cells, cells can eventually become better than conventional these devices comprise a thin layer of chemical dye and silicon-based solar cells. But in order to take these the wide-band-gap semiconductor titanium dioxide, devices from the lab bench and into mass production which is cheaper than silicon. Mimicking the process of we will need to find ways of manufacturing them photosynthesis, sunlight enters the device through a cheaply enough. Cost is the main driver: the reason why transparent top contact then strikes semiconducting we do not see every building covered with solar panels titanium-dioxide nanoparticles, which are roughly is that they are simply too expensive. 20 nm in diameter, coated with a 10 µm layer of dye (see However, a number of companies are already making figure 1b). Photons are absorbed by the dye molecules, progress working on a variety of Grätzel cells, especially which become excited and eject an electron. This elec- for applications where direct sunlight is not available – tron can then be “injected” directly into the conduction these devices can still work if ultraviolet light penetrates band of the titanium dioxide, from where it moves to the clouds. Cardiff-based G24 Innovations, for exam- the anode on top and onward into an external circuit. ple, has developed a series of products in which cells But as the dye molecule has lost an electron, it will have been incorporated into jackets, rucksacks and decompose unless another electron is supplied. The other textiles, since the devices can be mounted on a

42 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09tolfree 17/9/09 11:12 Page 43

physicsworld.com The energy puzzle: Nanotechnology and energy

flexible substrate. The firm also sells small wallet-type 2 Wind: where size matters cells that can be used to charge mobile phones in areas where electricity is not available. Meanwhile, the Australian firm Dyesol is collabor- Airbus A380 160 m ating with the steel giant Corus to commercially manu- wingspan 80 m facture dye-sensitized solar cells on steel so that they 126 m can be incorporated into roofs. At a time when virtu- 112 m ally all of the construction and solar-cell industry is going through a significant slowdown in activity and short-term demand, the partnership promises to be the first solar-cell technology that can produce electricity rotor diameter (m) as cheaply per kilowatt-hour as conventional gas- or oil-fired stations in the normal light conditions experi- 15 m enced in most cities around the world. We should not forget though that nanotechnology 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 ? can help other renewable sources of energy too, such 0.05 0.3 0.5 1.3 1.6 2 4.5 5 8/10 as wind power. As the power output of a wind turbine year of first operation and power (MW) increases with the length of the turbine’s rotor blade, the search is on for light but strong materials that can The power output (red) from wind turbines increases with the diameter of the rotor blade – a 15 m diameter blade produces about 0.05 MW, while the most recent 126 m blades generate be used to make blades as long as possible (figure 2). about 5 MW. Rotor size (and hence power output) has risen steadily over the last 30 years, For example, researchers at the German firm Bayer such that 160 m blades, producing 8–10 MW, should one day be available. MaterialScience have developed a new composite ma- terial consisting of aluminium powder reinforced with carbon nanotubes that has a tensile strength similar to applied voltage. This makes the charged layers move that of steel but only half the density. When incorpor- back together and recombine, thereby releasing elec- ated into a rotor blade, it is some 10–30% lighter and trons into the external circuit. Commercial supercapaci- 20–30% stronger than traditional non-reinforced alu- tors can be charged and discharged over half a million minium and epoxy blades. times without their performance being degraded. These and other nanocomposite materials could Chunsheng Du and colleagues at the University of even replace conventional metallic moving parts in California, Davis, have recently developed a way of tidal- and wave-power plants. Researchers at the UK storing even more energy in a supercapacitor. Their firm TidalStream, for example, have designed turbines device consists of a closely aligned suspension of car- that are mounted on semi-submersible buoys tethered bon nanotubes deposited on nickel foil. The nanotubes to the seabed – rather than floating on the surface or have such a large storage area that these devices could mounted on towers attached to the seabed – using tech- have a power density of 30 kW per kg, compared with nology and components from the wind industry. Else- 4 kW per kg for the most advanced devices currently where in the renewable sector, nanotechnology could commercially available. The researchers are currently also play a role in hydro-energy power plants – for ex- seeking to patent their invention. ample, via novel water-repelling nano-scale materials Many companies are also trying to develop new that can be coated onto turbine blades to prevent them higher-powered rechargeable batteries, which is not from corroding. surprising given that the global market for portable rechargeables – dominated by lithium-ion batteries – No trouble in store is set to grow from $1bn in 2008 to an estimated $9.1bn Although some of the developments described so far by 2015. For example, Nanotecture, a spin-off company are still some way from being widely deployed, nano- from Southampton University in the UK, has devel- technology has already had a significant impact on oped extremely thin, high power, rechargeable bat- existing power sources, particularly in relation to teries based on novel liquid-crystal technology. The “supercapacitors” – devices that not only have a high batteries, which are just 150 µm thick, can be designed power density, like a conventional capacitor, but also to fit into small spaces and are a cross between batter- a high energy density, like a battery (figure 3). Super- ies and supercapacitors. Nanotecture’s patented super- capacitors are common in laptops, where they can pre- capacitor technology uses a hybrid design in which the vent the memory from being erased if the batteries run negative electrode consists of activated carbon and the To take third- out. They typically consist of two electrodes made of positive electrode is a nanoporous nickel-hydroxide- generation highly porous “activated” carbon, which has a high sur- based material. solar cells from face area and can store lots of charge, suspended in a With pore diameters of about 3 nm and wall thick- solution of long-chain polymer molecules. nesses of about 5 nm, the anode has a surface area the lab bench When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, elec- available for electrochemical reactions that is some into mass trons in the polymer solution move towards one elec- 200 times that of materials without such a nanoporous production, trode, whereas the positively charged ions move towards surface. The sizes can be controlled and optimized to we will need to the other. This creates two separate layers of opposite enhance battery properties like power and energy den- find ways of charge in the solution, which are kept nanometres apart sities for specific applications. The device can be using a thin plastic film. The stored energy can be re- charged and discharged very quickly, which is ideal for manufacturing leased in a matter of seconds – compared with hours high-current pulse applications such as flash photo- them cheaply for rechargeable batteries – by simply turning off the graphy with mobile phones. enough

Physics World October 2009 43 PWOct09tolfree 17/9/09 11:12 Page 44

The energy puzzle: Nanotechnology and energy physicsworld.com

3 Storage factors giant BASF has even developed metal–organic “nano- cubes” made from terephthalic acid and zinc oxide that 1000 can store and release hydrogen to power fuel cells for fuel cells laptop computers and other portable electronic devices 100 for up to 10 hours. 10h conventional Another approach being considered is to find a ma- batteries 1h 1s terial that chemically bonds to the hydrogen. Using 10 this chemisorption technique, yields of 14% hydrogen supercapacitors by weight have been achieved by covalently bonding 1 the hydrogen to carbon nanotubes. But as forming and breaking chemical bonds requires the material to be 0.03s heated, several research groups are looking at develop- energy density (Wh per kg) 0.1 ing an intermediate technique between physical adsorp- conventional capacitors tion and chemisorptions as a working compromise. 0.01 10 100 1000 10000 Save your energy power density (W per kg) Inspired by developments in nanotechnology, solar This “Ragone” diagram compares the performance of different energy-storage devices. Energy cells, wind turbines, fuel cells and other devices can all density is how much energy is available and power density shows how quickly that energy can help to reduce carbon-dioxide emissions, provided that be delivered: conventional capacitors, for example, do not store more energy but can deliver it they are accompanied by a switch away from fossil fuels. very quickly. A conventional lead-acid battery has an energy density of about 30–40 Wh per kg But another way to cut greenhouse-gas emissions is and modern lithium-ion batteries about 160 Wh per kg. Nanotechnology is leading to new to use less energy in the first place, and here nanotech- kinds of supercapacitor that can store and release lots of energy quickly, as well as novel forms nology can help too. For example, scientists at the Ma- of batteries. The times indicate how long the devices release their energy over. terials and Engineering Research Institute at Sheffield Hallam University in the UK have developed more Fuel for thought durable, longer-lasting surfaces. Similar harder-wear- The material that can store more energy per unit ing surfaces were first developed for bowling balls and weight than any other, however, is hydrogen, and it is are now being used for the final lacquer on Mercedes- possible to envisage a world where our energy is pro- Benz cars. These materials consist of either alumina or vided not by burning fossil fuels but by this simple sub- silica nanoparticles. By lasting longer, they save energy. stance. The idea is to react the hydrogen with oxygen In the automotive industry, light but strong nano- in a fuel cell, releasing just energy and water, with no composites – consisting of nanoclays (montmoril- pollution. (As little as 5 kg of the gas could drive a small lonites) – are well-established alternatives to metal car more than 500 km.) The snag is that, compared with panels, and they reduce fuel consumption by saving fossil fuels, hydrogen gas (H2) has a low energy density weight. Meanwhile, nanoparticulates have been used by volume (figure 4). The hydrogen can, of course, be to reduce diesel consumption. For example, the UK compressed by storing it at several hundred atmo- company Oxonica has developed a technology based spheres, but this requires heavy, thick-walled tanks; on cerium-oxide nanoparticles called ENVIROX, while liquefying the hydrogen means cooling it to 20 K, which are high-surface-area catalysts. Adding them to which produces problems of its own. diesel makes the fuel burn more efficiently – even at A preferable solution is “chemical storage”, which low parts-per-million levels – lowering fuel costs and involves encapsulating hydrogen inside highly porous, reducing carbon-dioxide emissions. high-surface-area materials. It is, for example, possi- Heat losses from buildings can be dramatically ble to encapsulate hydrogen inside and onto the sur- reduced by using a variety of renewable insulating ma- face of hollow molecules, such as buckyballs (C60). terials, for example fibreglass or rock wool. Nanotech- Researchers are also working on a range of nanostruc- nology can also make improved insulating “aerogels” – ture polymeric materials as hydrogen adsorbents. For highly porous, low-density nanomaterials with a very example, Martin Schröder and colleagues at the Uni- high surface area and a high dielectric constant. They versity of Nottingham in the UK have developed a are such good insulators that if you put your hand on porous copper-based metal–organic polymer made up a sheet of the material you cannot feel the heat of a of three polyhedral molecular cages that fit together to Bunsen burner placed on the other side. Aerogels are provide a hollow framework. When cooled to 77 K, it about eight times more effective than traditional in- can store 10% of its own mass as hydrogen at a pres- sulation materials, and find applications where high sure of 77 bar – one of the highest uptakes so far for this thermal insulation can protect and safeguard buildings, Being able to type of porous material. Low temperatures are needed thus lowering costs and saving energy. manipulate to strengthen the intermolecular forces to hold the matter at the hydrogen within the material, and further work will be Grasp the solution molecular level needed to allow these materials to store hydrogen at Being able to manipulate matter at the molecular level has profound room temperature. has profound implications in almost every area of implications in Meanwhile, Adam Phillips and Bellave Shivaram of human endeavour – from energy production and trans- the University of Virginia in the US have been able port to medicine and textiles. Unfortunately, our rapid almost every to store up to 12% by weight of hydrogen in complex acquisition of knowledge often outstrips our ability to area of human metal hydrides containing magnesium, sodium, cal- exploit it. If nanotechnology is to provide the answer to endeavour cium, lithium, aluminium and boron. German chemical our energy crisis, then we do not just need more invest-

44 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09tolfree 21/9/09 15:05 Page 45

physicsworld.com

4 Hydrogen targets

70 ultimate ) 60 –1 50 liquid hydrogen 2015 40 chemical hydride 30 complex hydrideride cryocompressed 20 compressed at 700 bar volumetric capacity (g l 10 compressed at 350 bar 0 0123 4 5 678 gravimetric capacity (percentage weight)

With hydrogen set to become a fuel of the future, it is essential to be able to store as much hydrogen in as small a volume as possible. This figure compares the merits of compressing hydrogen gas (yellow), with cooling it under pressure in special tanks (purple), encapsulating it in materials like buckyballs to form “complex hydrides” (orange) and bonding it chemically to materials like nanotubes to form “chemical hydrides” (light green). Also shown are results for two US Department of Energy (DOE) learning demos (green) operating at different pressures, as well as the DOE’s targets for 2015 and beyond. Source: DOE

ment, but an effective working partnership between government, industry, academia and the wider public. That will not be easy as nanotechnology is often a disruptive technology – be it covering the desert with solar cells or piping hydrogen to a new global network of filling stations to charge up fuel cells. Companies with the capability and resources will need commer- cial incentives to exploit the new technologies and make the leap from lab to production line. But eight years after nanotechnology was dubbed by the White House as “the next industrial revolution”, it is now accepted even by the sceptics that the energy industry will reap huge benefits from the new materials and processes that nanotechnology can bring. Even with fossil fuels, where nanotechnology has not yet had much impact, there is every reason to hope that it could be used to develop, for example, new materials to capture carbon dioxide from power plants and store the gas underground. This and much more can be ex- pected from nanotechnology in the years ahead, since we have only just dipped our toe into a huge ocean of opportunities. In the wake of the recent economic cri- sis, there is now a need to refocus on how best to use our scientific and technical resources to solve the energy problem. The solutions are truly within our grasp. ■

More about: Nanotechnology and energy E Cartlidge 2007 Bright outlook for solar cells Physics World July pp20–24 Department of Trade and Industry 2007 Meeting the Energy Challenge: A White Paper on Energy (TSO, London) Nanoforum consortium 2003 Nanotechnology Helps Solve the World’s Energy Problems nanoforum.org Royal Society of Chemistry and Institute of Physics The Future for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology www.iop.org B Swarup 2007 Energy storage takes off Physics World July pp42–45 D Tolfree and A Smith 2009 Roadmapping Emergent Technologies (Troubador, Leicester)

Physics World October 2009 45 PWOct09reviews 17/9/09 17:22 Page 46

physicsworld.com Reviews

Niall MacKay and Roger Edgar Sustainability made simple

vide us with significant amounts of it. Nuclear power may be problematic, even dangerous, but it could meet much of our needs; compared with the alternatives, the volume of waste it produces is small. On the domestic side, building insulation needs to be improved and heating needs to be electrified, probably by the extensive Phillip Hayson/Science Photo Library use of air-source heat pumps. MacKay uses an additional unit – kilowatt-hours per 100 passenger-kilo- metres – when discussing transport, and this illuminates his comparison of the energy demands of different modes of travel. Here again, the likely advantages of electrifying as much of our transport infrastructure as possi- ble become clear; in the absence of a persuasive “green” alternative like hy- drogen cells, no other option offers the flexibility of electricity. The author is at pains not to let politics intrude on his message, and the book concludes with a range of “energy plans” to suit all political tastes – except head-in- the-sand failure to acknowledge that Sunset scenario It is not often that a physics book be- slogan “numbers not adjectives”, is an there is a problem. What lies ahead for comes a publishing phenomenon; and attempt to bridge that gap. However, setting energy policy the UK when its oil when it does happen, the book is usu- MacKay, a physicist at Cambridge aside, the book also works on a deeper runs out? ally about strings or cosmology. But University who has just been named level, bringing the concept of energy David MacKay’s Sustainable Energy – as the UK government’s scientific ad- home to physics through “back-of- Sustainable Energy Without the Hot Air is different. It visor on energy and climate change, the-envelope” calculations. MacKay – Without the Hot Air tackles a down-to-earth but contro- begins by choosing a single unit for shows how a physicist initially ap- David J C MacKay versial subject in a remarkably even- power consumption: kilowatt-hours proaches a problem by identifying 2008 UIT Cambridge handed manner; it has been lauded per person per day, rather than the processes and constraints, and getting £19.99/$49.95pb by a number of national and interna- usual muddle of kilowatt-hours, litres, numerical estimates of them. free to download tional publications; and it remains BTUs, barrels, tonnes and so on. Naturally, such estimates need to 384pp high in the bestseller lists even though Though at first this seems clumsy, it be refined, but they make a good it is free to download. turns out to be rather effective. Fig- starting point – as many physicists will Despite the trendy word “sustain- ures mostly fall in the range 1–100, and know from their own lunchtime con- able” in its title, this is avowedly not results are easily translated into per- versations. For example, we recall a a book about climate change, nor is it sonal terms. With this technical detail discussion about recycling in which we a political polemic. Instead, its pri- firmly in hand, MacKay then builds needed to know the conversion rate mary purpose is to give decent nu- up two stacks: a red stack for energy of hydrocarbon fuel mass into energy. merical estimates of the UK’s future consumption and a green stack for sus- For an immediate rough estimate, we energy production and consumption tainable energy generation. used the calorie content of butter – after the oil runs out. Such estimates If one accepts a need to balance and indeed this same calculation ap- are normally only found together in current energy consumption with gen- pears alongside a picture of a pat of think-tank reports, where they can eration, then conclusions emerge butter on page 29 of the book. The appear surprisingly frail: their under- quite clearly, and the book summa- butter-derived figure proves to be lying physics is seldom revealed, and rizes these in a straightforward man- about 20% too low – but since one of it is difficult to judge their validity. ner. Renewable energy takes up a lot us developed instruments to measure The mainstream media, on the other of land, and, for the UK, only wind the moisture content of butter, we are hand, rarely seem to use large num- over our coastal seas and solar power able to improve the estimate by elim- bers competently. This book, with its from other people’s deserts can pro- inating this moisture mass (which, of

46 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09reviews 17/9/09 17:23 Page 47

physicsworld.com Reviews

course, contributes no energy) from enable readers to do their own calcu- ergy is much more positive and em- the calculation. lations – in fact, its original working powering than either the school phys- Of course, some estimates in the title was “You go figure it out!”. ics curriculum or most environmental book are intended only to be good to To this end, MacKay is very keen literature. By exposing both the data within a factor of two or so, and oc- that the book should be digestible. It from which his book’s conclusions casionally somewhat poorer, since is well illustrated, and all algebra is are drawn, and the methods and ar- MacKay’s goal is often just to put a confined to the technical chapters (in guments by which they are reached, rough upper bound on a potential effect appendices) that make up the MacKay in effect says “You need take source of energy. His estimate of last 90 or so pages. The physicist will no-one’s word for it. You can work tidal-stream power, for instance, find much that informs (and occasion- it out for yourself, and this is how.” combines physical arguments with a ally amuses) in these chapters, partic- Various reviewers have said something perusal of the tidal charts in a nau- ularly in those on cars and planes. The along the lines of “every policy maker tical almanac, and seemed to us (as former runs a long way on very little should read it”. We would rather advo- yachtsmen) to rather underestimate algebra, and in the latter the basic cate it as a book every budding physi- the ubiquity of strong tides around physics of a jumbo jet’s energy con- cist should read – and perhaps also as the UK’s coast. Such an approach sumption is shown to scale down quite the one every working physicist would does open the book to criticism, par- well to fit an albatross. like to have written. ticularly from specialists; indeed, it In the main text, however, all that is could easily become a victim of its needed is basic numeracy and famili- Niall MacKay (no relation to David) is a own success if policymakers and arity with exponential notation. For mathematical physicist at the University of others begin to regard its figures as this reason the book would be a good York, UK, e-mail [email protected]. accurate final judgments. That would way of introducing teenagers to how Roger Edgar was co-founder of Infrared be a shame, for it would traduce one real physicists work – all the more so Engineering Ltd, a spin-off company from the of the book’s intentions, which is to because MacKay’s treatment of en- physics department of Imperial College London

Web life: Clim’City What is it like to play? Who is it aimed at? The main screen of Clim’City shows a model city With its cartoon interface and easily mastered with mountainous outskirts, a populous coastline gameplay, Clim’City looks like a kids’ game. and various structures in between. Clicking on Indeed, the French-language site contains a wealth these structures brings up menus of possible of educational graphs, maps and interviews that actions, along with information about their are not yet available in translation; science consequences. For example, at the city’s power teachers on good terms with their school’s French station, you can choose to burn cleaner fuel oil or department might find some opportunities here for natural gas instead of coal, or to research (and then jointly taught lessons. But be warned: this game is implement) carbon capture and storage. Some far easier to play than it is to win, and adults as actions are contingent on others: you can also well as children will struggle to meet the make the power station run on wood, but only if you demanding (some might say impossible) targets URL: http://climcity.cap-sciences.net have already developed the city’s biomass for victory. production facility. Each action consumes political, So what is the site about? enterprise or citizen “points”, which represent the How realistic is it? Like the popular SimCity computer-game series cost of getting different parts of the city to adopt Very – almost to the point of being discouraging. that inspired its name, Clim’City puts players in your plans. When you run out of points, time moves Consider the following. If you do nothing, both charge of a virtual city and allows them to choose forward by a year. A series of graphs lets you see emissions and energy use will tick inexorably how it develops. To win, players must reduce your city’s chances of meeting its goals. upwards, in line with current trends. Some of the greenhouse-gas emissions by 75%, slash energy most effective actions – like closing the city tip or consumption by 40%, boost the share of renewable This is harder than it looks. Any tips? producing hydrogen at the solar power station – energy by 60%, and help citizens and businesses The game provides numerical information about are really expensive, and require action on multiple adapt to changing climate conditions – all within how long each action will take to implement, and fronts. It is far easier to run out of “enterprise 50 years. The game offers a number of different how much energy consumption and/or emissions points” than any other type, so even when you have ways to do this (developing wind power, insulating will fall as a result. Paying attention to these plenty of political will and an enthusiastic citizenry, buildings, improving public transport, etc), but it is quantities – rather than simply picking actions there is still only so much change that industries up to the individual player to decide which changes that sound nice – will improve your final score. In can absorb each year. In fact, the game’s only to implement, and in what order. addition, graphs showing how much energy/ unrealistic aspect may be the relative ease of pollution each sector of the economy is using/ meeting its target for “adaptation”; if the current Who is behind the site? producing can help players identify which areas furore over energy-saving light bulbs is any It was launched in early 2009 by the Cap Sciences require more action. It is also worth noting that a indication, people are far less willing to change museum in Bordeaux, France. The full site is still few actions, like reinforcing sea defences, do not their habits than this game assumes. Still, as a only available in French, but the game itself has reduce emissions or energy use. However, they can simple (and addictive) demonstration of the been translated (imperfectly but adequately) prevent players from losing valuable points if, say, a difficult energy choices facing the world, Clim’City into English. massive storm strikes the city later in the game. is hard to beat – in more ways than one.

Physics World October 2009 47 PWOct09reviews 17/9/09 17:23 Page 48

Reviews physicsworld.com

Dan Falk Profiles of genius and persecution

erer, especially in mathematics, than they were”. Sylvester left England for the US in 1841, at one point attempt- ing to secure a position at Columbia College (now Columbia University) in New York, an institution with a charter explicitly forbidding religious discrimination. Even so, James writes, he was told that “the election of a Jew would be repugnant to the feelings of every member of the board”. A college spokesman pointed out that the sentiment “was not at all on the

Emilio Segrè Visual Archives/AIP/Science Photo Library grounds of him being a foreigner; it would have been the same had he been born of Jewish parentage in the United States”. Women, of course, faced obstacles of their own. James has included three Jewish women in the collection: Hertha Ayrton (born Phoebe Sarah Marks), who studied maths at Cam- bridge University and was the first woman to read a paper before the Royal Society; Emmy Noether, des- cribed by Einstein as “the most sig- nificant mathematical genius since the higher education of women be- gan”; and Lise Meitner, whose work on nuclear fission, many historians Against the odds It is no secret that Jewish scholars 1940s made the university’s Claren- believe, ought to have earned her a Lise Meitner faced the have made enormous contributions to don Laboratories into the leading Nobel prize. dual prejudices of science, achieving far more than one centre for low-temperature physics. Meitner’s case illustrates just how being both Jewish and might expect given their relatively Yet obscure or otherwise, none of formidable were the obstacles facing a woman. small numbers. They have also faced the 35 had an easy life. Many had to a scholar who was not only Jewish a staggering array of obstacles, culmin- flee the countries of their birth to but also a woman. When she earned Driven to Innovate: ating in the near-total destruction of escape persecution. One of the most her doctorate from the University of A Century of Jewish European Jewry under the Nazis in tragic figures is German mathemati- Vienna in 1905, she was only the sec- Mathematicians the Second World War. These two cian Felix Hausdorff, who, together ond woman to do so; at that time a and Physicists themes – genius and persecution – are with his wife, committed suicide in female student was “regarded as a Ioan James the twin currents that flow through 1942 to avoid the inevitability of freak”, James writes bluntly. Later, 2009 Peter Lang Ioan James’ compelling Driven to capture by the Nazis. But the hard- Meitner was told she could not work £25.00hb 288pp Innovate, uniting a series of profiles ships began long before Hitler came in the lab run by Nobel laureate Emil that might otherwise be of interest pri- to power. Five decades earlier, Tsar Fischer; women were banned because marily to a more specialized audience. Alexander III instigated waves of per- “they might set fire to their hair”. (She The book profiles 35 physicists and secution, known as pogroms, against was later permitted to work in an old mathematicians whose lives span the Russia’s Jews; in the 1930s and 1940s carpenter’s workshop.) Years later, period from the mid-1800s to about Jews faced the horror of Stalin’s when she was working at the Kaiser 1950. Many of those featured, like “purges”. The fascists who seized Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, a talk she Max Born and Albert Michelson, are power in Hungary in 1919 were also gave on “cosmic physics” was repor- relatively well known, while Albert rabidly antisemitic. The list goes on. ted in the press as “cosmetic physics”. Einstein is, of course, a household Even in Britain and the US – surely Though raised as a Protestant, Meit- name. Many others, however, are safe havens by comparison – anti- ner was too honest to keep her Jewish more obscure: the Prussian mathe- semitism was never far below the ancestry a secret. When Germany matician Gottfried Eisenstein, for surface, as highlighted by the plight of annexed Austria, the country of her example, whose intellect was des- mathematician James Joseph Syl- birth, in 1938, she fled to Sweden. cribed by Carl Friedrich Gauss as vester. As a student in Liverpool in James does not try to find the root being on a par with that of Archi- the 1820s, a classmate recalled, he was causes of the seemingly endless tide of medes and Newton; or the German “hunted by his schoolfellows, in the hostility directed at Jewish thinkers. physicist Franz Simon, whose stellar open street, for no worse reason than He does, however, do an admirable career at Oxford in the 1930s and that he was a Jew, and very much clev- job of outlining the recent history of

48 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09reviews 17/9/09 17:23 Page 49

physicsworld.com Reviews

European Jewry in a thoroughly re- tury, many Jews left Europe for the make a compelling essay in its own searched introductory chapter. He US, and their influence on culture and right), James, who is not Jewish, also reminds us just how important society came with them. Their role points to a variety of factors. “[It is] Jews once were to the intellectual life was felt particularly during the Sec- reasonable to suppose that there may of Europe. Before the Second World ond World War, when Jewish scien- be genetic factors,” he concludes. War, some European cities were as tists played a significant role in the However, cultural factors along with much as one-quarter Jewish. Many Allied war effort. And it continues “certain traditions and values which Jews were doctors, lawyers, business- today. As James points out, currently are distinctively Jewish” may also play people or professors. In Germany, more than 40% of the members of the a role. No wonder people are squeam- well-educated Jewish families estab- physics division of the National Aca- ish about such matters. After all, one lished salons in the capital. “Poised demy of Sciences are Jewish. might argue that it is the notion of precariously between the nobility and One thing is clear: when barriers to “being different” that has fed so much the bourgeoisie,” James writes, “they their success are removed, Jews do hatred over the years. succeeded in transforming Berlin into very well indeed, particularly in the a major cultural centre.” He also adds sciences. In a thoughtful analysis that Dan Falk is a science journalist based in that, in Vienna “Jews began first to runs for about a dozen pages, James Toronto, Canada. His latest book, In Search of enter and then dominate intellectual attempts – bravely, perhaps – to ad- Time: Journeys along a Curious Dimension, cultural life”. dress the question of why this is the was published earlier this year by the National In the early decades of the 20th cen- case. In this section (which would Maritime Museum, e-mail [email protected] Between the lines

An awkward genius introduction to both. to highlight its success in persuading The name of Oliver Heaviside would ● 2009 Institute of Engineering and the candidates to issue formal not feature prominently on most Technology £30.00/$50.00pb 224pp science-policy statements. But lists of great scientists. Yet compared with the task at hand, such Heaviside’s influence on the major A call for communication efforts seem like a drop in the ocean. scientific questions of the late Readers who pick up Unscientific ● 2009 Basic Books £15.99/$24.00hb 19th century was considerable. America: How Scientific Illiteracy 224pp His contributions to practical Threatens Our Future expecting a telegraphy and telephony arguably polemic on public stupidity are in for Snapshots of UK astronomy make him the founding father of a surprise. True, Chris Mooney and When photographer Lucinda No crossed wires modern electrical engineering, and Sheril Kirshenbaum’s book does Douglas-Menzies read a newspaper Oliver Heaviside’s when physicists talk of Maxwell’s contain some grim statistics (see article about the famed amateur discoveries led to equations today, it is Heaviside’s tidy page 22) on how little many in the astronomer Sir Patrick Moore, she better sound quality vector formulation they mean, not US know about science. But their was intrigued. Despite having little on long-distance Maxwell’s ponderous 20-variable main focus is not on the ill-educated previous astronomy experience, she telephone lines. original. Heaviside is also credited citizenry, but on the scientists whose nevertheless embarked on a quest to with coining terms like impedance, aloof, hyperspecialized culture, they capture images of people who study inductance and permeability argue, is making the problem worse. the stars and other heavenly objects. to describe the electrical They are particularly keen to The resulting book, titled simply phenomena he and others criticize the so-called New Atheists, Portraits of Astronomers, contains observed in the early days of who believe that religion is both 38 photographs of noted UK transcontinental communications. inherently bad and incompatible astronomers, from Mark Bailey of In Oliver Heaviside: Maverick with science. Such attitudes could the Armagh Observatory to Mastermind of Electricity, Basil actually harm the cause of science; John Zarnecki at the Open Mahon offers an engaging account if forced to choose between religion University in Milton Keynes. of this heady, confusing period when and science, the authors point out, Alongside each portrait is a short electromagnetism was a young “vast numbers of Americans will paragraph in which each sitter science and Heaviside was one of its select the former”. The pair also explains how he or she became greatest – and most eccentric – decry the low regard some scientists interested in astronomy. Their exponents. For Heaviside’s relative have for colleagues who devote time answers are as different as their obscurity was at least partly his own to writing popular-science books; facial expressions – some serene, fault. Although he could be witty even Carl Sagan was denied tenure some intense and a few fairly and even charming to his friends, he at Harvard in part because senior bubbling with excitement at the was also a thoroughly awkward scientists felt his outreach efforts subject they love. It is a fascinating individual who bore grudges like a were inappropriate. Like many calls history, and a beautiful celebration champion, speckled his scientific to arms, Unscientific America is of a subject half-mocked, articles with thinly veiled attacks on better at identifying problems than half-praised as “the science of his enemies and repeatedly rejected at suggesting solutions. However, pretty pictures”. A touring pleas to make his papers more Mooney, a science journalist, and exhibition of the photographs will understandable. Mahon is clearly Kirshenbaum, a marine biologist, do visit the Royal Society in October sympathetic to his subject, but he offer a few. Both were involved in and Armagh County Museum in does not shrink from the more ScienceDebate2008, which November/December; details are challenging aspects of either campaigned for more scientific available at the website below. Heaviside’s character or his science. coverage in the recent US ● http://douglas-menzies.com/ This slim volume is an excellent presidential race, and they are right index2.html

Physics World October 2009 49 PWOct09careers 17/9/09 18:04 Page 50

physicsworld.com Careers Of time and tide For Stephen Taylor, running a marine-software company means plenty of chances to apply familiar physics to unusual real-world problems – and being your own boss is nice too

We often hear of physicists trying to under- stand, map and explore objects in outer space, but there are also big opportunities for physicists where inner space is concerned. This is particularly the case with the world’s oceans. For example, while the study of tides dates back thousands of years and was re- Steering his own course Running a business has proved most fulfilling for marine specialist Stephen Taylor. garded as a dead subject for most of the last century, we now realize that tidal physics has I graduated with a physics degree from gically transformed into my clients. I was an unexpected environmental dimension. Nottingham University in 1975 and then able to use my skills in electronics, comput- Applications of this revitalized science range worked for the UK’s Water Research Centre ing and design to rapidly produce a system from the siting of tidal power generators and for some years before the tedium of gov- that fitted the bill. I was also able to set my the optimization of fuel-saving shipping ernment research drove me to back to aca- own direction and targets. Within a year I routes, to the effects of tidal height on flood demia. In 1984 I obtained a PhD in applied had produced AutoTide, the world’s first defences and satellite-based measurements physics from the University of Hull, special- tidal-prediction system compatible with the of sea level. izing in laser remote sensing. My experience then-new Microsoft Windows operating sys- This is where firms like mine, Geomatix, with infrared-laser radar systems then took tem. I was enjoying being my own boss. come in. Recent Geomatix projects include me to the US, where I joined RCA Astro improving the accuracy of tidal predictions Electronics, which is now part of the defence Branching out in the Thames Estuary for the Port of Lon- giant Lockheed Martin. I started the company now known as don Authority, estimating the mean sea At RCA I was expected to work on military Geomatix in 1992 as a one-man operation level for surveyors in the Persian Gulf, and space projects involving optical commu- with the goal of selling AutoTide in the providing electronic charts of the sea bed nications. But when I attended a meeting marine market, but I soon moved into other for the fishing industry. The work extends where some military guys dispassionately areas – notably marine mapping – via a con- across the related fields of cartography, discussed how using infrared optical com- tract with the UK’s Sea Fish Authority in hydrography, oceanography and geodesy – munications, rather than radio, could be Hull. The growth of oil and gas production all areas where physicists are ideally suited a great benefit during a nuclear war in in the North Sea had caused problems for for tasks ranging from instrumentation to CONUS (military speak for the continental the local fishing industry, as trawl gear would surveys and mathematical modelling. US), I was disgusted by their callous attitude. sometimes get caught on sub-sea installa- I realized that a career in military research tions. This led to some nasty accidents and A long road to the sea was not for me. I therefore left RCA and even fatalities, so I became involved in con- My career would not have been the same returned to the UK to become a senior lec- verting sea-bed data about oil and gas instal- without my first physics teacher, the Rev- turer at Humberside Polytechnic’s depart- lations into electronic marine charts for erend Brother Egbert. A rather eccentric ment of maritime operations, specializing in fishing vessels, so that they can avoid hazards individual, he would often announce things navigation and radar-simulation training. while trawling. like “the whole of physics is oscillatory” at Unfortunately, the department closed As part of this work, I spent one summer seemingly random intervals. On one occa- shortly after I joined it, and in the ensuing frantically driving around harbours and sion he sprayed his students with a Bunsen chaos I was asked to work as a consultant. At intercepting fishing vessels so I could test burner connected to a water tap. This may Humberside I had been involved in the the then comparatively new GPS-based seem like an unlikely inspiration to study design of marine-radar training simulators, electronic charts. On one occasion, I almost physics, yet I credit him, and my father, an and one of our research sponsors asked me ended up marooned on a fishing vessel as it early radio ham, for setting me on a career to design a similar system for them. This was was forced to leave harbour by the descend- path that led – after many twists and turns – my lucky break. Before then, the people who ing tide. This could have been an embar- to me becoming my own boss at Geomatix. paid me were my bosses; now they were ma- rassing error for someone in the business of

50 Physics World October 2009 PWOct09careers 21/9/09 13:58 Page 51

physicsworld.com Careers

tide prediction – especially since the vessel Real-world physics Just as in the field of non-linear optics, non- was going to be at sea for two weeks – but In this industry, it is not unusual to find physi- linear effects generate additional frequency fortunately I was able to persuade the skip- cists (many with their own businesses) work- components, producing for example the phe- per to drop me off as we passed the outer ing amongst hydrographers, mariners and nomenon of standing tides that are found on pier in Scarborough harbour. oceanographers. Hydrographic topics like parts of the UK’s south coast. In this field, The business started to expand in the early map projections, navigation and data analy- at least, Reverend Brother Egbert’s phrase 2000s, allowing me to hire a business admin- sis figure high on the list of requirements, about all physics being oscillatory is pretty istrator and a programmer with an MSc in and all use very similar mathematical skills much spot-on. astronomy. In 2003 we decided to concen- to those required in physics. On a day-to-day basis, my job as head of a trate on the specialist area of harmonic tidal For example, the physics problems asso- small-marine software firm involves some analysis. This is like a first cousin of Fourier ciated with tidal prediction are actually quite programming and some sales work, as well analysis, and it enables you to work out the similar to those of infrared spectroscopy. as speaking to mariners, port hydrographers transfer function between the tidal potential Both techniques deal with issues like resolu- and representatives from the oil and fishing and the instantaneous tidal height. It also tion, line width and modulation – it is just industries. Recently I have also presented a provides highly accurate figures for mean a matter of changing the frequency band few papers at hydrographic and oceanog- sea level. So far, our systems for tidal har- from infrared spectral lines at about 1013 Hz raphy conferences, but I am not obliged to monic analysis have been used in more than to tidal “spectral lines”, or constituents, of churn out publications to meet some bureau- 30 hydrographic offices for tidal prediction about 10–7 Hz. The strongest tidal constituent cratic university target, and am unfettered and by numerous hydrographic surveyors to comes from the semidiurnal (twice-daily) by internal politics. Instead, I have the free- determine sea level. Given the threat of cli- tide and has a frequency of 2 × 10–5 Hz. In dom to use the skills I gained as a physicist to mate change and its associated predicted rise long-duration datasets of tidal height, in benefit clients in the wider world, where I in sea level, systems like ours are a useful tool contrast, significant tidal components can be have found there is a great need for the prac- for examining recent trends. The good news resolved down to events that occur about tical application of physics and which can be is that even with our advanced analysis soft- once every 18 years, or 10–9 Hz – a frequency outstandingly rewarding. ware, any rise in sea level is almost entirely in line with theoretical models based on the masked by noise on the tide gauge data from known orbital parameters of the Sun–Moon– Stephen Taylor is managing director of Geomatix Ltd, storms and surges – so far. Earth system. e-mail [email protected], Web www.geomatix.net

NEW FROM ELSEVIER

Semiconductors and the Information Revolution describes the history of semiconductor materials and their application to modern electronics,, optics and computers in a style suited to the non-scientist. Covering the period from the eighteenth century to the present day, Orton tells a first hand account story with an emphasis on the interaction between science, technology and applications, explaining how many of our present electronic marvels came into being.

Hardback, 350 pages KEY FEATURES: ISBN: 9780444532404 s 0RESENTEDINASTRICTLYNON MATHEMATICALANDANECEDOTALWAY List Price: £13.99/½19.95/$27.95 appealing to a wide audience s %XPLAINSTHEDEVELOPMENTOFMODERNELECTRONICSYSTEMS and devices from the viewpoint of the semiconductor materials s #OVERSTHESCIENTIlCUNDERSTANDINGOFTHESEMATERIALSANDITS intimate relationship with their technology and many applications

Visit elsevierdirect.com/physics for a full table of contents

Don’t Wait! Order Online Today @ elsevierdirect.com or with your favorite online bookseller

Physics World October 2009 51 PWOct09careers 17/9/09 18:05 Page 52

Careers physicsworld.com

Once a physicist: Kathryn Jackson Careers and people Kathryn Jackson is senior technology is insufficient unless you can be vice president and chief articulate about its benefits to energy security and Simulation experts win Dirac Medal technology officer at environmental sustainability. Condensed-matter theorists Roberto Car Westinghouse Electric of Princeton University in the US and Company, a provider of fuel, How do you tackle that gap? Michele Parrinello of the Swiss Federal services, technology and I think there is a growing recognition that nuclear Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich) have equipment for the commercial energy should represent a significant portion of a won the 2009 Dirac Medal for their work nuclear-power industry, based low-carbon economy. Compared with the amount on numerical-simulation techniques. The in Pennsylvania, US of waste produced by a coal-fired plant, the pair began developing new methods of quantity that comes from a nuclear-energy facility modelling molecular dynamics in the Why did you choose to study physics? is very, very small. But the public perception of mid-1980s, using elements of density I find it fascinating to understand how things work, nuclear spent fuel is what matters. In terms of functional theory and Newtonian and physics provides a fundamental understanding articulating the relative risk involved in various molecular dynamics to calculate the of so many things by blending how they work with forms of energy production, I believe that the mechanical motion of atoms and the theory of why they work. The breadth of physics, nuclear industry needs to become much more molecules in real time. Now known as from optics to astrophysics, really appealed to me. effective. We need to be able to describe the the Car–Parrinello method, their My favourite class was optics. I could see optical technology in ways that decision-makers and the technique has become a standard tool in applications all around me and there were new public can understand. This is even more important computational physics and chemistry. The technologies becoming available, like low-cost in the discussions regarding climate change. award, which is announced each year on lasers, that had obvious implications for industry Renewables and energy efficiency are important, 8 August, Dirac’s birthday, carries a cash and society. Physics was not esoteric – you could but we need a baseload energy source that is prize of $5000 and is sponsored by the see how it would impact on people’s lives. reliable and carbon-free. Nuclear must be part of Abdus Salam International Centre for the solution. Theoretical Physics in Trieste, Italy. What did you do next? I actually started my career at Westinghouse, where What is the role for physicists in this debate? Chinese scientists unhappy in careers I worked on reactor-vessel radiation analysis for There is no-one better able to talk about this than Almost one-third of science and just less than five years. Then, in 1983, I earned a someone who understands the technology. My technology workers in China would like to Masters degree in engineering management and daughter is 16 and she is studying physics now, change careers, according to a survey of moved away from a solely technology-based focus. and some classmates started talking about nuclear 30 000 researchers, technicians and science I went back to academia and received my PhD in power. Some said it was terrible; my daughter teachers carried out by the China engineering and public policy from Carnegie Mellon asked why, and it was about Chernobyl. She Association for Science and Technology University in 1990. After this I started working at pointed out – because we have talked about this – (CAST). Only 49% of those surveyed said the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), which is a that Chernobyl could never happen in the light- they were satisfied with their jobs, and government-owned corporation in charge of things water reactors used in the US. The physics teacher more than half do not want their children like flood control and electricity generation in that was not aware of this. We have done our job badly to follow them into scientific research. area of the country. I came full circle when I if we cannot communicate to those who have an Study author Zhang Xiaomei cited low returned to Westinghouse in 2008. influence on the young people who are going to income, intense career pressure and a lack shoulder the problems that this generation leaves. of career prospects as reasons for the What sparked your interest in policy? Those of us who are fluent in technology need to be widespread dissatisfaction. Salaries for I had a fascinating experience at the beginning of armed with data that can provide a sound basis for roughly 32% of science and technology my graduate career, when one of my professors the trade-offs we need to make. workers are below China’s national said something to me like, “Once I get this average, while 8% work more than computer code perfect, I’m going to be rich What is your advice for physics students? 70 hours per week. China’s science and because everyone’s going to buy my product.” The most important thing I learned – and it took me technology sector employs 52 million And I thought, “Well, that doesn’t sound right to a long time to absorb it – is that the best technical people, of whom 25% hold a Masters or me.” As I began thinking about this, it became solution is not necessarily the one that gets PhD degree. apparent to me that the context of how we design implemented. You have to take business and technologies and incorporate them into products political realities into account, and this often results Movers and shakers makes such a difference to whether the technology in the implementation of a sub-optimal solution, String theorist Jaume Gomis of the is accepted. Having an elegant technology, while from a technical perspective. But if a technology Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics appealing to a physicist, is not sufficient to make gets used to solve problems, that is a win! So I in Ontario, Canada, has won an Early that technology useful. would advise physicists to recognize that their Researcher Award from the Ontario knowledge is incredibly valuable, but to temper their Ministry of Research and Innovation. The What drew you back to the nuclear industry? need for perfection. You can do absolutely anything C$150 000 award is aimed at helping As the nuclear-energy industry has developed over as a physicist, because you can not only understand scientists to build strong research groups the years, there has been a focus on lessons the technology, but also put it into context and ask early in their careers. learned and on improving designs to make the really pertinent questions. It is that questioning Five amateur astronomers have won plants safer, more reliable and more cost-effective. attitude that I think provides such value. the 2009 Edgar Wilson Award for But historically, the industry has not been very good discovering new comets. Robert Holmes of at communicating these improvements to the US, Koichi Itagaki of Japan, policymakers, so there is a gap between the Stanislav Matricic of Slovenia, Michel Ory technology’s realities and public perception. I think of Switzerland and Dae-am Yi of South we need people who understand the electric Korea will each receive a small cash prize industry – which I do thanks to my 17 years of To make the most of your physics degree, visit from the Smithsonian Astrophysical experience at the TVA – and who recognize that www.brightrecruits.com Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which administers the award.

52 Physics World October 2009 INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS AWARDS 2010 The Institute of Physics Awards Committee is now seeking For the Awards 2010 we are seeking nominations for the nominations for the Institute Awards 2010, and we need your following medals and prizes: help to nominate the most outstanding physicists in their respective fields. International medal Subject awards Isaac Newton medal. The following Subject awards The awards exist to recognise and reward outstanding are made in even-dated years achievements by physicists in their respective fields, working International bilateral awards only and so are sought for in industry, business or research. In 2008 the awards Born medal; Holweck medal; 2010: portfolio expanded, so we now have 27 medals that span all and Occhialini medal. Appleton medal; Franklin areas of modern physics as well as contributions made to medal; Gabor medal; Hoyle physics outreach, physics education, the application of Gold medals Business and Innovation medal; Rutherford medal; and physics and physics-based technologies. The Institute also Thomson medal. awards medals with other international societies, including medal; Dirac medal; the Occhialini medal, which is awarded jointly with the Italian Faraday medal; and The following Subject awards Physical Society. Glazebrook medal. are made in odd-dated years Education and outreach only and so will next be Closing date: 8 January 2010 awards awarded in 2011: Chadwick medal; Joule Full details of the awards, eligibility, terms of reference and Bragg medal and Kelvin medal. medal; Payne-Gaposchkin the nomination procedure are available on the website. Go to medal; Mott medal; Tabor www.iop.org and select Awards. Alternatively, contact the Early career awards medal; Rayleigh medal; and secretary to the Awards Committee (tel +44 (0)20 7470 Maxwell medal; Moseley Young medal. 4800; e-mail [email protected]). medal; and Paterson medal.

Even more Ultra-High-Vacuum Multi-CF The PDV Series Portable Dry Vacuum Pump Spherical Octagons And a Plethora of other ConFlat Fittings not seen before

10 / 2.75 Multi-CF Spherical Octagons

8 / 2.75 / 1.33

8 / 2.75

6 / 2.75

6 / 1.33

t
LPBE
MPDLT
BOE
TSBOTGFS
$IBNCFST t
LBCPSBUPrZ
#FODI
TPQ
VBDVVN 4.5 / 1.33 t
"OBMZUJDBM
*OTUSVNFOUT t
)FMJVN
LFBL
%FUFDUPST Booth t
#JPNFEJDBM
RFTFBSDI 311 2.75 / 1.33

Compact, Large Number of Ports Mate with Industry Standard ConFlats Expanded Port IDs, Large Volumes Groove Grabber Internal Mounting Technology Ebara Technologies, Inc. www.ebaratech.com Double Tapped-Hole Sets 51 Main Avenue, Sacramento CA 95838 Metric Available, Customs Encouraged (800) 535-5376 Phone (916) 925-6654 Fax [email protected]

[email protected] Wilton, NH USA 603-878-1616 www.KimballPhysics.com

PWOct09_p53.indd 1 21/9/09 15:20:26 Graduate Opportunities

Scottish Universities Physics Alliance Postgraduate Opportunities

Fifteen fully funded Prize PhD Studentships + over 100 other funded PhD places in physics in Scotland The Scottish Universities Physics Alliance (SUPA) is opens a single door into all physics PhDs in POST-DOCTORAL FELLOWSHIPS FOR NON-ITALIAN CITIZENS Scotland. When you apply for SUPA Prize PhD Studentship you will also be considered for all other funded places available in physics departments in Scotland. IN THE FOLLOWING RESEARCH AREAS

Major themes pursued by researchers in SUPA are: THEORETICAL PHYSICS (N. 15) • astronomy and space • particle physics EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS (N. 20) • condensed matter and material physics • photonics • nuclear and plasma physics • physics and life sciences The INFN Fellowship Programme 2009/2010 offers 35 (thirty five) positions for non-Italian citizens for research activity in theoretical (n. 15) or experimental physics (n. 20). UK and overseas students are invited to apply for fifteen fully funded SUPA studentships and more than 100 other funded PhD places in physics in Scotland for 2010. Fellowships are intended for young post-graduates who are under 35 years of age by November 15, 2009. Each fellowship, initially, is granted for one year and then maybe extended for a second year. The annual gross salary is EURO 28.000,00. Round-trip travel expenses from home country to the INFN Section or Laboratory will be re- SUPA Prize Studentships imbursed and lunch tickets will be provided for working days. SUPA is offering fifteen fully funded PhD studentships for outstanding students from both the UK Candidates should choose at least two of the following INFN sites, indicating their order of and overseas. These prestigious and competitive awards are intended to attract top students preference. from around the country and around the world to study for a PhD in Scotland. – INFN Laboratories: SUPA Prize Students are registered for a PhD in physics at one of the participating universities: Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati (Roma), Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso (LAquila), • University of Aberdeen • University of Glasgow Laboratori Nazionali de Legnaro (Padova), Laboratori Nazionali del Sud (Catania) • University of Dundee • University of St Andrews • University of Edinburgh • University of Strathclyde – INFN Sections in the universities of: • Heriot-Watt University • University of the West of Scotland Bari, Bologna, Cagliari, Catania, Ferrara, Firenze, Genova, Lecce, Milano, Milano Bicocca, Napoli, Padova, Pavia, Perugia, Pisa, Roma La Sapienza, Roma Tor Vergata, Roma Tre, The considerable physics expertise within Scotland is made available to PhD students through Torino, Trieste. the excellent training environment of the SUPA Graduate School, which uses: • video links between dedicated teaching rooms • tutorials and discussion classes The research programmes must be focused on the research fields of the Section or • computer mediated resources and tools • lectures by distinguished visitors Laboratory selected (http://www.infn.it). • practical activities (e.g., programming labs) • summer schools Applications, in electronic form, must be sent to INFN no later than November 15, 2009. • collaborations with major research facilities • knowledge transfer opportunities • entrepreneurship training To register, candidates must use the website http://www.ac.infn.it/personale/fellowships/ All physics PhDs in Scotland are considered SUPA Graduate School students and are eligible to attend offered trainings. The application form requires: Applications should be made at www.supa.ac.uk by 31 January 2010. • statement of research interests; • curriculum vitae: Further Funded PhD places in Scotland • three reference letters (specifying name, surname and e-mail of each referee). Applicants for the fifteen SUPA studentships will also be considered for the other physics stu- dentships available within Scotland. When you fill in the application form for the SUPA Prize PhD Theoretical fellowships must start from September to December 2010. Requests for starting Studentship, please indicate which of other 100 funded places are of interest to you. earlier accepted. Experimental fellowships must start no later than April 2010. Requests to participate accepted. ISTITUTO NAZIONALE DE FISICA NUCLEARE IL PRESIDENTE (Prof. Roberto Petronzio)

Untitled-10 1 18/9/09 11:19:03 PWOct09Cl INFN 15x2.indd 1 22/7/09 10:48:22

Lighting the way. Optoelectronics Research Centre The International Max Planck Research School (IMPRS) for Quantum Dynamics in PhD in Photonics Physics, Chemistry and Biology is a graduate school offering a doctoral degree program in these disciplines. The IMPRS is a joint initiative of the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics, Ruprecht-Karls University, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), the Max Planck Institute for Medical research (all in Heidelberg) and the Heavy Ion Research Center (GSI) in Darmstadt. Considering a career in lasers, optical communications, nanophotonics, Applications of students from all countries are welcome. To be eligible for PhD studies at the biophotonics, fibre optics, integrated optics, or sensors? University of Heidelberg, applicants should have a Master of Science degree (or equivalent). Come and work with some of the world’s leading photonics scientists in our International applicants whose mother-tongue is not English or German are advised to brand new state of the art facilities! provide a proof of English proficiency. Fully funded places are available for UK students including tuition fees and a tax-free bursary up to £18,000. Applications for this round must be received by October 15, 2009. Each applicant has to Fully funded places are also available for EU and International students; for initiate his/her application by registering online at http://www.mpi-hd.mpg.de/imprs-qd/ and details please visit our website. following the steps outlined there. In particular, applicants should not send any material until www.orc.soton.ac.uk/photonics_phd.html [email protected] they are encouraged to do so. 54 Physics World October 2009

7x2 Oct09 advert.indd 1 3/9/09 13:39:01 OctoberClassified.indd 54 22/9/09 09:09:38 

 


Problem - Overcoming technical challenges to deliver renewable energy projects of outstanding quality.

Solution - You. We’re looking for creative thinking physicists to join our technical team and help drive RES forward. Be part of the next generation of innovators. Join us now.

3NÖMCNTS@ANTSNTQU@B@MBHDR@MCHMSDQMRGHOROKD@RDUHRHS www.res-group.com

QueenUntitled-11 Mary, 1 University of London 18/9/09 11:24:17 Research at the Physics Department is widely recognised for its world-leading international excellence. We are offering up to ten studentships to high calibre graduates keen to School of Computing Engineering & participate in research in the following fields: experimental particle physics, string theory, and condensed matter physics. Physical Sciences Masters of Science degrees in: s !GILE3OFTWARE0ROJECTS s "IOINFORMATICS s #OMPUTING s $ATABASE3YSTEMS s $IGITAL3IGNALAND)MAGE0ROCESSING s (IGH0ERFORMANCE#OMPUTING s -ULTIMEDIA#OMPUTING s .ETWORK#OMPUTING

Research degrees in: s !STROPHYSICS s "IOINFORMATICS Applicants for the PhD studentships should have, or expect to obtain a good honours s #HILD COMPUTERINTERACTION degree in Physics, Astrophysics, Materials Science or Engineering. The studentships s #OMPUTATIONALPHYSICS are for a period of 3 years and in come cases may be extended to 4 years. s .UCLEARTECHNOLOGY s 3OFTMATTERPHYSICS For more details visit our web site at s $IGITAL3IGNALAND)MAGE0ROCESSING www.ph.qmul.ac.uk/ s 7INDENERGY Available for 2010 start – some positions are funded – details generally available in the New Year www.uclan.ac.uk/ceps

Physics World October 2009 55

PWOct09ClUCLAN 13x2.indd 1 21/9/09 08:53:06

OctoberClassified.indd 55 22/9/09 09:09:52 Master of Research (MRes) in Medical technology By On-line Study

The Master of Research (MRes) in Medical technology is a new one year Full-time or two years part-time degree for those involved in the medical and medical technology sectors. The degree is undertaken on- line and will offer training in research in this increasingly important area. The degree will equip students with the basic knowledge and training in medical technology research, and will enable them to apply this knowledge in their own research project. The research is undertaken in the workplace with full supervision from Strathclyde University staff, supported by local supervisors. This course is targeted at doctors, scientists and engineers engaged in the delivery, design and manufacture of medical technologies. This course will appeal directly to medical doctors, surgeons, nurses, other allied healthcare professionals, those involved in the life sciences, design engineers and product engineers. For further detailed information, please contact the course director, Professor Terry Gourlay either by email [email protected] or by telephone +44 141 548 2005.

National Graduate Recruitment Exhibition PWOct09 Strathclyde.indd 1 21/9/09 11:05:37 30 & 31 October 2009 – Hall 11, NEC, Birmingham School of Physics and Astronomy Faculty of Mathematics and Physical Sciences MSc in Quantum

s&2%%ENTRY Technologies Gain an understanding of the fundamental theories behind different quantum s#6#LINIC technologies and the principles and implementations of quantum information processing s!DVICE#LINIC systems at one of the UK’s foremost, research led Physics departments. s-OCK!SSESSMENT#ENTRE
Quantum Information Science
Quantum Optics s#AREERPRESENTATIONS
Advanced Quantum Computation † s#OMPANYPRESENTATIONS
Spintronics s)NTERVIEW#LINIC s3UBSIDISEDTRANSPORT* †3PONSOREDBY QT

For further information on this course and the range of study opportunities available in the School of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Leeds please call 0113 343 3860 or visit the School website at: 3UPPORTEDBY 3PONSOREDBY )NASSOCIATIONWITHTHECAREERSSERVICESOF www.physics.leeds.ac.uk

56 Physics World October 2009

Untitled-14 1 21/9/09 13:53:06

OctoberClassified.indd 56 22/9/09 09:10:09 National Graduate Recruitment Exhibition 9 & 10 October 2009 – Olympia 2, London

s&2%%ENTRY

s#6#LINIC

s)NTERVIEW#LINIC

s!DVICE#LINIC

s-OCK!SSESSMENT#ENTRE

s4RADING0IT

s#OMPANYPRESENTATIONS

s3UBSIDISEDTRANSPORT*

3UPPORTEDBY 3PONSOREDBY

EdhiYdXidgVaGZhZVgX]^cBZY^XVa>bV\^c\>chigjbZciVi^dc MSc Courses in Physics A>E"AVWdgVidgn[dg>chigjbZciVi^dcVcY:meZg^bZciVaEVgi^XaZE]nh^Xh!A^hWdc A>E"A^hWdclll#a^e#ei^ck^iZhVeea^XVi^dch[gdbdjihiVcY^c\XVcY^YViZh[dgV Doctoral Training Centres edhiYdXidgVagZhZVgX]Zgedh^i^dc^cBZY^XVa>bV\^c\>chigjbZciVi^dc# The Physics Department leads three Doctoral Training I]ZXVcY^YViZhl^aaWZZc\V\ZY^cVG9egd\gVb[dgi]ZYZkZadebZcid[ Centres, offering stand alone one year Masters courses bZY^XVa^bV\^c\iZX]cdad\^Zh#6E:IhXVccZg[dgWgZVhiXVcXZgYZiZXi^dcl^i] and four year Masters + PhD training: ]^\]"gZhdaji^dcWVhZYdchX^ci^aaVi^c\XgnhiVahVcYVkVaVcX]Ze]didY^dYZhlVh YZkZadeZYVcY^hegZhZcian^cXa^c^XVaZkVajVi^dc#6hXVccZgXdbW^c^c\E:I MRes in Plastic Electronic Materials; VcYjaigVhdjcY^bV\^c\^hWZ^c\YZkZadeZY^cXdaaVWdgVi^dcl^i]i]Z:jgdeZVc MRes in Controlled Quantum Dynamics; 8ZciZg[dgBZY^XVa>bV\^c\8:G>B:9VcY8:GC#I]ZE:IYZkZadebZcihVgZ MSc in Theory and Simulation of Materials. YdcZWnVhX^Zci^ÒXXdchdgi^jbaZYWnA>E^cXdaaVWdgVi^dcl^i]i]ZXdbeVcn E:Ihnh# Plus Masters courses in: I]ZVeed^cibZci^h[dgdcZnZVggZcZlVWaZVccjVaan[dgVeZg^dYd[jeidh^m MSc in Physics; nZVgh#HZaZXiZYXVcY^YViZhl^aa]VkZi]Zedhh^W^a^inidVeeaniddcZd[i]ZA>E MSc in Quantum Fields and Fundamental Forces; gZhZVgX]hiV[[edh^i^dchidWZdeZcZY^ci]Z[dgi]Xdb^c\[jijgZ# MSc in Optics and Photonics (The MSc is also a partner FjVa^ÒXVi^dch gZfj^gZY ^cXajYZ V E]9 VcY V XaZVg YZbdchigVi^dc d[ i]Z in the Erasmus Mundus Masters “Optics in Science and VW^a^inidXVggndjiVgZhZVgX]egd\gVb#:meZg^ZcXZYgZhZVgX]Zgh^cbZY^XVadg Technology”); eVgi^XaZe]nh^XhYZiZXidghVgZegZ[ZggZY# MRes in Photonics. 6eea^XVi^dch^cXajY^c\V8KVcYbdi^kVi^dcaZiiZgh]djaYWZhZciidHVcYgV 9^VhhVcYgV5a^e#ei!A>E!6k#:a^Vh

Physics World October 2009 57

PWOct09Cl LISBON.indd 1 21/9/09 11:42:19

OctoberClassified.indd 57 22/9/09 09:10:34 Relaunched and repackaged Designed with feedback from users of the site, the new-look physicsworld.com has been created to help you get the most from the site – whatever your information needs are. Tune in to the new multimedia channel for must-see video interviews – the first one features the director-general of CERN.

Rolf-Dieter Heuer confirms November switch-on for the Large Hadron Collider and discusses plans for the lab's future. Watch the video today, at physicsworld.com.

58 Physics World October 2009

OctoberClassified.indd 58 22/9/09 09:10:47 physicsworld.com Recruitment Advertising Tel +44 (0)117 930 1264 www.brightrecruits.com Physics World Fax +44 (0)117 930 1178 IOP Publishing E-mail [email protected] Recruitment Dirac House, Temple Back Bristol BS1 6BE

The place for physicists and engineers to find Jobs, Studentships, Courses, Calls for Proposals and Announcements

The Cyprus Institute (www.cyi.ac.cy) is a novel, non-profit research and Computing Support Specialists for the Computation-based educational institution, with a scientific and technological orientation, Science and Technology Research Center (CaSToRC) - pursuing issues of regional importance and of global significance in CaSToRC-09-04 the Eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East and North Africa. The We have two Computing Support Specialist positions available. These development of CyI involves the progressive launching of several cross- positions will provide computational expertise and technical support disciplinary research centers. CaSToRC is being jointly developed with for the development of high performance computing facilities, data the University of Illinois and its National Center for Supercomputing repositories and web and video collaboration services. Applications and is intended to serve as an important research resource Required Education and Experience: for CyI, Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean region, and as a gateway • BS degree (MS degree preferred) in a computer science, natural between the EU and the region for advancing computational science, science, or engineering field required. Alternative degree fields will engineering and technology. be considered if accompanied by equivalent experience (depending on nature and depth of experience as it relates to the current project). • At least 2 years of experience with at least two of the above mentioned Research Associate for Software Development for the areas. Computation-based Science and Technology Research In addition, for a Systems Administrator role, successful candidates will Center (CaSToRC) - CaSToRC-09-02 need to have: We are seeking a highly motivated Research Associate to participate • At least 2 years of experience in Unix Systems Administration in the development of software applications including interactive web • At least 2 years of experience in the hardware maintenance of applications and online databases within the Atlantis European/US computer systems project entitled “Building a cyber-Platform for the support of High • Strong knowledge of computer systems and programming with at Performance computing higher education”. The project is coordinated least 2 years of programming experience with one or more of the by the Cyprus Institute and has as partners NCSA of the University of following: C, C++, Fortran. Illinois, Penn State University, the Jülich Supercomputing Center, the German Research School and the University of Wuppertal. Computational Scientist to work in atmospheric and climate Required Education and Experience: modelling Computation-based Science and Technology • MS degree in a computer/computational science, natural science, Research Center (CaSToRC) - CaSToRC-09-05 or engineering field required. Alternative degree fields will be We are seeking an outstanding computational scientist to participate in considered if accompanied by equivalent experience (depending on the development of software and algorithms for atmospheric and climate nature and depth of experience as it relates to the current project). modeling. The successful candidate will work with the research group of • At least 2 years of experience in development, modification, Prof. Jos Lelieveld that pioneers research in Climate Change. S/he will maintenance, porting and administration of web-based applications; be engaged in projects involving challenging algorithmic problems and UNIX and/or LINUX and programming with one or more of the analysis techniques for large complex data sets. following: C, C++, Fortran. Required Education and Experience: • The candidate must have a Ph.D. in physics, computer science, or related scientific discipline. Experience with numerical methods, Project Manager for the Computation-based Science and parallel algorithms, software development for High Performance Technology Research Center (CaSToRC) - CaSToRC-09-03 • Computer systems and strong programming skills are required. We are seeking a Project Manager to take responsibility of the Experience in climate modeling is a plus but it is not required. management of its research and educational projects. Most of these projects are funded from the European Union, from NSF, US and from For further information, the full job descriptions and salary details the Cyprus Research Promotion Foundation (RPF). please contact [email protected]. The successful candidate will work with Prof. C. Alexandrou, who chairs the Interim Governing Board of CaSToRC, to oversee and coordinate For full consideration, interested applicants should send a CV, a sample the planning of the various projects, monitor the progress, design and of their work and the names of three contactable referees by e-mail to implement appropriate tracking procedures including enabling software [email protected] by the following dates: and administer the financial and budgetary aspects. These projects involve partners from Europe, the US and the Eastern Mediterranean CaSToRC-09-02 - 10th Oct 2009 CaSToRC-09-03 - 30th Oct 2009 and the successful candidate is expected to work with their respective CaSToRC-09-04 - 30th Nov 2009 CaSToRC-09-05 - 30th Nov 2009 administrations for the optimal implementation of the projects. Recruitment will continue until the positions are filled.

Physics World October 2009 59 PWOct09ClCyprus22x4.indd 1 21/9/09 10:45:34

OctoberClassified.indd 59 22/9/09 09:10:58 Project3 19/3/07 10:59 Page 1

 Euro 
 
  
 pean Synchrotron Radiation Facility The European Light Source 
  
   SHAPING PHYSICS IN THE NEW CENTURY Executive Director 'JYFEUFSN
VOUJM

+VMZ

r
$PNQFUJUJWF
4BMBSZ SEPnet is a consortium of six partner Physics Departments at the Universities of Kent, Queen Mary, Royal Holloway, Southampton, Surrey and Sussex, working together with the common objective of advancing and protecting Physics as a strategically important subject in the UK. The consortium is governed by a board of senior representatives from the partner universities, with a part-time independent Chair, Professor, Sir William Wakeham. The Chair will represent the consortium in dealing with HEFCE, Research Councils, education authorities and regional organisations such as SEEDA and &!!

!" &

!

GOSE at a strategic level. 
 "

$ "
Responsible for executive management of the SEPnet consortium, you !
# 

" !
!

will play a major part in implementing the agenda for the development #
.+)* (
1(#+)-+)(
 $-$)(
$&$-1
of Physics in the six HEIs, in the region and nationally; liaise at national 
$,
.+)* ,
'),-
*)/ +!.&
&$"#-
,).+ 
#
and international level with the principal stakeholders; and take the 
)!! +,
1).
(
0$-$("
)**)+-.($-1
-)
/)+%
lead in allocating the consortium’s discretionary resources to achieve /$-#
$(- +(-$)(&
- ',
.,$("
,1(#+)-+)(
&$"#-
$( its goals. Responsible to Professor, Sir William Wakeham, you will + ()& 
$(
-#
# +-
)!
-#
+ (#
&*, co-ordinate the steering groups which will manage the operations $

 
"
#
$!
"
of the partnership, and also be responsible for the work of the non- academic staff holding posts to carry out joint functions for SEPnet %%%! # ! including outreach and employer engagement.  ""
#!
"
 #""! # Essentially you will be educated to higher degree level in a physical "!"!

 !"

 "  !"

  
 %!

 !"#"!

  !


!

!" "$
!" science and be experienced in holding budgetary responsibility.

Located at one of the campuses of the six partner Universities or at  
  
  
  


 
+ ()&
 0

 the Science and Innovation Campus at Harwell, you will be expected  &




/// ,+! . to travel frequently to London, the six partner universities and other organisations relevant to SEPnet activities. For informal discussion, please contact Professor Robert Allison, Pro-Vice-Chancellor, University of Sussex: [email protected] or +44 (0) 1273 678212; or Professor Steve Williamson, Deputy Vice Chancellor, University of Surrey: [email protected] or +44 (0) 1483 689864. For further particulars and application details, please contact: Karen Chessman, Deputy Director Human Resources, University of Surrey: [email protected] Faculty Position in Theoretical Condensed or +44 (0) 1483 689159 quoting Ref: 7235. Closing date: 9 October 2009. Interviews: 22 October 2009. Matter Physics, Rice University We acknowledge, understand and embrace diversity The Department of Physics and Astronomy at Rice University invites applications for at least one tenure-track faculty position XXXTFQOFUBDVLTFQOFUDBSFFSTQIQ in theoretical condensed matter physics. This search is expected to be at the Assistant Professor level, but consideration of an appointment at a more senior level may be made in exceptional cases. The position has an emphasis on fundamental theory, and will complement and extend existing theoretical and experimental activities in condensed matter physics (for information on these, see http://physics.rice.edu/). Applicants should send a dossier that POST-DOCTORAL FELLOWSHIP or RESEARCH ASSOCIATE includes a curriculum vitae, statements of research and teaching in Condensed Matter Physics interests, a list of publications, and two or three selected reprints, Physics Department : University of Johannesburg, and arrange for at least three letters of recommendation to be sent Auckland Park Campus, South Africa to: Prof. Q. Si, Chair, Condensed Matter Search Committee, Dept. A contractual position is available for up to 5 years to a skilled and motivated of Physics and Astronomy – MS 61, Rice University, 6100 Main experimental researcher in the physics of strongly correlated electrons, rare-earth magnetism, or thermoelectric properties of correlated systems. A completed Doctorate Street, Houston, TX 77005, or by email to [email protected] with in experimental physics is required. Ample opportunities exist for initiating new projects, subject line “CMT Search”. Applications will be accepted until the as well as to participate in established projects of the students and members of our position is filled, but only those received by November 15, 2009 group. Facilities available include argon-arc, induction, and tubular synthesis furnaces, and a variety of materials characterization methods. Measurements capabilities within the group will be assured full consideration. The appointment is expected to include a broad range of physical properties such as electronic and thermal transport, start in July, 2010. Rice University is an affirmative action/equal specific heat, and SQUID-magnetometry. opportunity employer; women and underrepresented minorities Date of commencement: As soon as possible. are strongly encouraged to apply. Contact: Prof A. M. Strydom, [email protected], Phone: +27-11-559-2320, Fax: +27-11-559-2339. 60 Physics World October 2009

PWSep09 UnivJohanessb 7x2.indd 1 20/8/09RICE advert.indd 13:49:07 1 22/9/09 08:49:25 OctoberClassified.indd 60 22/9/09 09:11:13 8JUI
B
TUBGG
PG

XF
BSF
POF
PG
UIF
MBSHFTU
JOUFSEJTDJQMJOBSZ
SFTFBSDI
DFOUSFT
JO
&VSPQF
BOE
BSF
BMTP
B
NFNCFS
PG
UIF
)FMNIPMU[
"TTPDJB UJPO
PG
(FSNBO
/BUJPOBM
3FTFBSDI
$FOUSFT
8F
XPSL
JO
UIF
¾FMET
PG
²)FBMUI³
²&OFSHZ
BOE
UIF
&OWJSPO Faculty of Engineering & Physical Sciences NFOU³
BOE
²*OGPSNBUJPO³
5P
BTTJTU
VT
XF
IBWF
UPQDMBTT
TVQFSDPNQV Department of Physics UFST
BU
PVS
EJTQPTBM

Senior Lecturer/Reader in 'PS
UIF
PVUQPTU
PG
PVS
*OTUJUVUF
PG
4PMJE
4UBUF
3FTFBSDI
*''
BU
UIF
4QBMMBUJPO
Theoretical Nuclear Physics /FVUSPO
4PVSDF
4/4
JO
0BL
3JEHF
XF
BSF
TFFLJOH
B Up to £55,259 per annum 1):4*$*45
1I% (subject to experience and qualifications) BT
TFDPOE
JOTUSVNFOU
SFTQPOTJCMF
BU
UIF
CBDL
The Centre for Nuclear and Radiation Physics (CNRP) in the Department of Physics brings together researchers in fundamental TDBUUFSJOH
JOTUSVNFOU
#"4*4
PQFSBUJOH
BU
UIF
4/4 nuclear physics, radiation imaging, detector and medical physics. 5BTLT As part of its continued growth, the Centre aims to strengthen its )JT)FS
EVUJFT
XJMM
SFMBUF
UP
VTFS
TFSWJDF
UIF
PQUJNJ[BUJPO
PG
BMM
JOTUSVNFOU
QBSB theoretical nuclear physics activity by the appointment of a member NFUFST
UIF
GVSUIFS
UFDIOJDBM
EFWFMPQNFOU
PG
UIF
JOTUSVNFOU
UIF
JNQMFNFOUBUJPO
PG
of the academic staff with interests and experience in the areas of TPGUXBSF
GPS
EBUB
BOBMZTJT
FUD
5IF
QPTJUJPO
SFMBUFT
UP
UIF
DPPQFSBUJPO
CFUXFFO
UIF
nuclear reactions, nuclear structure and the interface between them. 'PSTDIVOHT[FOUSVN
+MJDI
BOE
UIF
4/4 We seek to enhance our research activity in the study of exotic 3FRVJSFNFOUT
nuclei and astrophysically-important nuclear systems. JOUFSFTU
JO
TDJFOUJ¾D
BOE
UFDIOJDBM
QSPCMFNT
BCJMJUZ
UP
DPPQFSBUF
XJUI
SFTFBSDIFST
You should have a proven track record of research in theoretical GSPN
+MJDI
BOE
PUIFS
VTFST
NPCJMJUZ
FYQFSJFODF
JO
TDBUUFSJOH
BOE
DPOEFOTFE
nuclear physics, and will be able to demonstrate leadership of NBUUFS
TDJFODF
4DJFOUJ¾DBMMZ
UIF
TVDDFTTGVM
BQQMJDBOU
TIPVME
QBSUJDJQBUF
JO
UIF
TPGU
NBUUFS
SFTFBSDI
QSPHSBN
PG
UIF
'PSTDIVOHT[FOUSVN
+MJDI theoretical developments of nuclear dynamical, reaction and structure techniques and their topical applications. 8PSLJOH
QMBDF
0BL
3JEHF
5FOOFTTFF
64" Informal enquiries may be made to Professor Jeff Tostevin, 5IF
QPTJUJPO
JT
JOJUJBMMZ
GPS
B
¾YFE
UFSN
PG
UISFF
ZFBST [email protected] On application for the position, you should 4BMBSZ
BOE
TPDJBM
CFOF¾UT
XJMM
DPOGPSN
UP
UIF
QSPWJTJPOT
PG
UIF
$PMMFDUJWF
"HSFF include a CV and also a two-page outline research grant proposal, NFOU

GPS
UIF
(FSNBO
$JWJM
4FSWJDF
57z%  suitable, for example, for submission to the UK Science and 'PSTDIVOHT[FOUSVN
+MJDI
JT
BO
FRVBM
PQQPSUVOJUJFT
FNQMPZFS
5IJT
JT
B
DPSOFSTUPOF
Technology Facilities Council (STFC). PG
PVS
TUBGG
QPMJDZ
GPS
XIJDI
XF
IBWF
SFDFJWFE
UIF
Ã505"-
&26"-*5:²
"XBSE
"QQMJDBUJPOT
GSPN
XPNFO
BSF
UIFSFGPSF
QBSUJDVMBSMZ
XFMDPNF
8F
BMTP
XFMDPNF
For an application pack or to apply on-line please go to BQQMJDBUJPOT
GSPN
EJTBCMFE
QFSTPOT www.surrey.ac.uk/jobs If you are unable to apply on-line please contact Mrs Claire Trussler on Tel: +44 (0) 1483 686126 *OUFSFTUFE
DBOEJEBUFT
BSF
JOWJUFE
UP
BQQMZ
JO
XSJUJOH
JODMVEJOH
B
MFUUFS
PG
BQQMJDBUJPO
or email: [email protected] quoting post ref: 7230. $7
BOE
DPQJFT
PG
BMM
SFMFWBOU
BDBEFNJD
BOE
PUIFS
DFSUJ¾DBUFT 1MFBTF
TVCNJU
ZPVS
BQQMJDBUJPO
XJUI
UIF
SFGFSFODF
OVNCFS
18
UP Closing date for applications: 30 October 2009. 'PSTDIVOHT[FOUSVN
+MJDI
(NC) We acknowledge, embrace and understand diversity (FTDIjGUTCFSFJDI
1FSTPOBM
DPOUBDU 
1FSTPOBMFOUXJDLMVOH
 .ST
8JFEFS 
+MJDI QIPOF


 www.surrey.ac.uk/jobs (FSNBOZ XXXG[KVFMJDIEF

Nominations for Editor in Chief of EPL Nominations are requested for the Editor in Chief of EPL, a letters journal owned and published by a consortium of national physical societies. The Editor in Chief (EiC) needs to be a recognised authority and leading researcher in a field of physics, and have a broad knowledge and interest in physics and its frontiers. The EiC will need to demonstrate strong commitment and leadership to develop further EPL into a top-ranking journal. To this end, a proven ability to interact with senior scientists is required. Experience with the editorial process for a physics journal is also essential. The EiC will play a key role in making EPL a leading global physics letters journal with high impact and high visibility that publishes high-quality articles across all of physics. The term of office of EPL Editor in Chief is three and a half years. A job description is available at https://www.epletters.net. Nominations may be made by the individual concerned, or by third parties not later than 15 November 2009. Nominations should include a CV, publication list and a brief covering letter explaining their interest and qualifications for the post of the person being nominated. Nominations should be sent to the chair of the selection committee care of the EPL Editorial Office (editorial.offi[email protected]).

Physics World October 2009 61 PWSep09EPL 13x4.indd 1 21/9/09 15:00:39

OctoberClassified.indd 61 22/9/09 09:11:26 Quantum Optics and Laser Science Research Group, Department of Physics Thermo Fisher Scientific is the world leader in serving science, South Kensington Campus enabling our customers to make the world healthier, cleaner and safer. With annual revenues of $10.5 billion, we have more than Chair in Theoretical Quantum Optics/ 34,000 employees and serve over 350,000 customers. We have a new opportunity within our Trace Elemental Analysis Quantum Information Science group located in Cambridge. (Ref: NS2009140NT) Senior Technologist/Physicist You will be responsible for designing and developing the next Minimum starting salary £66,150 p.a. generation of combustion elemental analysers for use in the environmental and petrochemical industries. You will be the Applications are invited for a Chair in Theoretical lead technologist/physicist in a multidisciplinary team, and Quantum Optics/Quantum Information Science. The post be responsible for the development of combustion elemental is available from 1st January 2010 and is based in the Quantum Optics and Laser Science (QOLS) Group of analysis techniques and their implementation in market leading the Department of Physics. instruments. This role demands highly developed problem solving skills, combined with the ability to work in a hands-on manner to We are seeking to appoint an outstanding Theoretical successfully demonstrate solutions. Physicist with an international reputation for research and innovation in theoretical quantum optics, quantum To be successful in this role you will have an excellent first degree information science or related subjects. In addition you in physics, engineering or a physical chemistry discipline, although will have an excellent publications record, an established a PhD with a high level of practical experience would be desirable. track record in attracting research funding and proven You will need to be able to demonstrate proven technical skills leadership and management of research teams. You will also be expected to have extensive experience in including design of analytical instrumentation and apply physical postgraduate training and undergraduate teaching. and statistical principles to engineering design and problem solving. You will hold a good honours degree and a doctorate (or equivalent) in a relevant subject area. You will be To find out more information about this new opportunity and to expected to take a major part in the management and apply for the position please visit www.thermofisher.com/careers. delivery of the new EPSRC-funded Doctoral Training Centre in Controlled Quantum Dynamics. You will also have the opportunity to play a major role in the Quantum Thermo Fisher Scientific is an Equal Employment Opportunity and Information Programme at the Institute for Mathematical Affirmative Action Employer Sciences at Imperial College London.

The level of the appointment will be subject to qualifications and experience, but will be at the Imperial College London professorial level (minimum salary PWOct09Cl ThermoFisher13x2.indd 1 15/9/09 14:36:30 £66,150 p.a.).

Informal enquiries are welcomed and should be directed to the Head of the QOLS Research Group, Professor Richard Thompson (Tel: 0207 594 3606, email: 0ROFESSOROF-ATHEMATICAL0HYSICS [email protected]). !SSISTANT0ROFESSOR4ENURE4RACK Our preferred method of application is online via our OF-ATHEMATICAL0HYSICS website http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/employment (please select “Job Search” then enter the job title or vacancy 4HE $EPARTMENT OF 0HYSICS OF %4( :URICH WWWPHYSETHZCH reference number: NS2009140NT into “Keywords”). INVITES APPLICATIONS FOR A 0ROFESSORSHIP  !SSISTANT 0ROFESSORSHIP Please complete and upload an application form as 4ENURE4RACK IN-ATHEMATICAL0HYSICS directed. 4HE $EPARTMENT OFFERS A STIMULATING ENVIRONMENT IN MATHEMATICAL Alternatively, if you are unable to apply online or have THEORETICAL ANDCOMPUTATIONALPHYSICS ASWELLASINEXPERIMENTALHIGH any queries about the application process please contact ENERGY PHYSICS CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS QUANTUM OPTICS ASTROPHY Maria Monteiro (Tel: 00 44 (0)207 594 5498, SICS AND NEUROINFORMATICS &URTHERMORE %4( :URICH HAS A THRIVING [email protected]). $EPARTMENTOF-ATHEMATICS

Closing date: Wednesday 28th October 2009. 4HE SUCCESSFUL CANDIDATE SHOULD SUSTAIN A STRONG RESEARCH PROGRAM IN SOME AREA OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS FOR EXAMPLE IN THE CONTEXT OF Committed to equality and valuing diversity. We are an STATISTICAL PHYSICS MANY BODY THEORY QUANTUM FIELD THEORY OR STRING Athena Silver SWAN Award winner and a Stonewall THEORY4EACHINGDUTIESINVOLVETHETHEORETICALPHYSICSCURRICULUMATTHE Diversity Champion. The Department of Physics is also UNDERGRADUATELEVELANDADVANCEDCOURSESINTHE-ASTER´SPROGRAM4HE an IoP Juno Supporter. NEW PROFESSOR WILL BE EXPECTED TO TEACH UNDERGRADUATE LEVEL COURSES 'ERMAN ANDGRADUATELEVELCOURSES%NGLISH  !SSISTANTPROFESSORSHIPSHAVEBEENESTABLISHEDTOPROMOTETHECAREERS OFYOUNGERSCIENTISTS4HEINITIALAPPOINTMENTISFORFOURYEARSWITHTHE POSSIBILITYOFRENEWALFORANADDITIONALTWO YEARPERIODANDPROMOTION Job Number: Looking 000993 to TO A PERMANENT POSITION %4( :URICH OFFERS SUBSTANTIAL SUPPORT ASSO CIATEDWITHTHISAPPOINTMENT Looking to recruit? Size: recruit?220x94 0LEASESUBMITYOURAPPLICATIONTOGETHERWITHACURRICULUMVITAE ALISTOF Target the best-quality candidates with Client: Target theIm pbest-qualityerial candidates PUBLICATIONS ANDABRIEFSTATEMENTOFPRESENTANDFUTURERESEARCHINTER AdsFab with Physics World and ESTSTOTHE0RESIDENTOF%4(:URICH 0ROF$R2ALPH%ICHLER %4(:URICH Physics World and brightrecruits. Publication & Dabrightrecruitste:PW 1-1. 0-09 2AEMISTRASSE :URICH 3WITZERLAND NOLATERTHAN$ECEMBER Telephone: 7ITHAVIEWTOWARDINCREASINGTHENUMBEROFFEMALEPROFESSORS Contact Chris Thomas for more information: 024 76 573888 Date: e-mail [email protected]/9/2009 . %4(:URICHSPECIFICALLYENCOURAGESQUALIFIEDFEMALECANDIDATESTOAPPLY tel +44 (0) 0117 930 1264; Fax: Account Handler: Donna 06224 76 573999 Physics World October 2009 e-mail [email protected]. Operator: IKE Visit our new Web Site: www.adsfab.com OctoberClassified.indd 62 22/9/09 09:11:40 Faculty Position in Solar Physics, Rice University Faculty of Engineering & Physical Sciences Advanced Technology Institute Department of Physics and Astronomy The Department of Physics and Astronomy at Rice University Lectureship in Chemical expects to have a tenure-track junior faculty position available in Synthesis of Functional Solar Physics starting July 1, 2010 and invites applications from all qualified applicants. The successful candidate’s research program Nanomaterials should complement current research in solar physics and related fields Up to £43,622 per annum at Rice, particularly in the areas of space physics and astrophysics (subject to experience and qualifications) (see physics.rice.edu for information on current research programs). The Advanced Technology Institute (ATI) is a multi-disciplinary The successful candidate is expected to participate actively and institute that focuses on functional materials and devices. effectively in teaching at the undergraduate and graduate levels, have The Photonics Group is devoted to the experimental investigation a strong record of published research, obtain external funding, and of the physics of interactions between light and matter in novel structures and materials, and the control of these interactions develop a nationally recognized research program. Applicants should for useful optoelectronics. Areas of interest currently include send a dossier that includes a curriculum vitae, a brief description of femtosecond spectroscopy, semiconductor lasers, spintronics, proposed research and teaching interests, a list of publications, and waveguides, meta-materials, optical sensors, and organic solar cells. arrange for at least three letters of recommendation to be sent to David You should have a strong track record of synthesis or growth Alexander, Chair, Faculty Search Committee, c/o Valerie Call, Dept. of nanomaterials and have an interest in their applications in of Physics and AstronomyFor – MS the 61, Ricebest University, careers 6100 Main photonics. The ATI housesFor athe sophisticated best suitecareers of physical in chemistry physics Street, Houston, TX 77005 or by email to [email protected] with subject and chemical physicsvisit tools brightrecruits complementing – the the new cleanrooms, jobs website optical from line “Solar Physics”. Applicationsin physics will be accepted until the position and electrical facilities,IOP so Publishing. the post would www.brightrecruits.com suit someone with is filled, but only those received by December 9, 2009 will be assured interests in surfaces. of full consideration. Ricevisit University brightrecruits is an affirmative – the newaction/equal jobs The position is integral to the recently formed South-East Physics opportunity employer; womenwebsite and underrepresentedfrom IOP Publishing. minorities are Network (SEPnet), a regional alliance of universities in the southeast of England. You will be able to benefit from a range of regional strongly encouraged to apply. www.brightrecruits.com opportunities and be expected to foster research collaborations with partner universities. Informal enquiries may be made to Professor Ben Murdin by e-mail: [email protected]

RICE advert 2.indd 1 22/9/09 08:55:36 On application for the post, please include a CV and a For the best careers Fortwo-page theoutline for abest research grant proposal,careers suitable for submission to a UK Research Council. For an application pack or to apply on-line please go to www.surrey.ac.uk/jobs in physics inIf you physics are unable to apply on-line please contact Miss Stacey Michaelides on Tel: +44 (0) 1483 686106 or email: [email protected] quoting Ref: 7243. Closing date: 30 October 2009. We acknowledge, understand and embrace diversity www.surrey.ac.uk/jobs

Condensed Matter and Statistical Physics Section (CMSP Section) tel.: +39-040-2240540, fax: +39-040-2240354 or 224163, e-mail: [email protected] http://www.ictp.it/pages/research/cmsp.html THEORETICAL CONDENSED MATTER AND STATISTICAL PHYSICS (CM&SP) POST-DOCTORAL POSITIONS AT THE ABDUS SALAM INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR THEORETICAL PHYSICS (ICTP) (ACADEMIC YEAR 2010-2011) Thevisit current research brightrecruits areas of the ICTP CMSP Section include – the strongly correlatednew electron jobs systems, disordered and mesoscopic systems, ab-initio electronic structure studies, quantum liquids and solids, surface physics, friction, theoretical nanoscience, statistical physics and related interdisciplinary areas, including glassy systems, soft matter, theorywebsite of computation, physics from of adaptive IOPsystems and Publishing. biophysics. A limited number of post-doctoral positions for young CM&SP theoreticians will be available starting Fall 2010. Appointments will be made for two years, with the possibility of renewal for one more year. visit brightrecruits – the new jobs Applicantswww.brightrecruits.com should be no more than 35 years of age at the time of application and should have obtained their Ph.D. after 2005. Applications, including a detailed curriculum vitae (indicating date of birth, nationality, family status, dependents), list of publications and at least three letters of recommendation (sent separately), should be clearly website from IOP Publishing. addressed and sent hard copy to: ICTP Secretary, CMSP Section (Ref. postdoc 10/11) www.brightrecruits.com Strada Costiera 11, I-34014 Trieste, Italy Please note e-mail applications/recommendation letters are NOT accepted. DeadlineFor for receipt of theapplications: 1st Decemberbest 2009. careers Physics World October 2009 in physics 63 ad.indd 1 21/9/09 13:16:08

OctoberClassified.indd 63 22/9/09 09:11:54

visit brightrecruits – the new jobs website from IOP Publishing. www.brightrecruits.com PWOct09lateral 15/9/09 16:29 Page 64

Lateral Thoughts: Cormac O’Raifeartaigh physicsworld.com E is for energy

“Energy, power, 101 FM!” This radio jingle is driving me to distraction. Why are DJs convinced that energy and power are the same thing? Is there some history to this? I do wish the jingle writers would consult an encyclopedia before going public. Ah, energy. Such a little word, so often misunderstood, yet such a wonderfully useful concept – and surely the most ubiquitous quantity in physics. “Energy is the capa- city to do work” we tell hapless students in their intro-

ductory physics courses. It is probably the first abstract Chris Sattlberger/Science Photo Library concept they encounter, but most find it intuitively easy to understand – as in “I hadn’t the energy to get out of bed”. Then they learn of kinetic and potential energy, and of the law of conservation of energy, before going on to cal- culate the landing velocity of boys falling off cliffs. These are simple ideas but deep (my favourite type). The con- servation of energy, for example, arises from the transla- tional symmetry of time, which is an example of Noether’s theorem – not something that generally arises in a first physics course. As the student progresses in physics, the ubiquity of energy becomes apparent. From mechanics to heat, from optics to electrostatics, energy just keeps on turning up. The history of how energy spread through physics is an interesting one; apparently the word energeia was first used by Aristotle, but the concept of energy in the mod- Any surfer will energy operator H makes life a good deal simpler – thanks ern sense had to wait the late 1600s, when Leibniz defined tell you that to the Irish physicist William Rowan Hamilton. vis viva as the mass of an object multiplied by its velocity Actually, my favourite sort of energy turns up in the squared. And it was not until the 19th century that scien- tides are a quantum world: the energy of the vacuum. According to tists discovered that heat is simply a form of energy – a dis- damn sight the Heisenberg uncertainty principle (ΔEΔt ≥ h– /2), parti- covery that paved the way for the laws of thermodynamics more reliable cles can borrow energy to come into existence as long as and all that followed. than wind they are quick enough about it – a pretty neat trick, if a bit The ubiquity of energy continues into modern physics. short-lived. This vacuum energy is particularly important Consider special relativity. For all its startling predictions or wave in cosmology, as it is thought to be responsible for the cur- of time dilation and length contraction, it is the discovery rent acceleration of the expansion of the universe (the so- of the equivalence of mass and energy that is the theory’s called dark energy). crowning achievement. Mass is a hidden form of poten- Come to think of it, just about all of Big Bang cosmology tial energy, no less. Even the sacred law of conservation can be stated succinctly in terms of energy: an ultra-hot of energy becomes a law of conservation of mass–energy. and ultra-dense universe gradually cooling and expand- This brings us to E = mc2. Much has been written on ing is surely one great conversion of potential to kinetic the fame of this equation, but for my money, it is all in the energy, from beginning to end. How about that for a brief E. Anyone can guess that E stands for energy, so it is easy history of time? to grasp the excitement of an equation that predicts a That was a quick ramble through physics, but of course whole new form of energy (especially if the equation is the concept of energy is used throughout science. For the accompanied by a picture of an atomic bomb). That said, public, the most familiar example is surely renewable en- friends tell me the humble c2 also gives a certain pizzazz ergy. Plenty has been written in this issue on the poten- to the equation. Incidentally, “ee is mc two” is how the tial of renewables to simultaneously address the twin equation is pronounced by the younger generation, challenges of energy supply and carbon emissions. I am apparently. Sigh. no expert, but speaking as a surfer, my money is on tidal Energy plays an even more important role in the gen- energy: if you have a moon and oceans, then you have a eral theory of relativity, since the curvature of space–time highly periodic and reliable free lunch, no? Any surfer on one side of the equations is related to the density of will tell you that tides are a damn sight more reliable than matter–energy on the other. (Or something like that.) wind or wave. Sounds completely mad until you remember that effects But wait, wait! Why do we speak of wave power but tidal such as time dilation in a gravitational field have been veri- energy? No wonder our friends in the media are confused. fied beyond doubt. Time for some standardization, people. I suggest we stick And what about quantum theory, that other pillar of with energy...and while we are at it, let’s change that jingle modern physics? It is not long before one encounters the to “Wave energy, tidal energy, 101FM”. Schrödinger equation – the starting point for almost any problem in quantum physics. Written as Hψ = Eψ, this is Cormac O’Raifeartaigh lectures in physics at Waterford Institute just another energy equation. While students struggle with of Technology, Ireland, and is the author of the blog Antimatter, the true meaning of the wavefunction ψ (don’t we all), that e-mail [email protected]

64 Physics World October 2009

IDL ITT, the Engineered Blocks, and “Engineered for life” are registered trademarks of ITT Manufacturing Enterprises, Inc., and are used under license. ©2009, ITT Visual Information Solutions

&RPPXQLFDWLRQV‡6HQVLQJ 6XUYHLOODQFH‡6SDFH‡$GYDQFHG(QJLQHHULQJ ,QWHJUDWHG6HUYLFHV

3-09_IDL_AD_PhysicsWorld_spec.indd 1 3/23/2009 8:37:08 AM Untitled-19 1 20/7/09 15:35:36