Evaluating the role of collage as a more effective representation in landscape architecture praxis
by
Tina George
A Thesis presented to The University of Guelph
In partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Landscape Architecture in Landscape Architecture
Guelph, Ontario, Canada
© Tina George, June, 2021 ABSTRACT
EVALUATING THE ROLE OF COLLAGE AS A MORE EFFECTIVE REPRESENTATION IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE PRAXIS
Tina George Advisor: University of Guelph, 2021 Dr. Nadia Amoroso
Photomontage has evolved from traditional collages to highly photorealistic simulations
- the currently preferred style of landscape visual communication. These photorealistic graphics are popular, owing to their ease of interpretation, but limit discourse possibilities and fail to reveal the ideation process. On the other hand, traditional collage is credited with projecting the design process and promoting intelligent discourse. This research investigates the efficiencies of using traditional collage representation within current praxis. A literature review focused on the trajectory of landscape architecture graphics brought an understanding to why impressionist, realistic graphics are being used. A case-study analysis of fifteen graphic representations by landscape architecture practices and the results of a questionnaire tested for recognition of various graphic styles was used to consolidate information that led to the determination that collage techniques are superior and can be revived to be utilized effectively in praxis.
DEDICATION
Dedicated to the artists who see beyond borders to create awareness and change.
"Here's to the crazy ones, the misfits, the rebels, the troublemakers, the round pegs in the square holes ... the ones who see things differently -- they're not fond of rules, and they have no respect for the status quo. ... You can quote them, disagree with them, glorify or vilify them, but the only thing you can't do is ignore them because they change things. ... They push the human race forward, and while some may see them as the crazy ones, we see genius, because the people who are crazy enough to think that they can change the world, are the ones who do."- Steve Jobs.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge, appreciate, and affirm Providence's affordances to constantly place amazing people in my path to guide me in my quest for art, truth, and life. You were all highly impactful in the design of this thesis and the design of my life because of who you all are- the most wonderful of people!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ...... ii
Dedication ...... iii
Acknowledgements ...... iv
Table of Contents ...... v
List of Tables (if any) ...... ix
List of Figures ...... x
List of Appendices ...... xiv
1 Introduction ...... 1
Overview ...... 1
Research Problem ...... 3
Research Goal ...... 3
Objectives ...... 4
Literature review ...... 5
Overview ...... 5
Graphic expression in Landscape architecture ...... 5
Exploring the language of drawings and the power of simulacra ...... 6
The trajectory of design representation ...... 7
Various techniques of graphic representation in landscape architecture ... 12
Creativity vs analytics in landscape drawing ...... 22
Fine art and landscape architecture ...... 24
How did photorealism become a popular graphic expression? ...... 25
Familiarity and comfort in the old-world aesthetic of the Picturesque: ...... 25 v
Ease of interpretation ...... 26
Realism in visual communication ...... 27
Strategizing the next step by reviving montage ...... 31
The advantages of montage ...... 32
The direction of montage-making in current praxis ...... 33
Discussion ...... 36
Methods ...... 37
3.1 Overview ...... 37
3.2 Case Study Overview: ...... 39
3.3 Questionnaire Overview: ...... 39
Key informant 1- Samantha Solano ...... 40
Key informant 2- Simon M. Bussiere ...... 41
Key informant 3- Kirk Diamond ...... 41
Key informant 4- Pablo Pérez-Ramos ...... 41
Key informant 5- Nicholas Serrano ...... 42
Key informant 6- Danika Cooper ...... 42
Key informant 7- Jacob Mitchell ...... 43
Key informant 8- Rebecca Popowsky ...... 43
Analysis and discussion ...... 44
Overview ...... 44
Case-studies ...... 44
Case Study 1- Christophe Girot ...... 46
Case Study 2- Chip Sullivan ...... 47
Case Study 3- Claude Cormier ...... 48 vi
Case Study 4- Garett Eckbo ...... 49
Case Study 5- Grossmax...... 50
Case Study 6- James Corner ...... 51
Case Study 7- Kathryn Gustafson ...... 52
Case Study 8- Roberto Burle Marx ...... 53
Case Study 9- Rem Koolhaas ...... 54
Case Study 10- Piet Oudolf ...... 55
Case Study 11- EDSA ...... 56
Case Study 12- Thomas Church ...... 57
Case Study 13- Diana Balmori ...... 58
Case Study 14- Yves Brunier ...... 59
Case Study 15- Ken Smith ...... 60
Case study analysis table: ...... 61
Timeline of graphic representation ...... 62
Relationship of plan/perspective across time ...... 63
Legibility ...... 63
Chromatic range ...... 63
Questionnaire ...... 64
4.2.1 Question 1- Christopher Girot's graphic ...... 65
4.2.2 Question 2- Chip Sullivan's graphic ...... 66
4.2.3 Question 3- Claude Cormier's graphic ...... 67
4.2.4 Question 4- Garett Eckbo's graphic ...... 68
4.2.5 Question 5- Grossmax's graphic...... 69
4.2.6 Question 6- James Corner's graphic ...... 70 vii
4.2.7 Question 7- Kathryn Gustafson's graphic ...... 71
4.2.8 Question 8- Roberto Burle Marx's graphic ...... 72
4.2.9 Question 9- Bruce Mau/Rem Koolhaas's graphic ...... 73
4.2.10 Question 10- Piet Oudolf's graphic ...... 74
4.2.10 Question 11- EDSA's graphic ...... 75
4.2.12 Question 12- Thomas Church's graphic ...... 77
4.2.13 Question 13- Diana Balmori's graphic ...... 78
4.2.14 Question 14- Yves Brunier’s graphic ...... 79
4.2.15 Question 15- Ken Smith's graphic ...... 80
Questionnaire analysis table: ...... 81
Conclusion ...... 86
Overview ...... 86
Research summary ...... 86
Future research opportunities ...... 88
References or Bibliography ...... 90
Appendices ...... 96
Appendix 1: Questionnaire ...... 96
Appendix 2: Defence presentation ...... 104
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LIST OF TABLES (IF ANY)
Table 1- Case study analysis table with crucial data compiled (Source: Author) ...... 61
Table 2- Case study analysis of graphic across time (Source: Author) ...... 62
Table 3- Questionnaire analysis- bar graph (Source: Author) ...... 81
Table 4- Analysis of questionnaire- time, graphics, recognition (Source: Author) ...... 82
Table 5- Exploded analysis- time, graphics, recognition (Source: Author) ...... 83
Table 6- Consolidated table of data from case studies and questionnaires compiled (Source: Author) ...... 85
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1- Eidetic photomontage employing generalized depiction of place, rough extractions, and an ambiguous frame (Corner & Hirsch, 2014)……………………….…..1
Figure 1- Grossmax's photomontage from the project Hofplein rotterdam (GrossMAX, n.d)………………………………………………………………………………………………..1
Figure 3- Dreamy photorealistic rendering by West 8 for Eco Spine Park Azalea Garden (Rosenfield, 2012)………………………………………………………………………………1
Figure 4- Photorealistic rendering by West 8 showing vague horizons and dream-like mood (Rosenfield, 2012)…………………………………………………………………….....1
Figure 5- Painting by Upper Rhenish Master depicting a rich landscape of symbols such as the fountain (representing life), the birds on the fences (sparrows depicting providence), Holy Child making music, Dragon of Evil lying on the ground (Unknown, 1410-1420)……………………………………………………………………………………….8
Figure 6- View of Delft by Vermeer depicting the sheer accuracy of atmosphere to high perfection, almost a real photograph (Vermeer, 1660-1661……………………………..…9
Figure 7- Altdorfer’s Countryside of wood with Saint George fighting the dragon depicting mystery and fantasy entwined in the painting- surreal and dark with a view on a far-away horizon marred by the woods (Altdorfer, 1510)……………………………….10
Figure 8- Timeline trajectory of landscape architecture visual graphics (Source: Author)……………………………………………………………………………………….….12
Figure 9- Hand drawing of Port of St. Maarten by EDSA (Amoroso, 2019)……………..13
Figure 10- Metacity/Datatown by MVRDV displays well-used infographics to convey key data (MVRDV, n.d)…………………………………………………………………………….14
Figure 11- Hybrid drawing by Rui Felix and Logan Littlefielf that displays preliminary hand sketch on trace paper over actual photograph. Collage with photoshop added later alongwith section in CAD and editing in Illustrator (Amoroso, 2019)…………………….15
Figure 12- Donnell Garden Plan by Thomas Church- an example of a typical plan drawing used as a concept sketch for presentation (TCLF, n.d)…………………………16
Figure 13- Sugar Beach, Toronto- perspective graphics by Claude Cormier using abstract art (Cormier, n.d)………………………………………………………………….…17 x
Figure 14- Refer Figure 1…………………………………………………………………….18
Figure 2-Axonomteric representation of Park and community building using ink on paper (cdlib A, 1997)………………………………………………………………………………….19
Figure 16- 3D modeling of Taikoo place in Hong Kong by Kathryn Gustfason used to conceive water flowing through the large site (gb-p, n.d)………………………………....20
Figure 3- Storyboarding the landscape with cartooning techniques by Chip Sullivan (BCU, 2020)…………………………………………………………………………………….21
Figure 48-Burnings exhibiting data associated with controlled burns for the large site in South Carolina and focussing on fire as a factor of design process to support renewal of the soil (Corner et.al., 1996)……………………………………………………………….....35
Figure 59-Windmill Topography exhibiting data associated with wind pressure and air temperature by the use of data interspersed within the drawings and calling to attention the importance of the windmill turbines for the production of design (Corner et al., 1996)…………………………………………………………………………………………….35
Figure 20- Overview of methods section of this thesis (Source: Author)……………………………………………………………………………………..……38
Figure 21- Template for case-study compilation (Source: Author)…………………………………………………………………………………………..39
Figure 6-Section through true-color point cloud, Brissago, Switzerland using point-cloud terrain model technology to understand and shape landscapes by Christophe, Girot (Girot, 2013)………………………….………………………..……………………………….46
Figure 23- Refer Figure 17……………………………………………………………….…..47
Figure 24- Refer Figure 13………………………………………………………….………..48
Figure 25 -Burden Garden plan by Eckbo using ink on paper (cdlib B, 1997)…...……..49
Figure 26- Refer Figure 2……………………………………………………………………..50
Figure 27- Refer Figure 1……………………………………………………………………..51
Figure 28- Refer Figure 16……………………………………………………………………52
Figure 79- Garden Design for Beach House for Mr. and Mrs. Burton Tremaine by Roberto Burle Marx (MOMA, 2002)………………………………………………………….53
Figure 30- Downsview Park, Toronto by Rem Koolhaas (OMA, n.d)…………………….54 xi
Figure 8- Serpentine Gallery Pavillion by Piet Oudolf (Weisz, 2018)……………..…...... 55
Figure 32- Refer Figure 9……………………………………………………………………..56
Figure 93- Refer Figure 12……………………………………………………………………57
Figure 104- Washington Mall perspective by Diana Balmori (Balmori, 2012)…...……...58
Figure 11- Euralille by Yves Brunier (Landscapetheory, 1996)……………………...…...59
Figure 36- 1271 Avenue of the Americas, NYC by Ken Smith (kensmithworkshop, n.d)...... 60
Figure 37- Refer Figure 22………………….………………..………………………………65
Figure 38- Christophe Girot's graphic recognition results (Source: Author)…………………………………………………………………………………..….…..65
Figure 39- Refer Figure 17……………………………………………………………………66
Figure 40- Chip Sullivan’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)………………………………………………………………………………..…………66
Figure 41- Refer Figure 13……………………………………………………………………67
Figure 42- Claude Cormier’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)…………………………………………………………………………………..……...67
Figure 123- Refer Figure 25……………………………………………………………………………………..…………68
Figure 44-Garrett Eckbo’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)……………………………………………………………………………………..…...68
Figure 45- Refer Figure 2……………………………………………………………………..69
Figure 46- Grossmax’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)………………………………………………………………………………….……….69
Figure 137- Refer Figure 1……………………………………………………….…………..70
Figure 48- James Corner’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)…………………………………………………………………………………………..70
Figure 149- Refer Figure 16…………………………………………………….……………71 xii
Figure 50- Kathryn Gustafson’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)……………………………………………………………………………………….….71
Figure 51- Refer Figure 29……………………………………………………………………72
Figure 52- Roberto Burle Marx’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)……………………………………………………………………………………..……72
Figure 53- Refer Figure 30……………………………………………………………………73
Figure 154- Rem Koolhaas’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)…………………………………………………………………………………..………73
Figure 55- Refer Figure 31……………………………………………………………………74
Figure 166- Piet Oudolf’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)…………………………………………………………………………………………..74
Figure 57- Refer Figure 9……………………………………………………………………..75
Figure 58- EDSA’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)………………………………………………………………………………..…………76
Figure 59- Refer Figure 12……………………………………………………………………77
Figure 60- Thomas Church’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)…………………………………………………………………………………………..77
Figure 6117- Refer Figure 34……………………………………………………...…………78
Figure 62- Diana Balmori’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)……………………………………………………………………………………….....78
Figure 63- Refer Figure 35……………………………………………………………………79
Figure 64- Yves Brunier's graphic recognition results (Source: Author)………………………………………………………………………………..…………79
Figure 185- Refer Figure 36…………………………………………………………….……80
Figure 66- Ken Smith's graphic recognition results (Source: Author)……………………………………………………………………………….………….80
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Questionnaire (Source: Author)………………………………………………96
Appendix 2 Defence presentation (Source: Author)…………………………………….104
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1 Introduction
Overview
Graphic representation in landscape architecture is making a refreshingly
changed appearance in recent times. Examples of firms like GROSS.MAX and
James Corner (see Fig. 1 & 2) are observed to be using photomontage in their
representation.
Figure 19- Eidetic photomontage employing Figure 20- Grossmax's photomontage from the generalized depiction of place, rough extractions, and project Hofplein rotterdam (GrossMAX, n.d) an ambiguous frame (Corner & Hirsch, 2014)
This collage-quality of expression varies considerably from the highly
photoshopped images (see Fig. 3 & 4) that have come to be accepted as a
standard in landscape architecture graphic representation.
Figure 21- Dreamy photorealistic rendering by West Figure 4- Photorealistic rendering by West 8 8 for Eco Spine Park Azalea Garden showing vague horizons and dream-like mood (Rosenfield, 2012) (Rosenfield, 2012) 1
This shift in graphic style is seen in the mid-to-late-1990s, where collages
were prevalent in the advent of Photoshop software. Photoshop in the 1990s was
a digital tool used to piece together "landscape elements' and "entourage,"
scanned from magazines. A search for articles on the history of graphics led to
disappointing results as there seemed to be less discourse on the visual
communication aspect. However, Amoroso (2016, pp. 1-2) discloses a prevalence
of dull 'sameness' in visual communication that calls for the hybridization of
analog with digital technology to maintain a unique, creative expression. A
majority of works sampled in her book consist of creative photomontages that are
attention-grabbing and thought-provoking.
The literature review introduces the origins and trajectory of visual/graphic
language in landscape architecture, its relationship with photorealism, and its
components. It also addresses why realistic landscapes are so popular with
audiences, making it also banal in expression (having been used repeatedly). One
significant influence contributing to its popularity is the subconscious fondness for
the old world Picturesque that influences these photorealistic landscape graphics.
The review covers the drawbacks and dangers of using photorealistic graphics.
Simultaneously, various design graphics from renowned landscape architecture
representations are studied to acknowledge their uniqueness. In studying these
graphics, the use of photorealistic graphics was observed diminishing fine art and
branding. In addition to this review, a new intention was formed to see how
reactive we are to understanding whose the more unique graphic works are.
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Relevant gaps in pedagogy, literature, and scholarly articles in visual
communication are addressed that ascertain a need to further explore these
graphics' unique identity and other new approaches to holding the audience's
interest in today's changing social paradigms.
Research Problem
The trend of using photorealistic graphics in praxis is a lost opportunity for
viewer engagement and creativity. There is a general similarity in landscape
graphics which renders graphic representation in landscape architecture
unexciting. Subsequently, these realistic graphics present a flawed version of
reality to the viewer. During the research, a vast number and variety of unique
graphics were noted. Many of these graphic styles have the potential to be
studied for their artistic branding qualities. A growing number of avant-garde
designers are observed attempting to revitalize graphics as a primary language of
landscape. Amongst these efforts, it is noticed that collages are the most
memorable and efficient. This research addresses the need to elevate graphics to
fine art status, possibly using collages as the primary medium.
Research Goal
The main goal of the research is to enhance brand identity within praxis by
moving away from photorealistic visualizations. One way of achieving this
effectively is by reviving and utilizing collages in landscape graphic
representation. To achieve this goal, the following is a set of objectives:
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Objectives
• To investigate the different art styles in the field of landscape architecture
representation and their trajectory of growth in recent times;
• To explore awareness and reactiveness to artistic branding and question its
prospect utilizing a closed questionnaire sent to key informants in landscape
architecture;
• To gain an understanding of the drawbacks and deficiencies of using photorealistic
graphics;
• To investigate the advantages of traditional collages with particular emphasis on
engagement and discourse;
• To evaluate fifteen graphic representations as case studies from landscape
architectural practices where unique styles have been identified; and,
• To explore the use of collages as an efficient strategy to achieve unique branding in
current praxis to add value to the practice of landscape architecture.
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Literature review Overview
Gaining comprehension of different graphic styles was chosen as the most
conducive direction in commencing the review. A wide range of styles were explored,
studied and documented according to their relevance in praxis. Furthermore, a
timeline trajectory of styles was assembled to understand the trends in graphic
representation, especially with regard to their relationship with fine arts. This was
carried out to ascertain the status of landscape as a fine art or applied art to glean
the direction forward for appropriate graphic styles that respect and exalt those
characteristics. In order to do this, the onus on creativity vs analytics in the field of
landscape architecture was examined.
During the review, some representational techniques stood out as most
commonly used and recognized. These included hand-drawing, abstract, collage and
realism. Much of the literary reviews from practicing professionals lamented the use
of photorealism in representational material. Consequently, photorealism was
investigated for its likeability, advantages, and disadvantages. Upon confirming that
photorealism is unfavorable as a design expression, its origin, montages were
studied further to evaluate its efficiency as a better representational tool.
Graphic expression in Landscape architecture
Kingery-Page & Hahn (2012) have remarked that design representation is
heavily influential as a vendor of commerce- it is a primary language by which the
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industry functions. This is an essential factor in reading into and understanding
drawings to aid better business decisions.
Exploring the language of drawings and the power of simulacra
Drawings are a standard form of graphic expression with many recognizable
interpretative drawing agencies viz. plans, birds-eye perspectives, eye-level
perspectives, axonometric, data scapes, and cartooning. The process of researching
each expression was immensely useful in understanding the artist's thinking process
and the range of advantages and shortcomings of each method. On the other hand,
the language of expression using symbols and colors and aesthetic adornments
found few obtainable results- this merits more study than is existing currently.
Not all agencies of expression are similar- it is advisable to pick the suitable
method of expression for the most desirable outcome. Andersson (2008) gives us a
glance into the relationship between client, builder and designer. The author states
that the most effective representation is developed based on the working knowledge
of the relationship between the client and the landscape architect. In that regard, the
need for the most appropriate expression is expressed by Raaphorst (2018) in his
paper that calls for knowing the audience before creating a landscape design. His
logic uses Peircean semiotic theory, where interpretation is guided by stimulus
objects and the time-wise socio-political context within which the landscape design
representation is based. Various visual semiotic resources such as symbols, icons,
and indexes stimulate and persuade the audience. Though this study is more
relevant to a participatory-process design, its application is found in a typical single-
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client scenario as well. Raaphorst explains that design representations typically
consist of multiple signs, and some sign systems are so complex that they contain
signs within themselves. These signs are a language in itself, and landscape
architects ought to know their presence in representations, as they are commonly
cloaked within other signs.
A previous study by Raaphorst et al. (2017) further solidifies their intent on
creating more awareness of semiotic and sign languages by delving into
Baudrillard's philosophical treatise of simulacra and simulation. Their research brings
up the synthesis that the power of representational images is so real to audiences
(partly because of the ocular centrism of western society) that it is perceived as
already built. Moreover, this shifts power away from the designer by having the
audience expect a hyper-realistic and unrealistic outcome. Thus, it is essential to
choose visual representative methods which distinctively portray real and unreal
components. The use of digital imagery to produce hyper-real images deflects from
the ability of designers to convey the actual reality to the audience. In turn, this leads
to a lack of confidence in the designer's power to portray reality.
The trajectory of design representation
Landscape of symbols- middle ages 5th to 15th century
Clark's work commences with acknowledging that landscape representation in
the middle ages was about symbolism- that nature was a representation of divinity
and not meant to be controlled or used for enjoyment (1976, p. 3,6).
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Figure 5- Painting by Upper Rhenish Master depicting a rich landscape of symbols such as the fountain (representing life), the birds on the fences (sparrows depicting providence), Holy Child making music, Dragon of Evil lying on the ground (Unknown, 1410-1420)
Landscape of facts- 15th century onwards
Realistic landscape paintings originated in the 15th century (Cosgrove, 1984).
These paintings attempted to capture reality by capturing the essence of an
enclosed space. Cosgrove reveals that he feels that the artists were trying to achieve
control of the space visually. They experimented with a platitude of ideas until
perspectives arrived on the scene. They were exalted as a pure technique to capture
reality as close as possible to the truth. In addition to this, the power shifted to the
eye of the spectator- their view was the only one that mattered, and it became, for
that moment in time, the center of the world.
The subject of realism was also suggested by Clark (1976, p. 39) in his essay
on landscape of facts- this era was a precedent to impressionist works, trying to
8
capture reality. The agenda of art seemed to be to record scenes and produce
naturalistic paintings.
Figure 6- View of Delft by Vermeer depicting the sheer accuracy of atmosphere to high perfection, almost a real photograph (Vermeer, 1660-1661)
Balmori suggests that such realistic landscape perspective views dominated
landscape design expression from the 1700's until the early twentieth century (2014,
p. 21).
Landscape of fantasy- 15th century response to landscape of facts
Sometime during the 15th century, Expressionist works also appeared as a
response to the domestication of landscapes. Artists tried to put the mystery back
into landscapes (refer Figure 7) by creating darker, brooding vistas by enveloping
elements. These works deployed the opposite of Impressionism and embraced the
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telling of fantasy and feeling by eschewing reality completely (Clark, 1976, pp. 73-
107).
Figure 7- Altdorfer’s Countryside of wood with Saint George fighting the dragon depicting mystery and fantasy entwined in the painting- surreal and dark with a view on a far-away horizon marred by the woods (Altdorfer, 1510) Interestingly, there was a balance between Impressionist and Expressionist
works in the arts and landscape design representation. Going forward, landscape
design and arts progressed well together until the mid-19th century. As watercolors
came to be frequently used through the 19th century, Gertrude Jekyll and Claudius
10
Loudon used these continuously in their landscape representations (Balmori, 2014,
p. 150).
In the mid-1900's, when facts began to be prioritized with the advent of
scientific ideas and dissipation of scientific knowledge, this led to a gradual
separation of landscape architecture from the arts (p. 21). Therefore, landscape
design representation remained as realistic perspectival views (as earlier) until
landscape design representation went into deep silence and served only as a minor
supportive discipline for the major architecture projects into the early part of the 20th
century.
Abstractionism to photorealism- 20th-century expression
Roberto Burle Marx made an arrival on the scene in the early 20th century
with his modern interpretations of paintings- rich and saturated abstracts (p. 150).
Soon afterward, the mid-twentieth-century found realistic landscapes being
abandoned by American artists for more abstract and formal renditions (Kingery-
Page and Hahn, 2012).
Further observation in the late twentieth century found immersive art taking
over representational methods. This time, landscape architects sought to yearn for
perfection and purity by the use of realistic representation by digital means. This was
a significant shift back to early twentieth-century realism, forsaken for being too easy
and stereotypical. Kingery-Page and Hahn found themselves questioning why rich
sources of abstraction of earlier years were dropped entirely and the focus was laid
hugely on graphics borrowed from the film and game industry. Nevertheless, the
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advent of these digital-heavy representations in popular culture certainly seems to
have revived realism.
The rise of impressionism also seemed to have heavily influenced landscape
representation- these works layer reality with feeling, very similar to immersive,
realistic landscapes.
Figure 8- Timeline trajectory of landscape architecture visual graphics (Source: Author) Various techniques of graphic representation in landscape architecture
Drawing
Drawing or freehand sketching is used extensively in landscape architecture
and has excellent power to present concepts. An example of a typically finished
drawing is Figure 9- the use of pen and marker wash makes for a lively rendering
with details and gradients.
May (2017) explains that drawing is a mechanical gesture by hand that
inscribes/deposits geometric marks onto a stable surface. It results in a static result
but is always preceded by gesturing using a tool that becomes predictable over time
and regular and leads to data accumulation. This data that is collected becomes an
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image, which is the output of an energetic process. Thus, data and images are
interlinked in the process of hand-drawing. May places emphasis on the mechanical
component of hand-drawing is what makes it so unique. The synchronicity between
mind, hand, and other tools such as compasses, squares etc., render an entirely
mechanistic outcome. This act of drawing is a stage within history as the mechanical
process of drawing took place in a past time; and, recorded in the current-present.
Therefore, it is the actual reality- there seems no ambiguity in its placement in time- it
is an imaging of the past.
Balmori harmonizes May's thoughts in her book when she remarks the
advantage of hand drawing is based on the remarkable collaboration of eye, mind and
hand. The layer of tactility and the movement of nervous impulses from mind into a
drawing instrument are applauded for its unparalleled skill against any other
representation method- none others are as efficient and effective (2014, p.37).
Figure 9- Hand drawing of Port of St. Maarten by EDSA (Amoroso, 2019) 13
Digital- Map drawings and Datascapes
Datascapes such as those created by MVRDV (Figure 10) discussed in
M'Closkey's essay have a remarkable ability to explain the impact of design
programs and issues (2013). However, they are rarely used as a means of design
ideation or invention- their place is more in provocation and starting a dialogue for
solutions on impending issues. Map drawings often are characterized by the
portrayal of data and facts over aesthetic quality (van Etteger et al., 2016)
Weller (2001) describes datascapes as a great tool for capturing complex
design programs that are continually changing. This method allows the depiction of
interconnected processes.
Figure 10- Metacity/Datatown by MVRDV displays well-used infographics to convey key data (MVRDV, n.d)
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Hybrid
A comprehensive article by Sender Contell and Iñarra Abad (2019) examines
various hybrid representation methods by studying multiple firms that predominantly
use them. The use of hand drawings is praised heavily as a good starting point for
the base layer- these are scanned and worked graphically using digital techniques to
form powerful images. Computer tools are cherished, but the authors effuse
confidence when concluding that digital methods will not displace hand drawing.
Figure 11- Hybrid drawing by Rui Felix and Logan Littlefielf that displays preliminary hand sketch on trace paper over actual photograph. Collage with photoshop added later alongwith section in CAD and editing in Illustrator (Amoroso, 2019)
15
Plans
Andersson (2008) describes plan drawing as the most influential of all the
analog methods of representation. It conveys intent and does not seek to capture
emotion, rather only data and function. Moreover, it is considered the most standard
style of representation for landscape architects because of these qualities.
Figure 12- Donnell Garden Plan by Thomas Church- an example of a typical plan drawing used as a concept sketch for presentation (TCLF, n.d)
16
Perspectives: eye-level and bird's eye
In a study by van Etteger et al. (2016), perspectives almost always seek to adhere to the portrayal of aesthetic qualities, thus making it a highly creative process.
Balmori explores the origin of perspectives as simulacra of the theater in the garden and makes a compelling case (2014, pp. 152-155). Allen describes perspectives as best suited for representing already existing elements (2009, p.16).
Figure 13- Sugar Beach, Toronto- perspective graphics by Claude Cormier using abstract art (Cormier, n.d)
Collages and Montages
One of the greatest advocates for montages is Allen- he explains that
montage works as a composition of various surfaces and images fragmented
together to create a place that does not belong to any particular time or space. The
gaps between these fragments respect and convey the alluding of time. Montages
17
do not seek to display depth- it is the spaces that define the depth of the composition
(2009, 28).
Figure 14- Refer Figure 1
Axonometric
Allen (2009) discusses axonometric projection concerning its ability to convey
abstract data in a meaningful and precise manner. Axonometric constructs what is
non-existent and allows the artist to convey various views of the same project and
makes it easier to understand (pp. 16,28).
Imbert’s view is similar that axonometry is most suited to landscape
architecture representation for the 3D representation of space that it provides. Her
view is that landscape is a 3D plane and not just 2D, so it conveys the design intent
more by engaging the mind than just the eye (2008).
18
Figure 15- Axonomteric representation of Park and community building using ink on paper (cdlib A, 1997)
Models
The use of models is described as a fruitful exercise by Walker (2008) as an
excellent representational tool when verbal or written expression was complex.
Models could reveal dimensionality, space, usage, and scale. Projects where
audiences could not easily read plans or have the patience to understand
abstractionism highly benefitted from this expression, even for the most
sophisticated projects.
19
Figure 16- 3D modeling of Taikoo place in Hong Kong by Kathryn Gustfason used to conceive water flowing through the large site (gb-p, n.d)
Words
The use of words in published or incorporated form does not contribute
conducive to the language of landscape. They merely describe the physical form but
do not help in the formation of representational graphics themselves. The issue with
pedagogy seems to be that research academics provide narratives, which influences
the next generation of designers who rely heavily on text. This is a missed
opportunity to place down visual and material communication through graphics which
is the best medium/tool (Olin, 1988).
20
Cartooning
Sullivan (2012) describes storyboarding as an effective and robust art form
that allows the viewer to move through the design. It is both lively, entertaining and
captures detail. In cartooning, the movement of figures or ideas across the
landscape takes precedence. In doing so, the artist/designer starts to feel and
understand the sense of the design itself. It is most akin to a live sketchbook and is
an excellent tool for visualization, especially when sensations and expressions are
illustrated. In cartooning, the detail can be very high, making it an excellent derivative
of drawing (pp. 175-180).
Figure 17- Storyboarding the landscape with cartooning techniques by Chip Sullivan (BCU, 2020)
21
Creativity vs analytics in landscape drawing
In his paper, Gazvoda (2002) introduces the role of creativity in the landscape
drawing process. While it is essential to acknowledge that representation in
landscape architecture is similar to architecture in how high importance is placed on
graphical expression and both fields used drawings to present futuristic scenarios,
landscape drawing began to achieve high levels of finesse. This was denoted
creativity and detailing that seemed to originate from the field of fine art. In the
process of questioning whether landscape architecture is a branch of fine art,
Gazvoda acknowledges the difference between landscape architecture and
landscape painting by sharing that fine art is an entirely intimate and personal
exploration by the artist who is not hindered in their creative process by ever having
to explain inspiration or method. Whereas with landscape drawing, it is an
educational process that uses analysis and site interpretation to achieve a result that
solves a particular issue/s. Gazvoda goes on to covey strongly that landscape
architecture is more analytical rather than creative. He explains that a landscape
architect's primary role is to consolidate information through drawing, placing a
formidable emphasis on analysis. The creative part of drawing takes less
precedence in the landscape architecture field. He advises that graphic
representations using knowledge diagrams focussed on facts, defined graphics, and
less text are best for dialogue.
On the other hand, Foley and Tynan (2012) discuss that vague, unfinished
eye-level perspectives warrant the most efficient instantaneous expression. Such
22
eye-level perspectives warrant vagueness to appear unfinished, indeterminate, and
immersive, allowing viewers to feel the space. These perspectives conveyed the
atmosphere of the place and also allowed emotional engagement and instant
understanding. It seems that this is in direct contrast to Gazvoda's paper (2002) and
does not implore the use of analytics and fact-telling as much as a creative exercise.
There could be another explanation for the effectiveness of eye-level
perspectives in current praxis- recent landscape architecture projects lack a fixed
spatial composition that draws the eye from one point to another (as in the Baroque
gardens). Instead, present compositions are more like English gardens, which
encourages the viewers' attention to skim over surfaces. The lack of precise points
of interest supports eye-level perspectives with an indeterminate and vague
expression (Foley and Tynan, 2012). Creative graphic representation may be hence
more suited for projects which have an equalized component of spatial compositions.
Analytical representation would be more appropriately used in detail-oriented
projects, emphasizing attention-highlighting aesthetic and ecological value points.
On the subject of creativity, Sender Contell and Iñarra Abad (2019) explored
the theme of artistic branding. They call for mastery of both technical and artistic
language to create a distinguishable personal identity. They support hybrid
techniques that commence with hand drawings and trace to achieve defined stylistic
expressions that are attractive. Balmori makes mention of the process of producing
hyper-realistic images to produce banal images as a lost opportunity to create
unique artworks (2014, p.70). Kullmann (2014) mentions that landscape architects
23
have called for change since the late 1980s to break tradition and absorbing avant-
garde styles to add to their design expression. It is indicative of the ability and
amenability of landscape architects to change by adopting expressions from parallel
fields such as art, graphic design, and architectural graphics.
Fine art and landscape architecture
While the previous section has vacillated between creativity and analytics as
the primary goal of landscape representation, a body of research questions if
landscape architecture can be considered fine art. One of the critical papers that
examine this subject is by van Etteger et al. (2016). They connect Nick Zangwill's
aesthetic creation theory to landscape architecture by exploring the parameters of
the theory linking creation theory viz. high art with application and functions that were
extrapolated from analytics and data pertaining to the project; with the support of
non-aesthetic components. Priority was based on insight and intuition to create these
works of art, which can be considered to be 'high art.'
Therefore, the authors remark that as long as landscape architecture is high
art with functionality, it must not seek to eschew aesthetics and conform to creativity
as other art forms do. Another proponent of the high-art theory is Balmori. She
observes that it was in the 17th century that the field of landscape architecture was
first established as an artistic endeavor with a solid relationship to painting (Balmori,
2014, p. 20). In fact, numerous works by landscapers were inspired by the paintings
of Claude Lorrain (1600-1682) and Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)- they were the first
to represent landscapes so artistically (p. 21), and this was followed suit by
24
Humphrey Repton (1752-1818) in his popular before-after representations of
landscapes. Balmori adds that many landscape architects were former artists like
Andre Le Notre (1613-1700).
On the other hand, the work of Robert Irwin speaks to the fundamental
intention of landscape architecture to elevate the habitat quality of space (Treib,
1993). Within the limits of this intention, aesthetics has a much lower place than
function. So, while abstract elements were used heavily in fine art and developed
into its genre, Irwin’s work concluded that landscape architecture does not follow the
rules of fine art because fine art does not take functionality into account. It only looks
to portray the artist's subconscious. Landscape architecture representation does not
have the same free reign as pure art as it has to stay within the limits of reason and
practicality.
Treib, however, also mentions that the definition of art is to provide an
experience of seeing an object in a new light. Therefore, it seems that perhaps
landscape architecture representation has its grounding in the arts more than was
concluded earlier. After all, landscape representation provides a new outlook or
perspective of space and allows the audience to engage in a fresh experience.
How did photorealism become a popular graphic expression?
Familiarity and comfort in the old-world aesthetic of the Picturesque:
The popularity of today's photorealistic (photo-fake) graphics lies in the still-
familiar territory of the picturesque that is vivid in audiences' minds. Lee & Pae
(2018) observed that landscape architecture is the most influenced by the
25
Picturesque amongst other fields, and we are so accustomed to seeing it so often
that it is what is come to be expected.
On the other hand, one of the few articles that tie in photorealism to a non-
Picturesque influence was by Belanger & Urton (2014). They make a convincing
case that the origin of photorealistic landscapes is within the Dadaism movement
that commenced in 1916. Upon reading their article, it is clear that Dadaism
influenced the landscape visuals and was adopted into many graphics. However,
these collages made a descent back into Picturesque and lost their abstract
qualities. It is not clear from the article (as that was not their mission) how this
influence diminished over time.
Ease of interpretation
Smallman & John (2005) theorize why people prefer highly realistic displays
despite their deviance from reality. They discuss that audiences find it effortless to
interpret realistic images as they are created on a footprint of a familiar photographic
scene. Such ready-made graphics are more comfortable to sell and require the least
explanation of the designer's part to convey the design intent. Since audiences are
primed to respond to the familiar, Kingery-Page & Hahn (2012) share that landscape
architecture graphic communication, like all other forms of art, is heavily influenced
by the media of today's present. It is, therefore, not surprising that we tend to favor
realistic simulations over abstract as a direct influence of the video game, 3D visual
arts prevalence in film and media.
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Realism in visual communication
Having explored where the origins of realism lay and the salient influence of
Picturesque, which is here to stay, it was fascinating to read further about the issues
with the very concept of this fake realism. Many of the authors shared their concern
with the dominance of realism. They beseech designers to remember our obligation
to the audience and gather their respect by presenting the truth in the least flawed
manner. Moreover, realism can be so very flawed in its output despite its popularity.
Dee makes a case in her paper that realism has become the preferred mode
of representation as images can be easily 'shopped' on the internet to create hyper-
real collages (2010). However, this random collection of images forms an over-
loaded collage without careful discernment and curation as an outcome. She advises
thrift in such cases and implores other landscape architects to follow suit.
To make a fair case, an article by Sender Contell and Iñarra Abad (2019) was
studied that explored multiple projects of hybrid nature presented with high degrees
of realism. They seemed appreciative of realism that, in their opinion, allow the
viewer to move into the reality of the place. Lesser realistic projects have their place
in conveying the overall purpose of the project. In either case, the amount of realism
was not criticized. It is vital to note that even within the realistic expressions that the
authors highly admired, the technique of collage was extensively used and displayed
as such. Sketch lines were prominent; intensities and saturations in various parts of
the drawing were different from other areas; transparencies and silhouettes were
included etc. It can be assumed that perhaps the authors were not discussing hyper-
27
real works. Upon further examination of the works they described, it was concluded
that there were some projects which carried a high degree of reality, but none of
them were hyper-real.
Flawed perception and deceipt
The first article by Smallman & John (2005) cautions the reader that realistic
displays often overlook the three facts of perception psychology that human beings
tend to forget. The fact that perception is more complex than realized (realistic
graphics compete with the brain to want to know more information which is not
present but 'feels' present), that perception is somewhat flawed (in terms of depths
and heights and angle of the viewer) and that it is spartan (our brains give up trying
to understand the complex and end up sampling bits and pieces of the image)
Kullmann (2014) agrees with the perception angle in Smallman & John's article
(2005) and proposes abstract elements which would make for a more intelligent
discourse between designer and audience. Abstraction is blind to perception as it
does not follow the same rules as perfect realism. This paper also calls to attention
the fact that audiences do not typically care for as much realism as we expect them
to. The most critical aspect in this article is that Kullmann proceeds to share the
absence of degree of change in realistic displays and the designer having more
authority over the audience. This power shift leads to exploitation and amplifying the
input of the designer's ideas. He warns that an inaccurate representation of the
future through photorealistic montages runs the high risk of the audience feeling
deceived in terms of the outcome.
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Furthermore, photorealistic design makes the audience feel that there is no
possibility for change as the concept is perceived as finished, rigid, and set in stone.
This runs the risk of concluding that the designer is not open to changes, and the
opportunity for further dialogue is curbed. Therefore it makes sense when Kullman
(2014) mentions in his paper that analog techniques are best suited to portraying the
possibility of changes.
Loss of dialogue and creative thought processes- an ethical conundrum
In a similar vein, Kingery-Page & Hahn (2012) prompts designers to remind
themselves of their ethics towards the land and people. They appeal for critical
dialogue and innovation. Realistic displays dull the palate and move toward cheap
kitsch styles with no room for discourse. On the other hand, they request designers
to revive abstraction and contemporary art. This prompts a selective choice in
inculcating rich, media-reminiscent graphics. In addition, there are more forms of art
that have been forgotten and laid aside- abstraction being the most significant. It is
essential to mention that Belanger & Urton's study (2014) agrees with Kingery-Page
& Hahn (2012) and adds that graphics have become oversimplified and uninspiring
in terms of discourse and expression. Allen explains that the lack of gaps in a
photorealistic rendering misses the opportunity to allow the viewer to see beyond the
'vision' and explore the piece's latent 'visuality.' The need for this unmediated
experience of the image is vital to encourage discourse. This "screen of signs" is
essential to portray depth and layers of covert information; removing the gaps results
in a single perspective outlook (2009, p. 30). M'Closkey agrees with Allen's findings
29
by acknowledging that the original function of "representing" with collage is lost over
merely imitating the scene with new elements that are so seamlessly juxtapositioned
that they cannot be distinguished separately (2013). Over and above this, Lee & Pae
(2018) have lamented a decay of 'aura' in the world of photo-fake landscape
representation. They define the 'aura' as the unique and creative essence of design,
which is lacking.
Illusion without reality, tending to uniform and non-inspirational images
Of all the articles cited, Lange (2011) has managed to compress the general
feedback of landscape representations leaning towards mere illusions. The article
advocates for an integrative multi-sensory approach to be taken so that the plan on-
screen will behave similarly in the real world. This feedback results from a
compilation of a body of literature that made an appearance in the Journal of
Landscape and Urban Planning from 1974-2011. In addition to this, Kullmann (2014)
consents that Kingery-Page & Hahn's article (2012) is entirely valid and mentions
that photorealism is fraught with cinematic special effects and is unjustly valorized
beyond its worth. It has been observed that photorealistic techniques culminate in
producing a 'perfect, futuristic' rendering of the site have occurred concurrent to the
availability and prevalence of digital media, which probes further discussion
(M'Closkey 2013).
Iliescu (2008) expresses apprehension that collages of current times are uniform
and purely aesthetic, not allowing a prospect for critical reading and different
interpretations- there is a lack of depth and emotion accompanying these cut-and-
30
paste collages that are a missed opportunity. She expresses further concern that
"what we lose is collage's power to summon feelings that span the fertile territory
between art and life" (Iliescu, 2008).
There is a growing number of similar, monotonous imagery prevalent in the global
marketplace- this is brought on by the process of firms competing for a higher
standard of photorealistic imagery- the level of realism continues to be raised higher
currently, and smaller firms are unable to match these standards (Kullmann, 2014).
This has proven to be yet another issue with selling hyper-real future scenarios and
the shift of power to bigger firms who have not created the imagery themselves and
possibly, not contemplated the site as much as the smaller firms. This creates
inequality amongst the resources of work available within the landscape architecture
industry. Balmori makes her discouragement known of this outsourcing process of
landscape design pieces to computer rendering companies to produce hyper-
realistic images to produce banal images (2014, p.70).
Strategizing the next step by reviving montage
The revival of abstraction and bringing them into photomontages to make
them eidetic (vivid, memorable, and reflexive) could be a step in the right direction.
This might fit with Balmori's prediction that the new landscape design representation
will apply an artistic process using drawing as a tool (hand or digital) (2014, p. 30).
Photomontage is both artistic in representation and processes.
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The advantages of montage
M'Closkey (2013) upholds photorealistic montage as an excellent means to
communicate to audiences effectively. Furthermore, she is convinced of its power for
propaganda- it is easier to sway the viewer and present an immersive experience
with such a representation. Lee & Pae (2018) also seem to agree that collages
promote and encourage creativity in their article. Kingery-Page & Hahn (2012)
discuss using targeted abstraction strategically by using abstract graphics to create a
symbol-rich landscape visual. Abstraction, with its vivid colors and skewed angles,
will work well with landscapes of fantasy.
Moreover, abstract surface details can convey facts, such as exaggerated
topography or soil of an area. Loose realism promoted by Kullmann (2014) is a
method to 'loosen up' the graphics of the current photorealistic style. Techniques to
direct the change forward include incorporating freeform collage, freeform montage,
wireframe collage, total scene render, and wireframe montage. These methods differ
in its application, but nearly all of them use abstract elements in their creation.
The Smallman article (2005) deliberates to tackle the issue of perception by
simplifying graphics such that the complexity is reduced (remove the cinematic
effects); where there might be a possibility of error in perception, to point that out
(enhanced angles and such); and where perception brinks on sampling, to
supplement the graphics with tools (such as moving through seasons on a slider).
Belanger & Urton (2014) have made known their intense desire to see eidetic
photomontages or collages in abstract back in today's graphics. They discuss the
32
various ways in which it can be easily accommodated within the prevalent graphic
styles by use of an ambiguous frame, extracted image fragments and use of abstract
surfaces to turn away from reality for the creation of ideas and open discussions.
They have shared their firm belief that abstract collages have always performed as a
catalyst for intelligent discourse.
Another strong proponent of montage is Allen. He remarks that the abstract
nature of montage calls to the unpredictability and fluidity of design. There is no
emulation of false reality- it merely performs the function of informing the audience of
the design intent and is a placeholder for various options (2009, pp. 43-44).
The direction of montage-making in current praxis
M'Closkey notes that the direction of montage has taken a turn lately from
depicting analytical findings to a completely depictive endeavor. This has
emphasized juxtapositioning images to achieve a creative/aesthetic depiction as
raster-based perspectives. In doing so, the relationships between these images are
not explored well, and the analytical component is somewhat lost in the process
(2013).
Amoroso advises that her research has led her to conclude that collage/
montage is the most common and effective style of representation. Layering of
textures and borrowed elements with differences in opacity create depth. Ideally,
people should be slightly transparent to indicate temporality; when they are in
motion, adding a blur can suggest movement. These suggestions make for creative
33
yet straightforward and easily readable images that audiences can engage in
productively (2012, p. 250).
Early expressive collages in praxis- Yves Brunier’s angry collages
It is vital to introduce Yves Brunier with regard to the earliest proponent of
collages. In that respect, Brunier and Jacques (1996) is an excellent source for
understanding the creativity of Yves Brunier’s collages. He created evocative,
persuasive images that called for revisioning the world. Chaotic fragments of
different materials were collaged together with an underlying precision. His work was
fast, intelligent, and visually surprising. He always aimed at portraying the future of a
landscape which was raw and imaginative. Therefore, classical landscapes did not
appear in his works. His graphics are said to be refined yet rude, with as much
beauty as much as horror in their compositions. (pp. 15-23).
Current contemporary photomontage in praxis- James Corner's eidetic map-drawings
Corner is avid about educating the world about the advantages of composite
montage, which mainly incorporates multiple layers and types of information (maps,
pictographs, tracings, data etc) and represents the process of collection and
juxtaposition. This creative process culminates in images that avoid mere direct
solutions and decrease reduction (Corner 1999, p. 166).
He reintroduces the McHargian method of overlaying information. James also
mentions an essential fact that 'the landscape imagination is a power of
consciousness that transcends visualization' (Corner 1999, p.167). Essentially, the
34
limiting of human imagination with ready-made realistic images defeats the purpose
of the need for the human mind to engage and be part of the process of creativity.
M'Closkey (2013) shares Corner’s views on collage being a highly effective
medium to synthesize a design representation that uses systemic montage, that flat-
bed being the backdrop for putting down ideas. These eidetic images evoke dialogue
and are rich in data that is seen but unseen. In doing so, the resultant design
presents a new way of thinking to the viewer and forgoes imitation.
Figure 18-Burnings exhibiting data associated with Figure 19-Windmill Topography exhibiting data controlled burns for the large site in South Carolina associated with wind pressure and air and focussing on fire as a factor of design process to temperature by the use of data interspersed support renewal of the soil (Corner et.al., 1996) within the drawings and calling to attention the importance of the windmill turbines for the production of design (Corner et al., 1996)
35
On the other hand, M'Closkey also notes that Corner's works have shifted from eidetic montages to more imitative, convincing 'picturesque' images as he moved to commercial practice (2013). This might be a significant limiting factor of such eidetic montages- that it is a great tool to represent to fellow professionals. However, the typical client might find it tedious to assimilate and to read.
Discussion
It is interesting to note there is little literature and scholarship published (much
to the disdain of the professional looking to study graphic design trends).
Nevertheless, there has been a fair amount of discussion in the past decade which
appeals for a change from the current photorealistic representations. And there is a
common consensus of strategizing the placement of abstract graphics into
representative works. The article by Belanger & Urton (2014) was eye-opening and
reinstated a significant gap in discourse, and current inquiry is somewhat
inadequate. In terms of pedagogy, there were few books and resources that aimed
at digital representation itself. As well, the number of quality programs available is
restricted to Photoshop. There is a limited amount of scholarship, as evidenced by
Lange (2011). The number of articles that were connected with visual
communication in landscape architecture was few. Lange shares that since 1990,
there have been only three issues that helped spur interest in visualization and
modeling in the research community- 1992, 2001, and 2003. One can speculate that
Amoroso (2016) was right about her concern with the generic, same graphics that 36
are heightened via photorealistic illusions. It seems that she voices the opinions of
her peers in the advocacy of fresh graphic styles and turning back to abstract as a
form of expression.
Methods 3.1 Overview
Figure 20 provides a summary of the thesis methods. The methods have
been used to evaluate the study's research goal, objectives, and outcomes. The first
method developed keywords for Google Scholar and Primo (the University of Guelph
library search). The keywords were as follows:
visual communication, graphic communication, graphic identity, design
graphics, landscape architecture, landscape urbanism, graphic style, drawing
landscape, hyper-realism, photo-realism, design communication
These keywords were inputted into Google scholar and Primo (the University
of Guelph's online virtual library). The results were sifted for relevancy, and the
following material gathered for further review:
Books (particularly key-expert publications)
Original literature
Original theories
Anthologies
Peer-reviewed journal articles
Published theses
37
Furthermore, citations from significant research material were collected and studied for
inclusion in the literature review. A reverse search identified other authors who had cited
these significant materials. Pinterest boards aided the study of graphic language and
supported identifying similar and influenced design interpretation styles. Google image
searches for specific artists' works enabled identifying the most apparent design style of
that artist. These artists' online websites were studied for compliance (The Cultural
Landscape Foundation was referred to for the deceased artists). These selected images
were inserted into the questionnaire.
Figure 20- Overview of methods section of this thesis (Source: Author)
38
3.2 Case Study Overview:
The first analysis method was a visual study of a standard graphic
presentation from fifteen landscape architecture practices. This visual study seeked
to consolidate the following information about each selected graphic:
Figure 21- Template for case-study compilation (Source: Author)
3.3 Questionnaire Overview:
The second analysis method and data collection method was the creation of a
closed questionnaire. The questionnaire was sent to 10 key informants in the
landscape architecture profession to gather information on:
The awareness of the presence of a branding style associated with a firm; and
The knowledge of the branding style identified by the informants
The selection strategy for key informants was: 39
Landscape Architecture professionals
North Americas/Canada
Both male and female
Recent assistant professors engaged in the study of landscape architecture
visual communication
Previously or currently in praxis
Ten key informants were identified based on the above selection criteria.
Of these, eight informants responded to the questionnaire survey with varying
results. A brief introduction of the eight respondents are covered below to allow for
an understanding of what makes these professionals relevant and appropriate with
reference to this study:
Key informant 1- Samantha Solano
The first Key informant, Samantha Solano holds a position as Assistant
Professor of Landscape Architecture at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
Solano teaches graduate and undergraduate studios and advanced representation
courses and is a licensed Landscape Architect in Utah. Her scholarship includes the
empowerment of design; Her research and design methodologies are centered on
using critical mapping to reveal unrecognized, unformalized, and unrepresented
relationships hidden throughout the landscape. Her research has seen multiple
publications, including one of the references for this study visualization-
Representing Landscape: Analogue. She holds a Master in Landscape Architecture
40
from the Harvard University Graduate School of Design and a Bachelor in
Landscape Architecture from UNLV.
Key informant 2- Simon M. Bussiere
The second Key informant, Simon M. Bussiere holds a position at the
University of Hawai'i at Mānoa as Assistant Professor of Landscape Architecture &
Urban Ecological Design. His academic work focuses on design and experimental
modes of design representation, and he writes regularly as a design reviewer for
many organizations (professional and academic). He is a registered Landscape
architect in Australia and has published numerous articles. Bussiere has an MLA
from the Harvard Graduate School of Design, BS Landscape Architecture, University
of Massachusetts Amherst.
Key informant 3- Kirk Diamond
The third key informant, Kirk Diamond teaches graduate-level design studios
at the University of Arizona as Assistant Professor of Landscape Architecture.
Diamond’s research involves landscape performance by evaluating social and
ecological synergies and tradeoffs in design decisions relating to ecology, energy,
and water.
Diamond has an MS in Landscape Architecture from Penn State University.
Key informant 4- Pablo Pérez-Ramos
Pablo Pérez-Ramos is a licensed architect from the Escuela Técnica Superior
de Arquitectura de Madrid (ETSAM) and holds a Doctor of Design and Master in
41
Landscape Architecture degrees from the GSD. Pérez-Ramos is currently an
Assistant Professor of Landscape Architecture at the Harvard Graduate School of
Design where he supports key coursework such as the Independent thesis for the
Degree Master in Design Studies and Theories and Practices of Landscape
Architecture.
Key informant 5- Nicholas Serrano
The fifth key informant, Nicholas Serrano has previous experience working in
landscape construction and design consulting and served on the Executive
Committee of the NCASLA. He is currently an Assistant Professor at Louisiana State
University. Serrano’s research project looks at the history of landscape architecture
and urban development of the American South. KI5’s writing spans Landscape and
Environmental History, Southern Studies, and Material Culture to consider the
construction of racial identity through the built environment. A secondary research
and teaching interest of Serrano is in the field of contemporary planting design and
horticultural technologies in landscape architecture.
He has a Bachelor of Science in horticulture from North Carolina State University, a
Master of landscape architecture from Ball State University, and is a doctoral
candidate in the Ph.D. in design program at North Carolina State University.
Key informant 6- Danika Cooper
Danika Cooper is an Assistant Professor of Landscape Architecture and
Environmental Planning at the University of Berkeley. She incorporates
historiographical research methods, landscape architecture visualization, and 42
theories of urban infrastructure to evaluate and design for environmentally and
socially just landscapes. Cooper teaches the following courses focusing on
landscape representation: Representation as Research, Introduction to Drawing for
Landscape Architects & Contemporary Approaches to Visualization in Landscape
Architecture. She also has a Master of Landscape Architecture, Harvard University
Graduate School of Design; a Master in Design Studies, Harvard University
Graduate School of Design and a Bachelor of Arts in Architecture, Washington
University, St Louis.
Key informant 7- Jacob Mitchell
Jacob Mitchell teaches various coursework at the Rhode Island School of
Design as an Assistant Professor of Landscape Architecture. The courses taught by
Mitchell focus on design education and specializes in Cities and Cartography. This
comes from his background as a landscape designer, visualization specialist, and
researcher whose work focuses on the convergence of environmental processes,
infrastructural systems, public space, and how we represent these things. Mitchell’s
pursuit of design methods for large-scale projects using remote sensing technology,
geographic information systems, and landscape visualization is informed by a
background in landscape architecture, urban design, environmental studies, and
information technology. He holds an MLA from the University of Toronto.
Key informant 8- Rebecca Popowsky
Rebecca Popowsky is a Lecturer at the University of Pennsylvania. Previous
to that, she had been a practicing landscape architect with the OLIN Partnership 43
since 2009, making a wide range of contributions to the studio's project work. She
has an M.L.A. and M.Arch. from the University of Pennsylvania; and a B.A. in
Architecture and Urban Studies from Yale University.
Analysis and discussion Overview
A three-pronged approach was adopted to conduct a comprehensive analysis:
1- Literature review was consulted back and forth while analyzing both the
case studies and the questionnaire results. In particular, graphic features
and the trajectory of representation (ref. section 2.2) were crucial in this
part of the research.
2- Case studies were analyzed with respect to the questionnaire results to
arrive at relevant conclusions about the efficiency and movement of
graphic representation from 1945 till date.
3- Questionnaire results were analyzed with respect to the efficiency of each
type of graphic representation at being recognized by professionals. As
well, to ascertain if any particular method of representation was more
efficient than the rest.
Case-studies
The case studies were marked using the Kaplan (1979) attributes of coherence,
complexity, legibility, and mystery. Kaplan describes coherence as the presence of
repeated elements that bring the piece together, complexity as the variety of
44
elements, legibility is the clarity of function of that designed space and, mystery is
the element that leaves the viewer wanting more. In addition to these attributes, the
graphics were also studied for their visual attributes.
45
Case Study 1- Christophe Girot
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence Low Complexity High Company name: atelier girot Location: Zurich, Switzerland Legibility Low Project name: Brissago Garden Mystery High Project
Year: 2012
Description of similar Visual study: projects: Christophe Girot Christophe Plan/Perspective? Perspective Aiming for high precision and Main technique used Point cloud technology intelligent data Time invested in High Sifting is essential graphic School of art Urban, Datascaping Similar to Ian McHargian overlay Chromatic range Low techniques, with the added Saturation Low advantage of capturing inter- relations of surfaces and Contrast High environmental forces Presence of trees Yes Presence of people No Graphics produced are wafer- thin, rich in detail, luminescent Presence of Yes Figure 24-Section through true-color point cloud, Brissago, Switzerland using point-cloud terrain model technology infographics and highly aesthetic (Girot, 2013) to understand and shape landscapes by Christophe, Girot (Girot, 2013) Range of line- Yes weights Repeated patterns No Presence of shadows No Materiality Yes
46
Case Study 2- Chip Sullivan
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence High Complexity High Company name: None Location: Berkely, California Legibility High Project name: Illustration for Mystery High book, Cartooning the landscape
Year: 2016 Chip Sullivan Chip Description of similar Visual study: projects: Plan/Perspective? Perspective Aiming at capturing fragile Main technique used Pen and ink with watercolor wash balance between nature and human beings by using Time invested in High illustrative cartooning styles that graphic are high-fantasy and filled with School of art Comic, Cartooning energy (Richmond Art Center, Chromatic range Low 2013) Saturation Low
Contrast Low Presence of trees Yes Presence of people No Presence of Yes infographics Range of line- Yes Figure 23- Refer Figure 17 weights Repeated patterns No Presence of shadows Yes Materiality Yes
47
Case Study 3- Claude Cormier
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence High Complexity High Company name: Claude Cormier + associates Legibility Moderate Location: Montreal, Quebec Mystery Moderate Project name: Sugar Beach
Year: 2008-2010
Description of similar Visual study:
Claude Cormier Claude projects: Plan/Perspective? Perspective Bold images that promote Main technique used Illustrator company branding Time invested in High Celebration of manmade nature- graphic no hiding that it is constructed School of art Abstract, Modernist Chromatic range Moderate Loud, clear and complex designs Saturation Moderate that promote interaction Contrast Moderate Sensual, playful, physical design Presence of trees Yes Figure 24- Refer Figure 13 (Cormier, n.d) Presence of people Yes
Presence of No infographics Range of line- Yes weights Repeated patterns Yes Presence of shadows Yes Materiality No
48
Case Study 4- Garett Eckbo
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence High Complexity Moderate Company name: EDAW Location: San Francisco Legibility High Project name: Burden garden Mystery Low Year: 1945
Garett Eckbo Garett Description of the project:
Visual study: California garden style Plan/Perspective? Plan Heavily influenced by the Beaux Main technique used Ink on tracing paper Arts style prevalent at the University of California Time invested in Moderate graphic School of art Beaux Arts Sun and wind patterns important to the design concept Chromatic range Low Saturation Low Often added explanatory notes Contrast Low to each project Presence of trees Yes Importance given to spatial Presence of people No design for experiencing the Presence of No outdoors effectively infographics
Range of line- Yes Circles prevalent in design weights influenced by Kandinsky (Treib Repeated patterns Yes Figure 25 -Burden Garden plan by Eckbo using ink on paper (cdlib B, 1997) and Eckbo, 1997) Presence of shadows No
Materiality No
49
Case Study 5- Grossmax
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence Low Complexity High Company name: Gross Max Location: Edinburgh, Scotland Legibility Low Project name: Installation- Mystery High
Grossmax hofplein rotterdam
Year: 2003
Description of the project: Visual study:
Perspectival views Plan/Perspective? Perspective
Main technique used Photoshop Termed as ‘new picturesque’ Time invested in High Design portrays changing graphic School of art Collage, Loose realism tendencies in future owing to the movements and the differing Chromatic range Moderate transparencies Saturation Moderate
Contrast High Highly influenced by collage Presence of trees Yes Open and inclusive visualizations Presence of people Yes portraying loose realism Presence of No (Kullmann, 2014) infographics
Figure 26- Refer Figure 2 Range of line- No weights Repeated patterns No Presence of shadows No Materiality Yes
50
Case Study 6- James Corner
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence Low Complexity High Company name: James Corner Field Operations Legibility Low Location: New York Mystery High Project name: n.d
Year: n.d
James Corner James Description of the project: Visual study:
Eidetic photomontage Plan/Perspective? Perspective
Boundaries and frames are Main technique used Photoshop ambiguous- describing vacillating Time invested in High future scenarios graphic School of art Collage, Loose realism Highly imaginative Chromatic range High Possibilities of dialogue Saturation High enhanced (Belanger and Urton, 2014) Contrast High
Presence of trees Yes Presence of people Yes Presence of No infographics Range of line- No Figure 27- Refer Figure 1 weights Repeated patterns No Presence of shadows No Materiality Yes
51
Case Study 7- Kathryn Gustafson
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence High Complexity Low Company name: Gustafson Porter + Bowman Legibility Low Location: London, UK Mystery High Project name: Rhine Terrace
Year: 2012
Description of similar Visual study: projects: Plan/Perspective? Perspective 3D
Kathryn Gustafson Kathryn Simplified, achromatic landscape models (Kingery-Page and Hahn , Main technique used 3D model 2012) Time invested in High graphic Modelling in clay allows to bring School of art Model making, Modernist out the sensuality and simplicity, working with landforms (Kathryn Chromatic range Low Gustafson, n.d.) Saturation Low Contrast Low Presence of trees No Presence of people No Presence of No infographics Range of line- No weights Figure 28- Refer Figure 16 Repeated patterns No Presence of shadows No Materiality No
52
Case Study 8- Roberto Burle Marx
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence Low Complexity Low Company name: Burle Marx & Cia. Ltda Legibility High Location: Caracas, Venezuela Mystery Low Project name: Garden Design for
Beach House for Mr. and Mrs. Burton Tremaine Year: 1948 Visual study:
Description of the project: Plan/Perspective? Plan
Main technique used Hand drawing
Roberto Burle Marx Burle Roberto Color was prominent Time invested in High Asymmetrical plans graphic School of art Avantgarde, Modernist, Abstract Use of rich variety of plant Chromatic range High material- materiality was given high importance Saturation High
Painting-like expression Contrast High Presence of trees Yes Fluid amoebic shapes Presence of people No Contoured planting beds but not Presence of No able to be captured in plan infographics (Lorch, 2002) Range of line- No Figure 29- Garden Design for Beach House for Mr. and Mrs. Burton Tremaine by Roberto Burle Marx (MOMA, 2002) weights Repeated patterns No Presence of shadows No Materiality No
53
Case Study 9- Rem Koolhaas
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence High Complexity Low Company name: OMA Location: Rotterdam, Legibility Low Netherlands
Koolhaas Mystery Low Project name: Downsview Park,
Toronto Year: 2000 Rem Rem Visual study: Description of the project: Plan/Perspective? Plan Trees will be the primary design Main technique used Geometric shapes, lines element, scattered in clusters. Time invested in Low Sustainable design layout graphic School of art Pop, Abstract needing less maintenance. Chromatic range Low Promoting environmental Saturation High expansion (OMA, n.d) Contrast High against light background
Presence of trees Undecipherable Presence of people Undecipherable Presence of No infographics Range of line- Yes weights Repeated patterns Yes Figure 30- Downsview Park, Toronto by Rem Koolhaas (OMA, n.d) Presence of shadows No Materiality No
54
Case Study 10- Piet Oudolf
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics: lf o ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence High Complexity High Company name: Private practice Location: Netherlands Legibility Low Project name: Rectangular Mystery Low garden, Serpentine Gallery
Piet Oud Piet pavilion Year: 2011 Visual study: Description of the project: Plan/Perspective? Plan Intense design that benefits Main technique used Hand drawing, very distinct, less butterflies, birds and bees finessed Time invested in Low Numerous codes and shapes graphic School of art None in particular- freehand Lots of notes (Weisz, 2018) drawing Chromatic range Low Saturation High Contrast High against light background Presence of trees Undecipherable Presence of people Undecipherable Presence of Yes Figure 3125- Serpentine Gallery Pavillion by Piet Oudolf (Weisz, 2018) infographics Range of line- No weights Repeated patterns Yes Presence of shadows No Materiality No
55
Case Study 11- EDSA
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence High Complexity High EDSA Company name: EDSA Location: Fort Lauderdale, Florida Legibility High Project name: Port of St. Mystery Moderate Maarten, St. Maarten
Year: 1989
Description of similar Visual study: projects: Plan/Perspective? Plan Prioritized hand graphic Main technique used Hand drawing, pen and marker expressions and less computer wash, very distinct, highly finessed rendering Time invested in High graphic Distinctive design generation School of art Impressionist-like leading to elaborate details Chromatic range High
Strong branding and artistic Saturation High, but balanced legacy Contrast High
Presence of trees Yes Flavorful representations (Gray, 2019) Presence of people No Presence of No infographics Range of line- Yes weights Repeated patterns Yes Presence of shadows Yes Figure 32- Refer Figure 9 Materiality Yes
Figure 263- Refer Figire 12Figure 32- Refer Figure 9
56
Case Study 12- Thomas Church
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence High Complexity Moderate Company name: Private practice Location: San Francisco, Legibility High California Mystery Low Project name: Donnell Garden
Plan Year: 1947 Visual study:
Thomas Church Thomas Description of the project: Plan/Perspective? Plan California look- both Main technique used Hand drawing, watercolors sophisticated but relaxed distinct, moderately finessed Time invested in Low Priority to create a relaxing space graphic that can entertain just as well School of art Avant garde, Modernist
Chromatic range Low Exploring new forms by creating the Biomorphic pool which was Saturation Low the highlight Contrast Low (“Thomas Dolliver Church,“ n.d) Presence of trees Yes
Presence of people No Presence of No infographics Range of line- Yes weights Repeated patterns Yes Presence of shadows Yes Figure 33- Refer Figure 12 Materiality Yes
Figure 274- Washington Mall perspective by Diana Balmori (Balmori, 2012)Figure 283- Refer Figire 12
57
Case Study 13- Diana Balmori
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence High Complexity High Company name: Private practice Location: New York Legibility Moderate Project name: Washington Mall Mystery High Year: 2012
Description of the project:
Diana Balmori Diana Visual study: Curving and curling lines and landforms Plan/Perspective? Perspective
Main technique used Photoshop rendering Hardy landscape focussed on public space use Time invested in High graphic School of art Photorealism, Impressionism Preservation of historical elements, introduction of Chromatic range Moderate contemporary elements (Balmori Saturation Moderate Associates, 2017) Contrast Moderate
Presence of trees Yes Presence of people Yes- transparent Presence of No infographics Range of line- No weights Repeated patterns No Figure 34- Washington Mall perspective by Diana Balmori (Balmori, 2012) Presence of shadows Yes
Materiality Yes Figure 29- Euralille by Yves Brunier (Landscapetheory, 1996)Figure 304- Washington Mall perspective by Diana
Balmori (Balmori, 2012)
58
Case Study 14- Yves Brunier
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence Low Complexity Moderate Company name: None Location: Rotterdam Legibility Moderate Project name: Euralille Mystery High Year: 1987
Yves Brunier Yves Description of similar projects: Visual study:
Anguish-provoking smattering of Plan/Perspective? Perspective assorted materials to create Main technique used Collage distinct collages Time invested in High Free thinking design pieces graphic School of art Expressionism, Abstract Initial visual shock gave rise to Chromatic range Moderate noting the hidden precision Saturation Moderate
Not classical landscapes at all and Contrast High contained great predictive nature Presence of trees Yes (Brunier and Jacques, 1996) Presence of people Yes- blurry
Presence of No infographics Range of line- No weights Repeated patterns No Presence of shadows Yes Figure 35- Euralille by Yves Brunier (Landscapetheory, 1996) Materiality Yes
Figure 31- Euralille by Yves Brunier (Landscapetheory, 1996)
59
Case Study 15- Ken Smith
Kaplan & Kaplan’s characteristics:
ARCHITECT PROFILE Coherence High Complexity High Company name: Ken Smith Workshop Legibility High Location: New York Mystery Low
Ken Smith Ken Project name: 1271 Avenue of
the Americas Year: 2014 Visual study: Description of similar projects: Plan/Perspective? Perspective
Main technique used Photoshop rendering Focus on symbolic content Time invested in High Priority given to landscape being graphic a vehicle for art School of art Realistic, Abstract Chromatic range Moderate New expressions constantly Saturation Moderate being explored Contrast High Use of hybrid techniques specific Presence of trees Yes to individual projects (Ken Smith, Presence of people Yes Principal, n.d) Presence of No infographics Range of line- Yes weights Figure 36- 1271 Avenue of the Americas, NYC by Ken Smith (kensmithworkshop, n.d) Repeated patterns Yes Presence of shadows Yes Figure 36- 1271 Avenue of the Americas, NYC by Ken Smith (kensmithworkshop, n.d) Materiality Yes
60
Case study analysis table:
Legibility was chosen as a significant Kaplan characteristic to gauge
understanding and hence, the promise of dialogue. Amongst the visual
characteristics, layout of the drawing, type of graphic and chromatic range were used
as markers to create Table 1:
Table 1- Case study analysis table with crucial data compiled (Source: Author)
61
Timeline of graphic representation
Sorting the case studies by year of production into Table 2 proved to be a
fruitful exercise that led to a better understanding of how design evolved between
1945 and 2020.
Artist/architect Year Span Type of graphic
Eckbo, Church, Burle 1945- 45 years Hand graphics Marx, Brunier, EDSA 1990 Koolhaas, Corner, 1999- 20 years Abstract and Collage Grossmax, Claude, Oudolf 2011 Kathryn, Girot, Diana, Ken 2012- 10 years Varying new forms of Smith, Chip Sullivan 2020 representation
Table 2- Case study analysis of graphic across time (Source: Author)
The use of hand graphics was prevalent in the earlier part of the period as
digital expression was still nascent. And it is assumed that this was also the golden
age of hand graphics, having been used for a much lengthier period compared to
digital technology. Next, the period where abstract design was used (2000-2011)
coincided with the highest design recognition. These were the early proponents of
abstractionism. Star architects such as Koolhaas took upon delivering the graphic to
the audiences through various competitions. This raised awareness for abstract
graphic representation. Between 2012 and now, the advent of new technology
allowed for greater variety of experimentation. From the 3D models of Kathryn
Gustafson to the realistic-abstractionism of Ken Smith. Being quite avant-garde,
these new forms of expression are still undergoing shifts in representational styles.
62
Relationship of plan/perspective across time
It was found that there were more plan graphics in the earlier times as
compared to more current times, which used perspectives as a major vehicle for
design representation. The appearance of perspectives in the later part of the
timeline allowed artists to gain control over visual-spatial imaging. Where plans
afforded them only one dimension to work with, perspectives accommodated more
ways of representing key elements. In turn, artists would find them to be an excellent
vehicle to represent facts and realism. Probably why it is used more currently- these
perspectival images better represent realism.
Legibility
According to the observation table, hand graphics is highly proportional to
legibility or ease of interpretation. Furthermore, collages were observed to be less
understood. The use of abstract graphics had varying responses to legibility.
Legibility, in general, did not increase or decrease over time, despite the
changes in graphics over time. Therefore, it is assumed that the range of
understanding and expectation that audiences desire has remained constant.
Chromatic range
There did not seem to be any correlations between chromatic range with any
of the other characteristics. It was expected that brighter, more colorful images would
retain attention and become more memorable. E.g. pop art graphics in art history
gained prominence because of their vivid chromatic ranges. It is possible that
landscape graphics are conditioned to emulate nature, which has a shorter 63
chromatic range under natural conditions. Therefore, audiences might perceive lower
chromatic ranges as more sustainable and less ‘manufactured gardens’. In
photorealistic graphics, this dreamy state of perfect nature is emulated to good effect
and is desired by audiences.
Questionnaire
The questionnaire was well received, and 80% of the respondents responded
within hours. The general comments were that it was fun, brought back design
memories, and was quite easy to fill out considering the informants' time to reply with
their answers. An important observation from 3 of the 8 respondents was the
concern that most of the graphics would easily be identified by the projects
themselves, and there was an overall worry that it would skew the results. After
compiling the data analysis, this was found to be a clear possibility, especially in
Graphic 13 (ref. Diana Balmori). In addition to this, respondents also pointed out that
Graphic 9 (ref. Bruce Mau/Rem Koolhaas) and Graphic 10 (ref. Piet Oudulf) was not
created by landscape architects (Bruce Mau and Rem Koolhaas- architects; Piet
Oudulf- Horticulturist). However, this was found to be less significant to this study
because these non-landscape architects were supporters and significant contributors
to landscape architecture and had a good basal knowledge of landscape processes
for their designs to be accepted as landscape architecture works.
64
4.2.1 Question 1- Christopher Girot's graphic
Figure 37- Refer Figure 22
Figure50% 37 of- Refer respondents Figure 22 got this right. 25% got it wrong and another 25% were
unable to identify the graphic.
Considering that Girot's graphic
is very unique, it was expected
that it is recognized easily.
Among the wide array of
graphic representations, he is
the only one that displays the
point-cloud technology sketelal
graphics within the
diagrammatic representation. Figure 38- Christophe Girot's graphic recognition results (Source: Author)
65
Figure 38- Christophe Girot's graphic recognition results (Source: Author)
4.2.2 Question 2- Chip Sullivan's graphic
Figure 39- Refer Figure 17
Chip Sullivan's graphic
has received more correct
entries. His style is undeniably
fun, comic style of
representation was identified
correctly by 75% of the
respondents. 13% of the
respondents got it wrong and
thought it might be a Jencks
work. It is possible that the
Figure 40- Chip Sullivan’s graphic recognition results respondent thought of the (Source: Author) overall built form as very fluid and Jenck's-like in appearance. The other 13% was
not able to recognize the graphic form at all. 66
4.2.3 Question 3- Claude Cormier's graphic
Figure 41- Refer Figure 13
63% of respondents Figure 41- Refer Figure 13 recognized this as Claude's
work. At least one of them
disclosed that they were able to
recognize his graphic because
of the pink umbrellas in the
background. 34% of the
respondents were unable to
recognize this work. This called Figure 42- Claude Cormier’s graphic recognition results for the need to study the rest of (Source: Author)
Claude's graphics over his project profile to recognize if the graphic sent out in the
67
questionnaire was indeed a good representative sample. On the other hand, none of
the respondents answered it wrong. This meant that the responses were confident,
and those who know his work might see the elements in common (e.g. The
umbrellas, the willow-tree silhouettes, vector people, city skyline etc).
4.2.4 Question 4- Garett Eckbo's graphic
Figure 4323- Refer Figure 25
This graphic received a
88% correct response and only 13% got it wrong. Incidentally, two responses thought this could be
James Rose, but I failed to see the connection, having gone through
Figure 44-Garrett Eckbo’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author) 68
Rose's works. However, further reading concluded that Rose and Eckbo collaborated, and their graphic style was somewhat similar. Hence, this may be a common mistake.
4.2.5 Question 5- Grossmax's graphic
Figure 45- Refer Figure 2
This graphic by GrossMAX
is one of their most recognized
works. 75% of respondents
instantly recognized this as
GrossMAX. The other 25%
recognized this is Kate Orff's
work. Looking through Kate's style
of representation, it was observed
that she has used juxtapositioning Figure 46- Grossmax’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author) 69
Figure 337- Refer Figure 1Figure 46- Grossmax’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)
of layers of graphic elements with varying transparencies in a few of her works.
However, her works are undeniably associated with ecological backgrounds, and
data is mingled within the design. GrossMAX graphics nearly always have the city as
the background, making it visibly different and unique.
4.2.6 Question 6- James Corner's graphic
Figure 47- Refer Figure 1
This graphic by James
Corner was one of his commercial
representations as opposed to the
academic works (viz. the more
popular and very identifiable map-
drawings). Though it was expected
that this would not be as well-
recognized, 88% of respondents
recognized this confidently. Figure 48- James Corner’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author) 70
Only 13% (1 respondent) did not get it right- it was instead recognized as
Michael van Valkenburgh's work (presumably due to its similarity to Valkenburgh's
plant collages).
4.2.7 Question 7- Kathryn Gustafson's graphic
Figure 49- Refer Figure 16
Kathryn Gustafson's white
models hold an esteemed place in
the history of landscape visual
representation. Therefore, when
only 63% of respondents were
able to recognize this correctly
(25% drew a blank on this), it
might be because it is not as Figure 50- Kathryn Gustafson’s graphic recognition typical for the current generation of results (Source: Author)
71
landscape architects (2000-2021) to be aware of model making as it is not a very
commonly used form of interpretation in today's practice.
4.2.8 Question 8- Roberto Burle Marx's graphic
Figure 51- Refer Figure 29
100% of respondents
answered this correctly, proving
that it is undeniably a unique
language of graphics and a further
exploration on Roberto's reason
for selecting this style of
interpretation could be useful for a
successful branding identity study. Figure 52- Roberto Burle Marx’s graphic recognition Marx's graphic style is highly results (Source: Author)
unique, this can account for the perfect response.
72
4.2.9 Question 9- Bruce Mau/Rem Koolhaas's graphic
Figure 53- Refer Figure 30
An architect created this
graphic as opposed to a
landscape architect. 25% of
respondents raised concerns
about selecting this graphic as it
was created by OMA (Office for
Metropolitan Architecture, by
Rem Koolhaas), not a landscape
architect. This graphic was Figure 5344- Rem Koolhaas’s graphic recognition chosen as it was part of results (Source: Author)
collection, since this graphic helped secure the winning submission of the first
federal urban design competition in Toronto. Also OMA worked with landscape
73
architecture firm Inside/Outside of Petra Blaisse. On exploring the efficiency and
knowledge base of this artist collaboration, it was concluded that the artists who
worked on this graphic were well versed in its conception, analysis, and knowledge
base. 25% of respondents incorrectly identified the artist, but 50% did so correctly.
4.2.10 Question 10- Piet Oudolf's graphic
Figure 55- Refer Figure 31
This was yet another
graphic that a non-landscape
architect created. Piet was, in
fact, a horticulturist. However,
the support and advancement,
and knowledge that Piet has
brought to the field of
landscape architecture make it Figure 56- Piet Oudolf’s graphic recognition results 74 (Source: Author)
worthy of being used in this study. 88% respondents were able to tell it is a Piet
Oudolf right away. Only 13% (1 respondent) could not recognize it. This is yet
another graphic style that is distinctive and undoubtedly resplendent with unique
visuals.
4.2.10 Question 11- EDSA's graphic
Figure 57- Refer Figure 9
75
EDSA graphics are
quite varied in appearance,
given that there are multiple
artists working over an array
of projects over different
tenures. Graphic needs
would be varied spread out
over time and place-
requirements (cultural
preferences). Even so, 50% Figure 58- EDSA’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author) of respondents correctly
recognized this graphic. One respondent thought it might be Design Workshop, and
it was not strange to be associated with Design Workshop's graphics, given that both
firms operate on near-similar processes. 38% of respondents were unable to
recognize this graphic. As explained earlier, it was expected that this graphic might
be a difficult one to spot.
76
4.2.12 Question 12- Thomas Church's graphic
Figure 59- Refer Figure 12
This was most likely a most
interesting observation of the
respondent identification. 63%
answered this correctly, 25% were
wrong, and 13% could not answer it.
Of the 25% who were wrong, one
respondent answered that it looked
like an Eckbo graphic. This was
great feedback because it turns out
that Thomas Church was a professor Figure 60- Thomas Church’s graphic recognition results (Source: Author)
77
and mentor of Eckbo at Berkeley and no doubt influenced the young Eckbo's graphic
style. Church and Eckbo worked together, and therefore some of their graphic styles
may be mixed.
4.2.13 Question 13- Diana Balmori's graphic
Figure 61- Refer Figure 34
Diana's graphics were only
recognized by 13% of respondents.
50% of respondents thought it was
a Laurie Olin graphic. The obelisk
in the background skewed the
respondent's identification by
paying more attention to the project
rather than the graphics Figure 62- Diana Balmori’s graphic recognition themselves. results (Source: Author)
78
4.2.14 Question 14- Yves Brunier’s graphic
Figure 63- Refer Figure 35
50% of respondents got this
right. 38% couldn't recognize it, and
13% answered it incorrectly. The
limited exposure of Yves's works to
the current practicing professionals
might need to be explored. His work
is often recognized by his crude,
child-like drawings using a mix of Figure 64- Yves Brunier's graphic recognition results colored and black and white (Source: Author)
photocopies collaged in a non-precise format.
79
4.2.15 Question 15- Ken Smith's graphic
Figure 65- Refer Figure 36
Ken Smith's graphic was
recognized correctly only by
13% of respondents. 50%
guessed incorrectly as Peter
Walker's style, and a further
38% could not place the artist's
name to this graphic. This was
yet another exciting observation Figure 66- Ken Smith's graphic recognition results because Ken Smith was (Source: Author)
influenced by Peter Walker at the beginning of his career while working as an intern
80
with Peter Walker and Martha Schwartz at their offices. This also meant that Ken's
graphic style might need more branding to be easily recognized.
Questionnaire analysis table:
Table 3- Questionnaire analysis- bar graph (Source: Author)
81
This exercise involved pulling in data from the questionnaire results from
Table 3 to find the recognition parameter (Ref. Table 4- column 4).
Artist/architect Year Span Type of Recognition- high (H), graphic moderate (M), low (L)
Eckbo, Church, 1945- 45 years Hand graphics 2H, 2M, 1L Burle Marx, 1990 Brunier, EDSA Koolhaas, 1999- 20 years Abstract and 3H, 2M Corner, 2011 Collage Grossmax, Claude, Oudolf Kathryn, Girot, 2012- 10 years Varying new 1H, 2M, 2L Diana, Ken 2020 forms of Smith, Chip representation Sullivan
Table 4- Analysis of questionnaire- time, graphics, recognition (Source: Author)
Table 5 helped arrive at the following conclusions:
Recognition of graphics was highest for abstract art, followed by hand
graphics and new graphics were least recognized. The explanation for the low
recognition of these new graphics might be because of less exposure as these
representations have been around only in the past 10 years. In comparison, hand
graphics and abstract, on the other hand, have been circulating for the past
45+20=65 years.
However, in current years, it is worthy to note that Chip Sullivan’s hand
drawing was the highest recognized amongst the others. It brings to question that
perhaps the hand rendering and hybrid-styles could be a good direction for future
practitioners. 82
It was found necessary to break Table 5 down further and analyze each
graphic carefully to see the recognition pattern in Table 6:
Artist/architect Year Type of Recognition- graphic high (H), moderate (M), low (L)
Eckbo 1945 Hand graphic H
Church 1947 Hand graphic M
Burle Marx 1948 Hand graphic H
Brunier 1987 Collage M
EDSA 1989 Hand graphic M
Koolhaas 2000 Abstract M
Corner 2000 Collage H
Grossmax 2003 Collage H
Claude 2010 Abstract M
Oudolf 2011 Hand graphics H
Kathryn 2012 Abstract M
Girot 2012 Abstract M
Diana 2012 Abstract L
Ken Smith 2014 Abstract L
Chip Sullivan 2016 Hand graphics H
Table 5- Exploded analysis- time, graphics, recognition (Source: Author)
83
According to the Table 6,
Hand graphics- 6 representations- 4H, 2M
Collage- 3 representations- 2H, 1M
Abstract- 6 representations- 4M, 2L
Considering that the hand graphic images were double the number of
collages in the case study selections and distributed over double the period, the
recognition factor for hand graphics and collages are comparable. Pure abstract was
only half as effective in being recognized. By consolidating all of the data together
from both the questionnaires, we arrive at Table 7.
During the case-study analysis, it was concluded that chromatic range had no
direct correlation to any of the other characteristics. It was assumed that
perspectives would have been an optimum medium to display a better range of
chromatic colors. However, this was not the case. The use of color over time has not
increased. On the other hand, it has become less saturated; and, the tone has
shifted to green hues (perhaps this is a color preferred by audiences who like photo-
realistic representations, as discussed in section 2.3).
Moreover, the use of color has always been linked to a more attractive and
memorable image. Upon testing this against the tabular results, there was no such
correlation found. This meant that in the field of landscape architecture, the use of
color is not warranted for better appreciation from the audience. This also confirms
why abstract art, which is generally brighter, is not preferred as much as less
saturated art.
84
Table 6- Consolidated table of data from case studies and questionnaires compiled (Source: Author)
85
Conclusion Overview
A summary of the research, limitations, and identified future opportunities is
presented based on the literature review, case studies, and questionnaire analysis.
Research summary
This research study seeked to provide a pedagogical perspective on graphic
representation in landscape architecture that holds relevance in practice. A void in
literature concerning branding identity called out for the explorative assimilation of a
body of knowledge on representational styles and the trajectory of design exploration
in the last 80 years.
The study captured the movement of graphic styles from plan to perspectival
views over the time-period and observed the shift from hand graphics to alternative
modes of representation such as datascapes. The longevity of graphic styles and
recognition by audiences was explored and recorded by way of case studies and
questionnaires.
The limitations of this research were the lack of time available to explore the
origins and trajectory of architecture and urban representational drawing to draw
parallels and predict outcomes. Another limitation was the scale of drawings- the
plan views that were studied were small-medium scale, whereas some of the
perspectives were part of a larger scale. Though it seems that the vantage points
and the size of the image captured in the perspectival views are somewhat similar,
larger sites may have more public audiences asserting their opinion compared with a 86
single client for smaller scales. Therefore, the graphic used by the designer for a
larger project might have lesser details and more mystery to aid better business
decisions and curb the range of comments by being slightly vaguer than if one were
to design for a specific client who might want to see precise details.
The type of analysis undertaken in this research was highly qualitative and
subject to nuances such as personal biases and external influences (such as clarity
of images, unknown textures that might not be evident in the image, lack of complete
understanding under which that image was created etc).
The main inferences were that photorealistic graphics are a lost opportunity
for dialogue and creativity. They need to be replaced by a more efficient mode of
representation, which embodies the culture of landscape architecture methods and
practices. Photorealistic renders disappoint audiences when the final result does not
look like the finished image, replete with magical visual effects. It was concluded that
collage is an efficient representational vehicle that audiences can easily assimilate
and are well regarded. It is known for its power as a piece of artist interpretation, and
many award-winning architects are starting to return to the collaging method in their
visualization. Collages have the advantage of an unpredictable conclusion of the
design process. This makes the audience more accepting of it as an opportunity for
them to wield power over the final decision. In addition, collages frequently represent
images imperfectly stitched together, making the undertone of the final product very
mutable and raw. These images are far from perfect and are becoming very popular
with audiences, especially in the public realm. For the artist who creates such
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collages, the onus is not on achieving perfection as much as reliving the project site
and encapsulating its core sense of place- one that is not pure and fictional, but one
which is real and has character. The value of collages extends beyond academic
pursuits with the various techniques such as freeform collages, wireframe collages,
eidetic collages etc- this diversity of graphics within collage can be effectively used to
create templates for branding identities within landscape architecture practice. It was
observed that the use of collage is currently limited to ideation and concept graphics
where it is constructively used. It can be considered as a good means of
experimentation. In that regard, it must be remembered that the use of collages in
competitions runs the risk of not being accepted well if the general public cannot
comprehend what the collages represent. (Considering that legibility of collages is
lesser – refer section 4.3.3).
Future research opportunities
Further research in collage representation would entail gathering knowledge
in the trajectory of design representation in allied fields such as urban design and
architecture, followed by drawing parallels in how graphic representation changed in
recent times.
Considering that techniques using hand drawings such as cartooning and
hybrid representation have gathered interest and are well accepted by audiences, it
is worthwhile to improve the production of hand drawings. This might be achieved by
the survey and test-driving the wide range of tablets and pens and the software
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associated with them specifically for landscape architecture . E.g, Procreate on the
iPad Pro, Krita on the Wacom, Morpholio etc.
Following the growth of other sources of graphic representation such as
vector graphics, data scapes, and storyboarding could add immense value to the
field of collage making, using these techniques in hybrid within collages.
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Questionnaire
Hi ______,
My name is Tina George, and I am a Master's candidate in Landscape Architecture under the guidance of Prof. Nadia Amoroso at the University of Guelph.
My Master's thesis explores design vocabulary that is distinguishable amongst some Landscape architects.
The main question I seek an answer to is:
Is there a distinct graphic style that allows the viewer to identify the landscape architect?
The direct application is within pedagogy to help develop one's unique style of representation. More importantly, to sway away from popular, homogeneous 'photorealism.'"
START of the Design questionnaire
Below are a set of graphic images taken from landscape architects/firms in active practice from the 1930s till 2021- do you recognize the architect/firm who created this graphic?
GRAPHIC 1 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
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GRAPHIC 2 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
GRAPHIC 3 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
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GRAPHIC 4 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
GRAPHIC 5 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
GRAPHIC 6 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
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GRAPHIC 7 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
GRAPHIC 8 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
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GRAPHIC 9 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
GRAPHIC 10 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
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GRAPHIC 11 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
GRAPHIC 12 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
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GRAPHIC 13 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
GRAPHIC 14 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
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GRAPHIC 15 NAME OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
END of the Design questionnaire- Thank you for your much-appreciated contribution to my thesis-work. It is my desire that unique representational styles gain prominence and Landscape architecture graphics could elevate back to Fine arts standards!
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Appendix 2: Defence presentation
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Autocad base, imported into photoshop on typical workstation- extraction, inversion and saturation changes to arrive at unique ‘blueprint’ graphic
Figure 36- 1271 Avenue of the Americas, NYC by Ken Smith (kensmithworkshop, n.d)
Colored hand rendering base, imported into photoshop on typical workstation- extraction, inversion and saturation changes to arrive at unique ‘coffee-stain’ graphic
Figure 36- 1271 Avenue of the Americas, NYC by Ken Smith (kensmithworkshop, n.d)
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Sketchup base, imported into Krita- filled and colored to highlight contours, added data as linework using Wacom pen using a Wacom tablet to arrive at a informational graphic
Figure 36- 1271 Avenue of the Americas, NYC by Ken Smith (kensmithworkshop, n.d)
Color rendering from UVision, imported into Krita and added filter for night time effect, color dodge for lighting and added fragrments of found images to place collages. Finished with subtle line work with Wacom pen using an Intuos tablet
Figure 36- 1271 Avenue of the Americas, NYC by Ken Smith (kensmithworkshop, n.d)
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