Health & Fitness Journal of Canada Copyright © 2013 The Authors. Journal Compilation Copyright © 2013 Health & Fitness Program of BC Volume 6 May 30, 2013 Number 2 ! HISTORICAL!PERSPECTIVE! The developing understanding of Human Health and Fitness: 7. The Victorian Era Roy!J.!Shephard1!

Abstract! opportunities.'For'women,'the'relaxation'of'dress'codes' ' 'Physiological' research' flourished' during' the' allowed' an' everChristianity,' of' positive' health.' Nevertheless,' interest' in' Preventive' but'there'is'little'objective'data'on'fitness'of'the'adult' Medicine' was' spurred' by' the' work' of' Florence' population'during'the'Victorian'Era.' Health!&!Fitness! Nightingale' and' Almoth' Wright' in' military' hospitals.' Journal!of!Canada!2013;6(2):3L83.' Vigorous' exercise' programmes' also' played' a' role' in' ! some' popular' forms' of' “Alternative' Medicine.”' ' Good' Keywords:'Active'Commuting;'Cardiovascular'Function;' health'had'previously'been'seen'as'a'gift'bestowed'by'a' Fitness;'Metabolism;'Muscle'Function;'Philosophy;' capricious' God.' However,' liberal' Victorian' theologians' Physical'Education;'Preventive'Medicine;'Public'Health;' began'to'argue'the'need'for'both'personal'and'societal' Respiratory'Function;'Scientific'Societies;'Spectatorism;' efforts' to' enhance' an' individual's' wellness.' Sports'Medicine;'Strength;'Women'in'Sport.' Philosophers'questioned'the'nature'of'reality,'and'some' ' proposed' revolutionary' solutions' to' social' problems.' From'the' 1Faculty'of'Kinesiology'&'Physical'Education,' Many'thinkers'began'to'recognize'the'individual’s'role' University' of' Toronto,' Ontario,' Canada.' Email:' in'the'quest'for'good'health,'and'some'political'leaders' [email protected]'' demonstrated' this' belief' through' their' personal' ' lifestyle.'Nevertheless,'various'social'changes'continued' Introduction! the'trend'to'a'reduced'need'for'regular'physical'activity.' Victorian' society' saw' the' construction' of' mass' Previous' articles' in' this' series' have' transportation' systems,' the' introduction' of' new' explored'the'developing'understanding'of' spectator' pastimes' and' a' progressive' decrease' in' the' health' and' fitness,' beginning' in' the' energy' costs' of' industrial' and' domestic' work.' In' Europe,'there'was'a'strong'rivalry'between'German'and' earliest' days' of' pre

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! 1837<1901'CE).'However,'for'the'purpose' “Belle' Epoch.”' ' Many' Europeans' also' of'our'present'review,'it'is'convenient'to' enjoyed' a' growing' material' wealth,' and' include' also' the' shorter' Edwardian' era' with' faith' in' the' potential' of' new' and' other' events' until' the' outbreak' of' technology' they' saw' the' first' signs' of' World'War'I,'in'August'of'1914.'' progress'towards'effective'health'care.'In' The' reign' of' Queen' Victoria' was' North' America,' it' was' the' “Gilded' Age,”' marked'by'a'prolonged'period'of'peace'in' marked' by' an' unprecedented' growth' in' Britain,'with'a'growing'prosperity'in'most' both' population' and' personal' wealth.' By' levels' of' society,' based' in' part' on' the' 1900,' the' per' capita' income' in' the' U.S.' exploitation' of' resources' from' distant' was' double' that' of' France' and' Germany,' colonies'and'in'part'on'growing'economic' and'50%'higher'than'that'in'Britain.'The' dividends' from' the' industrial' revolution.' “Robber' Barons”' of' North' American' With' passage' of' the' Reform' Act' of' 1832,' industry,'in'particular,'were'busy'making' the' British' parliament' became' much' an' ostentatious' display' of' their' more'representative'of'and'responsive'to' accumulated' fortunes.' But' in' many' parts' ordinary' people.' This' piece' of' legislation' of' the' Globe,' the' horrors' of' World' War' I' corrected' the' worst' abuses' of' “Rotten' and' the' Russian' Revolution' brought' a' Boroughs,”'and'increased'the'allocation'of' sudden' challenge' to' many' years' of' parliamentary' seats' to' large' industrial' apparent' progress,' with' a' sudden' cities' (Evans,' 1994).' Nevertheless,' most' disappearance' of' the' long' established' women' remained' disenfranchised.' distinction' between' a' leisured' class' and' “Public”' schools' such' as' Rugby' urged' their'servants.'' amateur'sport'upon'upper

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! physical' education' often' assumed' the' Scientific! Societies.! ! The' nineteenth' form'of'militaristic'drill.'A'variety'of'new' century'was'marked'by'the'foundation'of' sports' emerged,' each' with' its' own' many' national' societies' devoted' to' the' national' and/or'international'regulatory' discussion' of' research' in' Physiology,' organization.' Some' of' these' initiatives' Public' Health' and' Sports' Science,' with' increased' possibilities' for' active' physical' individual' groups' developing' their' own' leisure,' but' many' simply' provided' specialty' journals.' The' emergence' of' alternative'opportunities'for'spectatorism' analogous' international' organizations' and'gambling.'' allowed' a' cross

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! remained'virtually'non

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! a' library' and' archives' and' the' descriptions' and' value' judgments.' The' introduction' of' a' scientific' approach' to' latter' approach' has' sometimes' proven' training' and' coaching.' The' Society' fruitful' in' the' areas' of' Sports' Sociology' enjoyed' the' patronage' of' the' Governor' and' Sport' History' (Andrews,' Mason' and' General' of' Canada' and' the' Mayor' of' Silk,' 2005;' Bain,' 2010).' It' is' also' worth' Montreal,' but' it' only' survived' for' a' year' remembering'that'supposedly'“objective”' or' so,' mainly' due' to' a' lack' of' operating' data,'such'as'the'usually'observed'age'and' funds'(Kidd,'1996).'! sex' differences' in' muscular' strength,' ! reflect' in' part' age' and' sex

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! In'1855,'Karl'von'Vierordt'(1818<1884' Immediately,!on!this!suggestion,!I!rolled!a! CE),' Professor' of' Physiology' at' the' quire! of! paper! into! a! kind! of! cylinder! and! University'of'Tübingen,'pointed'out'that'if' applied! one! end! of! it! to! the! region! of! the! a'sufficient'external'pressure'was'applied' heart!and!the!other!to!my!ear,!and!was!not! to'a'human'artery,'the'distal'pulse'could' a!little!surprised!and!pleased!to!find!that!I! be' temporarily' obliterated.' He' and' could! thereby! perceive! the! action! of! the! Samuel' Siegfried' Karl' von' Basch' (1817< heart! in! a! manner! much! more! clear! and! 1905' CE),' personal' physician' of' the' distinct!than!I!had!ever!been!able!to!do!by! emperor' Maximilian' of' Mexico,' both' the!immediate!application!of!my!ear.”! developed' blood' pressure' meters' based' ' on' this' observation.' However,' the' cuff' Laennec' quickly' replaced' this' sphygmomanometer' was' brought' to' its' improvised' device' with' a' wooden' tube' presently' used' clinical' format' by' the' that'he'called'a'stethoscope,'deriving'the' Italian' internist' Scipione' Riva

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! with' a' completely' irregular' rhythm,' subsequent' research.' Einthoven' corresponding' to' atrial' fibrillation' described' the' sequential' changes' of' (Mackenzie,'1902).''' electrical'potential'that'occurred'over'the' A' somewhat' related' device' (the' course' of' a' cardiac' cycle,' setting' these' “heartometer”)'was'long'used'by'Dr.'Tom' observations' in' the' theoretical' Cureton' (1901<2002' CE),' Professor' of' framework'of'his'“triangle”'of'limb'leads.' Physical' Education' at' the' University' of' In' 1906,' he' constructed' a' delicate' string' Illinois,' in' his' studies' of' the' cardiac' galvanometer' that' could' record' the' ECG' response' to' exercise.' Cureton’s' reliance' of' a' recumbent' subject.' ' However,' much' upon'this'instrument'offers'an'interesting' further' technical' progress' was' needed' commentary' on' the' need' of' Physical' before' clear' ECG' recordings' could' be' Educators' to' use' very' indirect' obtained'when'a'patient'was'exercising.' measurements' of' physical' fitness' and' In' addition' to' being' a' brilliant' cardiac'function'until'the'latter'half'of'the' laboratory' investigator,' Einthoven' was' a' 20th'century.' strong' believer' in' regular' physical' ) activity.'During'the'long'hours'of'medical' The) Electrocardiogram.) ) For' the' instruction,' he' repeatedly' urged' his' medically' qualified' clinician,' the' fellow' students' "not' to' let' the' body' diagnostic' potential' of' pulse' wave' perish".'He'became'President'of'the'local' recording'was'soon'eclipsed'by'the'ability' Gymnastics' and' Fencing' Union,' and' was' to' record' the' electrical' activity' of' the' one'of'the'founders'of'the'Utrecht'Student' human' heart.' The' British' physiologist' Rowing'Club.''''''''' Augustus' Desiré' Waller' (1856<1922' CE)' ' used' Lippmann’s' mercury' capillary' Cardiac) output.' Sir' Thomas' Lewis' electrometer' for' this' purpose,' but' the' (1891<1945'CE)'was'a'British'cardiologist' inertia' of' the' mercury' column' precluded' (although' he' himself' preferred' to' call' accurate'recordings'of'the'changes'in'the' himself' a' cardiovascular' disease' heart's' electrical' potential' (Katz' and' specialist).' He' coined' the' term' “Clinical' Hellerstein,' 1964).' The' principle' of' the' Science,”'and'founded'the'journal'“Clinical! string' galvanometer,' as' described' by' the' Science.”' ' He' spent' his' entire' career' at' French' engineer' Clément' Ader' (1897),' University' College' Hospital' in' London,' allowed' Willem' Einthoven' (1860<1927' establishing' the' reputation' of' that' CE)' to' obtain' ECG' tracings' of' greatly' institution' as' a' leading' centre' of' clinical' improved'quality.'Einthoven''was'born'in' physiological' research.' Lewis' became' a' Indonesia,' but' he' returned' to' Holland' to' pioneer' in' applying' ECG' recording' to' complete' his' education' (Snellen,' 1995).' issues' of' clinical' diagnosis.' He' also' While' attending' Medical' School,' he' studied' blood' flow' in' the' human' limbs,' showed' great' intellectual' talent,' and' he' using' the' somewhat' cumbersome' device' was' appointed' Professor' in' Utrecht' even' of' a' water

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! The' German' physiologist' Otto' Frank' Attempts' to' determine' the' output' of' (1865<1944' CE)' inherited' the' passion' the' human' heart' were' facilitated' by' a' that' Carl' Ludwig' (1816<1895' CE)' and' Dissenting' clergyman' and' amateur' Herman' Helmholz' (1821<1894' CE)' had' chemist,'Joseph'Priestley'(1733<1804'CE).' shown' in' applying' mathematical' He' was' the' discoverer' of' oxygen,' and' a' principles' to' circulation' of' the' blood' scholar' who' tried' to' reconcile' and' fuse' (Zimmer,' 1996).' ' Frank' sought' to' apply' Enlightenment'rationalism'with'Christian' the' concepts' of' length' and' force' Theism.' In' 1772,' Priestley' synthesized' previously' established' in' studies' of' nitrous' oxide,' then' termed' “Laughing' skeletal' muscle' to' describe' myocardial' Gas”' or' “phlostigated' nitrous' air”' (Keys,' function,' and' he' constructed' rigorous' 1941).' This' gas' was' highly' soluble' in' pressure

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! (the' supposed' distinction' between' 'In' 1863,' the' French' physiologist' inorganic'and'organic'matter).''Acetylene' Etienne

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! was'the'originator'of'the'Periodic'Table'of' Barcroft'carried'out'his'research'in'the' chemical' elements.' He' appreciated' that' audacious' tradition' of' early' British' oxygen' was' carried' in' the' blood' stream' Human'Physiology,'not'hesitating'to'serve' not'only'in'physical'solution,'but'also'as'a' himself'as'a'subject'in'dangerous'human' loose,' unstable' compound' with' a' red' experiments.' Working' in' what' was' then' pigment' that' the' Cambridge' termed' the' Royal! Engineers! Experimental! mathematician' George' Gabriel' Stokes' Station! on' Porton' Down' (a' laboratory' (1819<1903' CE)' had' termed' Cruorine' where' I' also' served' for' 6' years)' he' (Meyer,'1857;'Stokes,'1863<4).'Because'of' carried' out' experiments' on' asphyxiating' this' chemical' bonding,' Meyer' found' that' gases,'exposing'himself'to'an'atmosphere' the' amount' of' oxygen' released' from' the' containing'hydrogen'cyanide.'On'another' blood' when' the' atmospheric' pressure' occasion,'he'remained'in'a'glass'chamber' was' reduced' was' less' than' would' have' for' seven' days' in' order' to' calculate' the' been'predicted'by'application'of'Dalton’s' minimum'quantity'of'oxygen'required'for' Law'of'partial'pressures.!! survival,' and' in' a' third' experiment' he' The' German' anatomist' Karl' Bogislaus' exposed' himself' to' such' a' low' Reichert' (1811<1883' CE)' succeeded' in' temperature' that' he' collapsed' into' crystallizing' haemoglobin' in' 1849.' unconsciousness.' Shortly' afterwards,' Ernst' Felix' Hoppe< Details' of' the' gas

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! Rooms' of' those' selling' Life' Insurance' The' main' limitation' of' Victorian' (Bishop,'1977;'Petty,'2002):' spirometers'was'the'substantial'inertia'of' ' the' water' seal;' this' did' not' compromise' “we!have!no!hesitation!in!recording!our! static'measurements,'but'it'precluded'the' deliberate!opinion,!that!it!forms!one!of!the! accurate' recording' of' dynamic' lung' most!valuable!contributions!to!physiologic! volumes.' A' further' century' would' elapse' science! that! we! have! met! with! for! some! before' the' introduction' of' Perspex' time.! In! all! future! investigations! into! the! spirometer' bells' and' electronic' flow' phenomena!of!the!respiratory!process,!the! meters'resolved'this'mechanical'problem' name! of! Mr.! Hutchinson! must! receive! (Shephard,'1955).' honorable!notice.”! ' ' Metabolic) gas) exchange.' The' idea' of' It' is' thus' no' surprise' that' soon' after' using' some' form' of' spirometer' to' study' completing' his' survey,' Hutchinson' the' metabolic' gas' exchange' of' human' obtained' a' rewarding' contract' as' subjects' was' advanced' by' August' Krogh' consultant' to' the' Insurance' Industry.' (1874<1949' CE)' in' Denmark' (Krogh,' Given' the' prevalence' of' tuberculosis' in' 1916),' and' by' Francis' Gano' Benedict' Victorian' London,' he' used' his' tables' of' (1870<1957' CE)' in' the' United' States' vital' capacity' to' make' quite' successful' (Benedict'and'Emmes,' 1915;' Shephard' actuarial' predictions' of' an' individual’s' and' Aoyagi,' 2012).' At' Oxford' University' likely'longevity.'' in' England,' C.G.' Douglas' (1892<1944' CE)' The' issue' of' longevity' had' earlier' and' John' Scott' Haldane' (1860<1936' CE)' attracted' the' attention' of' James' Easton,' developed' the' alternative' "open

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! Zuntz'underlined'the'importance'of'the' bodies!of!men!and!animals!by!the!means!of! respiratory' dead' space' to' the' overall' thermo`electric!effects.”'' process' of' gas' exchange,' and' after' many' ' years' of' lively' exchange' at' scientific' He' succeeded' in' introducing' a' meetings' and' in' peerBerlin.'He'made'a'major' long

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! universities.' He' is' known' both' for' his' 1937).' The' same' amount' of' energy' was' studies' of' visual' physiology' and' his' released' from' foodstuffs' whether' they' contributions' to' chemical' were'burnt'in'a'laboratory'calorimeter'or' thermodynamics.'He'thought'it'important' consumed' by' body' metabolism' (Bischoff' to'confirm'that'no'energy'was'lost'during' and'von'Voit,'1860).' muscular' movement,' and' that' ) intervention' of' a' “vital' force”' could' be' von) Mayer.) A' German' country' doctor,) excluded.' To' prove' this' point,' he' Robert' von' Mayer' (1814<1878' CE),' developed' very' sensitive' thermocouples,' provided' early' estimates' for' the' establishing' the' close' relationship' mechanical' efficiency' of' effort.' He' found,' between' heat' production' and' the' quite' correctly,' that' humans' converted' muscular' work' performed' only' about' a' fifth' of' food' energy' into' (Koenigsberger,'1906).'' useful' mechanical' work,' with' the' ' remainder' of' the' energy' appearing' as' Voit.) Carl' von' Voit' (1831<'1909'CE),' heat.' Perhaps' because' this' report' Professor' of' Physiology' in' Munich,' emanated'from'a'private'residence'rather' obtained'what'was'for'the'19th'century'a' than'a'prestigious'university,'his'paper'on' very' substantial' research' grant' (8000' this' topic' was' rejected' by' the' Editors' of' Guilders,' about' $3600)' for' metabolic' several'scientific'journals!' studies' on' human' subjects.' He' built' a' ) chamber'large'enough'to'accommodate'a' Rubner,' Max' Rubner' (1854<1932' CE)' bed' or' a' cycle' ergometer' (Shephard' and' was' the' founder' of' the' Max' Planck' Aoyagi,' 2012).' He' estimated' the' Institut' für' Arbeitsphysiologie'in'Berlin.' metabolic' rate' of' his' subjects' by' He' provided' detailed' calorimetric' collecting' expired' carbon' dioxide' in' an' estimates'of'the'energy'yielded'by'various' alkaline'solution'and'noting'the'resultant' foodstuffs,' confirming' the' principle' of' gain'in'mass'of'the'solution.'He'found'that' energy' conservation' within' the' human' the'protein'requirements'of'an'individual' body' (Rubner,' 1885).' He' related' the' were' determined' largely' by' a' person's' resting' rate' of' metabolism' to' body' size,' body'mass,'rather'than'by'the'amount'of' concluding'that'the'daily'heat'production' work'that'he'or'she'performed.''Thus,'he' of' animals' ranging' in' size' from' dogs' to' disproved' an' earlier' postulate' of' Liebig,' mice' approximated' 4.16' MJ'per' m2'of' showing' that' fat' or' carbohydrate' rather' body'surface'area'(Johnson,'2007).'''' than' protein' was' the' normal' fuel' for' the' ' performance'of'physical'activity.'' Atwater.' Wilbur' Atwater' (1844<1907' Voit' was' able' to' measure' the' total' CE)' and' Francis' Gano' Benedict' (1870< amount' of' heat' produced' within' his' 1957' CE)' carried' Voit’s' interests' in' metabolic'chamber,'and'by'looking'also'at' exercise'metabolism'to'the'United'States,' the'other'side'of'the'equation'(the'energy' where' large' metabolic' chambers' were' content' of' the' food' that' had' been' eaten' built' for' exercise' studies' on' human' and'the'energy'remaining'in'the'subject’s' volunteers'(Atwater'and'Rosa,'1899).' excreta),' he' gave' a' convincing' ' demonstration' that' the' principle' of' the' Muscle! Physiology.' We' note' next' a' conservation' of' energy' applied' to' few'of'the'landmark'discoveries'in'muscle' humankind' (Editor,' Journal' of' Nutrition,' physiology' during' the' 19th'century.'

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! Hughlings' Jackson' (1835<1911' CE)' and' lived' in' the' small' cathedral' city' of' Sir' Charles' Sherrington' (1857<1952' CE)' Lichfield,' near' Birmingham,' and' he' is' were'dominant'figures'in'neuromuscular' remembered' as' much' for' two' of' his' research,' making' major' contributions' to' grandsons' (Charles' Darwin' and' Francis' our'understanding'of'the'respective'roles' Galton)' as' for' his' own' personal' of' the' brain' and' spinal' reflexes' in' discoveries.' ' Nevertheless,' he' wrote' a' muscular'contraction.'' book'entitled'Zoonomia,'which'stimulated' In' Turin,' the' Italian' Physiologist' the' evolutionary' thinking' of' both' Angelo' Mosso' (1848<1910)' invented' a' Lamarck'and'Erasmus’s'grandson'Charles' simple' ergograph.' He' was' thus' able' to' Darwin'(Darwin,'1794<96):' quantify' both' the' frequency' of' muscle' ' contractions' and' the' force' generated' by' “would!it!be!too!bold!to!imagine,!that!all! the' fingers' (Mosso,' 1890).' Mosso' also' warm`blooded! animals! have! arisen! from! noted' the' variations' of' heart' rate' that' one! living! filament....! endued! with! occurred'during'periods'of'mental'stress.' animality....! ,! possessing! the! faculty! of! He' invented' a' sphygmograph' to' record' continuing!to!improve!by!its!own!inherent! blood' pressures,' and' he' created' the' first' activity,! and! of! delivering! down! those! crude' neuro

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! local' environment' through' the' use' or' to' social' processes,' arguing' that' disuse'of'these'characteristics.'There'was' humankind'was'also'progressing'towards' finally' a' mechanism' that' allowed' these' a'higher'form'of'social'organization.'' acquired' characteristics' to' be' passed' on' 'This' aspect' of' his' thinking' probably' to' succeeding' generations' of' a' given' contributed' to' the' “Social! Darwinism”' of' species'(Burkhardt,'1970).''His'“first'law”' the'Victorian'era.'During'the'18th'century,' of' evolution' offered' powerful' support' to' many' of' the' wealthy' opposed' efforts' to' those' who' recommended' engaging' in' enhance' community' health' and' lifestyle,' regular'physical'activity'(Bowler,'2003):' arguing'that'such'policies'would'breed'a' ' nation'of'weaklings'(Carneiro'and'Perrin,' “a!more!frequent!and!continuous!use!of! 2002).' any!organ!gradually!strengthens,!develops! ' and! enlarges! that! organ,! and! gives! it! a! Charles) Darwin.' ' Charles' Robert' power!proportional!to!the!length!of!time!it! Darwin' (1809<1882' CE)' was' the' English' has! been! so! used;! while! the! permanent! naturalist' who' proposed' that' all' living' disuse!of!any!organ!imperceptibly!weakens! creatures'had'descended'from'a'common' and! deteriorates! it,! and! progressively! ancestor' through' a' process' of' natural' diminishes! its! functional! capacity,! until! it! selection'(Darwin,'1909):' finally!disappears."'' ' ' “many!more!individuals!of!each!species! Although' Lamarck’s' theories' were' are! born! than! can! possibly! survive;! and....! roundly' rejected' towards' the' end' of' the' there!is!a!frequently!recurring!struggle!for! Victorian' era,' they' have' recently' seen' a' existence,! any! being,! if! it! vary! however! partial' revival' in' the' concept' of' slightly!in!any!manner!profitable!to!itself.....! Epigenetics.'One'of'the'central'concepts'of' will!have!a!better!chance!of!surviving,!and! Epigenetics' is' that' expression' of' an' thus!be!naturally!selected.”! individual’s' inherited' characteristics' can' ' be'modified'by'environmental'factors'that' Darwin’s' evolutionary' views' were' limit' or' enhance' the' phenotypic' shaped'by'an'extensive'study'of'fauna'and' expression'of'certain'genes'(Stillman'and' fossils' undertaken' during' a' five

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! Darwin’s' ideas' were' unfortunately' for'his'exposé'of'Charles'Dawson'and'the' highAfrica,' rate' of' Victorian' times' as' a' means' of' testing' the' heat' adaptation' of' Bantu' ensuring' worker' productivity.' They' workers' in' the' Rand' Corporation' justified' the' appalling' conditions' that' diamond'mines.'South'African'thinking'of' existed'in'some'Victorian'factories'on'the' that'era'had'fostered'research'concerning' basis' that' the' fittest' workers' would' small'inter

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! disadvantageous' when' exploiting' a' Microbiology' emerged' from' the' work' of' second' habitat.' Thus,' there' was' no' Semmelweiss,' Pasteur,' Koch' and' Lister.' selective' pressure' favouring' the' Advances' in' these' areas' of' knowledge' perpetuation'of'an'unusual'characteristic.' made' important' contributions' to' the' Secondly,' the' studies' of' the' IBP' control' of' disease' and' the' growth' of' investigators'had'focussed'on'the'physical' Preventive'Medicine.' fitness' and' physical' working' capacity' of' ) the' various' indigenous' populations.' Snow.) John' Snow' (1813<1858)' came' However,' survival' in' a' rigorous' from'a'poor'family'in'the'city'of'York,'and' environment'depended'much'more'upon' at'the'age'of'14'he'was'apprenticed'to'a' the' individual’s' intelligence' and' the' surgeon' in' Newcastle.' By' 1836,' he' had' generation

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! edition' of' his' treatise' on' cholera.' He' region.' His' colleagues' in' the' medical' submitted' his' discoveries' to' the' Institute! fraternity' of' Vienna' and' Budapest' soon' of! France'in'1855,'hoping'to'receive'the' took' umbrage' at' his' vigorous' 100,000' Franc' prize' that' the' institution' condemnation'of'the'squalor'in'Viennese' offered' for' notable' discoveries.' Some' city' hospitals.' Semmelweiss' was' quickly' historians' maintain' that' he' did' receive' a' stripped'of'his'hospital'accreditation,'and' grant,' but' the' Institut’s' Archives' contain' within'3'years,'was'“run'out'of'town.”'He' no' record' of' him' receiving' any' such' started' writing' angry' letters' to' many' award'(Edwards,'1959).' European'Obstetricians,'denouncing'them' Based' on' the' Broad' Street' study,' and' as' irresponsible' murderers.' Many,' subsequent' examination' of' other' including' his' own' wife,' thought' that' he' epidemics' of' cholera' associated' with' was' losing' his' mind.' In' 1865,' he' was' water' pumped' from' the' polluted' lower' admitted'to'a'mental'institution,'and'died' reaches'of'the'River'Thames,'Snow'is'now' there'within'2'weeks,'possibly'because'of' regarded' as' the' father' of' modern' a' vigorous' beating' by' one' of' the' guards.' Epidemiology.' The' ideas' of' Semmelweiss' did' not' begin' ' ' to' gain' traction' until' Pasteur' had' Louis.' The' birth' of' Clinical' established' the' germ' theory' of' disease,' Epidemiology' and' Evidence

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! of' this' hypothesis,' and' he' was' a' strong' shifted' from' antiseptic' to' aseptic' advocate'of'Preventive'Medicine:' operating'theatres.' ' An' Ontario' surgeon' (Archibald' E.' “When! meditating! over! a! disease,! I! Malloch,' 1844<1919' CE)' who' had' been' a' never!think!of!finding!a!remedy!for!it,!but! House

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! whom' were' seeking' to' reduce' the' heavy' forgotten! or! neglected,! at! least! in! our! death' toll' from' infection' in' military' vicinity.”'! hospitals.''Recommendations'of'vigorous' Even'at'the'age'of'75,'Warren'was'still' exercise' were' also' heard' from' the' busy' urging' the' President' of' Harvard' to' proponents' of' certain' “Alternative' make'“gymnastic!exercises!the!duty!of!the! Therapies,”'such'as'the'water'treatments' student'!(U.S.'Bureau'of'Education,'1885).! that'were'advocated'by'Priessnitz'and'the' ) herbal'remedies'of'Thomson.'! Delpech.) ) Jacques' Mathieu' Delpech' ! (1777<1832' CE)' was' an' orthopedic' Warren.' Dr.' John' Collins' Warren' surgeon' in' Montpellier,' France,' who' (1778<1856' CE)' was' an' influential' became' interested' in' the' potential' of' physician' of' this' period.' He' was' therapeutic' exercise,' particularly' for' appointed' as' Professor' of' Medicine' and' children'with'orthopaedic'deformities.'He' first'Dean'of'Harvard'Medical'School,'and' believed' that' such' deformities' could' be' became'one'of'the'founding'Editors'of'the' both'prevented'and'cured'by'following'an' New!England!Journal!of!Medicine.!He'was' appropriate' regimen' of' graded' exercises' a' strong' protagonist' of' regular' physical' designed'to'restore'the'patient’s'muscular' activity,' including' gymnastics' and' balance' (Delpech,' 1828).' He' established' calisthenics' (Collins,' 1864).' In' 1830,' he' an' attractive' playground' and' exercise' gave'an'address'to'the'American!Institute! area' for' his' patients' in' the' countryside,' for!Instruction!entitled'“On!the!importance! close'to'Montpellier.'' of! physical! education.”! Warren' played' a' Delpech' was' also' a' pioneer' of' prominent' role' in' establishing' the' occupational' therapy.' He' included' in' his' Tremont' gymnasium' in' Boston' (1825),' regimen' a' period' of' piano' playing.' The' and' even' sought' (without' success)' to' musician' sat' at' the' keyboard' with' a' persuade' Frederick' Jahn' to' serve' as' its' weighted'cord'tied'to'his'or'her'head,'to' first'Director.'' ensure' that' an' upright' posture' was' Through' Warren’s' advocacy,' Harvard' maintained.' Unfortunately,' Delpech’s' University'had'in'1826'allocated'$300'to' career' came' to' an' abrupt' end.' Driving' clear' ground' for' construction' of' a' back' to' his' Institute' in' an' open' coach,' gymnasium,' and' various' pieces' of' both'he'and'his'coachman'were'shot'by'a' gymnastic'apparatus'were'being'installed' disgruntled'patient'(Le'Vay,'1990).'' to'promote'the'health'of'the'students.'By' ' 1829,' the' neighbouring' Amherst' College' Osler.' The' celebrated' Canadian' had' also' purchased' a”few! horses! and! physician' William' Osler' (1814<1919' CE)' parallel! bars,! with! one! or! two! swings...”'' began' his' career' at' McGill' University' in' Warren' began' devising' exercises' Montreal.'Subsequently,'he'was'one'of'the' appropriate' for' female' students' (Wuest' four' founding' professors' of' the' Johns' and' Bucher,' 1995),' and' he' keenly' Hopkins' Hospital' in' Baltimore,MD.' In' appreciated' the' importance' of' frank' opposition' to' Hilton,' Osler' argued' maintaining' programme' adherence.' He' that' his' patients' needed' the' “quadrangle! lamented'that'“the!exercises!were!pursued! of! health:”' rest,' food,' fresh' air,' and' with! ardor! as! long! as! their! novelty! exercise.' ' He' also' underlined' the' lasted...but! they! have! been! gravely! pedagogic' and' preventive' values' of' moderate'physical'activity'(Osler,'1904):''

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! “Within! the! past! quarter! of! a! century,! development' of' the' brain' might' be' one' the!value!of!exercise!in!the!education!of!the! reason' why' participation' in' regular' young! has! become! recognized.”! “the! physical' education' classes' helped' the' prophylactic! value! of! exercise,! taken! in! academic'development'of'primary'school' moderation!by!people!of!middle!age,!is!very! students' in' the' experimental' classes' great”! relative' to' their' peers,' even' though' they' ' spent' less' curricular' time' in' learning' The' truth' of' this' assessment' is' traditional' subjects' such' as' arithmetic' suggested' by' Osler’s' own' longevity' (he' and' languages' (Piaget,' 1956;' Shephard,' died'at'the'age'of'105'years).'' 1997).'' Francis'Shepherd,'one'of'Osler’s'junior' ' colleagues' at' McGill' University,' placed' a' Hilton.) John' Hilton' (1804<1878)' was' great' emphasis' upon' the' merits' of' an'influential'surgeon'at'Guy’s'Hospital,'in' anatomical' dissection,' and' (as' in' earlier' London,' England.' He' enriched' the' episodes' in' London' and' Edinburgh,' Hospital'with'an'outstanding'collection'of' (Shephard,' 2013))' French' Canadian' wax' anatomical' models' that' are' still' students'who'were'eager'to'pay'for'their' studied' closely' by' those' aspiring' to' a' tuition'led'body'snatching'forays'into'the' Fellowship' of' the' Royal! College! of! Côte' des' Neiges' cemetery' in' Montreal' Surgeons.'Hilton'became'President'of'the' (Jack,'1963).)) Royal! College! of! Surgeons' in' 1867.' In' the' ) context' of' this' review,' he' is' best' Piaget.' Jean' Piaget' (1896<1980' CE)' remembered'for'a'course'of'lectures'that' was' a' Swiss' Developmental' Psychologist' he' gave' to' the' College' during' the' tenure' and' Philosopher' from' the' city' of' of'his'Arris'and'Gale'Professorship'(1859< Neuchatel.' He' placed' great' emphasis' 1862).' The' series' was' entitled' on' “Rest! upon' the' importance' of' education' for' and! Pain.”' By' his' insistence' on' the' children,'declaring'(Munari,'1994):' “recuperative! power! of! Nature”' (Hilton' ' and'Jacobson,'1879),'Hilton'held'back'the' “only!education!is!capable!of!saving!our! active'rehabilitation'of'conditions'such'as' societies! from! possible! collapse,! whether! myocardial' infarction' for' more' than' a' violent,!or!gradual”' century.' ' ' In'the'context'of'health'and'fitness,'he' Athlete’s) Heart.' Fears' about' the' is' best' known' for' the' sensori

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! previous' best' times,' and' Dr.' Collier' sports' events' (Byles' and' Osborn,' 1898),' thought' that' he' heard' a' parasternal' but' Collier' (1901),' the' “expert”' on' systolic' murmur' after' the' runner' had' Athlete’s! Heart' complained' that' the' only' engaged'in'mild'exercise'(walking'briskly' two'English

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! (Foundations! of! Sports! Medicine! for! The' Women’s' Medical' College' in' Physicians! and! Students)' (Herxheimer' Kingston,' ON,' was' the' first' Canadian' 1932),'' establishment'to'receive'female'students.' ' It' was' founded' in' 1883,' as' an' affiliate' of' Nightingale,)and)the)role)of)women)in) Queen’s' University.' However,' it' was' not' Victorian) health) care.) ) Few' women' had' allowed' to' become' a' part' of' the' Royal! opportunity'to'become'physicians'during' College! of! Physicians! and! Surgeons'(an' the' nineteenth' century.' Indeed,' it' is' early'incarnation'of'the'Queen’s'Faculty'of' rumoured' that' one' well

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! Medicine,'but'by'1876'she'had'succeeded' “Florence! Nightingale,! like! Mr.! Richard! in' encouraging' the' passage' of' legislation' Nixon! and! his! tapes,! was! so! possessed! of! that' gave' women' the' right' to' practice' the!habit!of!deceit!and!the!conviction!that! Medicine.'' the! full! record! would! compel! posterity! to! When' I' became' a' medical' student' at' vindicate! her! actions,! that! she! could! not! Guy’s' Hospital,' in' 1946,' the' situation' of' bring! herself! to! destroy! material...Having! female' applicants' was' not' greatly' brazened!out!lies!in!life,!she!would!brazen! improved.' Women' who' wished' to' them!out!in!death.”' practice' Medicine' in' the' University' of' ' London' underwent' segregated' In' the' U.S,' civil' war' (1861<1865),' instruction'at'the'Royal'Free'Hospital,'and' conditions'in'military'hospitals'were'just' the' other' London' teaching' hospitals' had' as'deplorable'as'those'seen'initially'in'the' no'places'for'female'students.' Crimean' conflict,' with' two' thirds' of' the' Thus,'for'most'19th'century'women,'the' Union'losses'of'300,000'combatants'being' only'Health'Science'option'was'to'become' attributable'to'disease'rather'than'enemy' a'nurse

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! Wright' was' concerned' by' the' high' death' CE)'opened'a'Hydropathic'facility'in'New' rate'from'preventable'diseases'during'the' York'City'(1843).' second'Boer'War,'and'he'worked'with'the' ) Allied' Forces' to' vaccinate' large' numbers' Thomson.' ' After' his' wife' almost' died' of' troops' before' they' left' for' the' from' traditional' medical' treatment,' battlefields' of' Northern' France' during' Samuel' Thomson' (1769<1843)' became' a' World' War' I' (Walker,' 2007).) Alexander' vocal' proponent' of' another' form' of' Fleming' later' worked' in' Wright’s' Alternative' Medicine,' based' on' the' department,' discovering' penicillin,' and' ingestion' of' a' variety' of' herbs.' Wright' quickly' warned' physicians' that' “Thomsonian! Medicine”' began' in' New' the' overuse' of' antibiotics' would' create' Hampshire.' Remedies' were' garnered' strains' of' resistant' bacteria.'' from' a' local' “wise' woman”' and' Indian' Unfortunately,' his' message' has' yet' to' tribes' in' the' surrounding' countryside.' percolate' to' many' family' medical' Treatment' was' intended' to' “eliminate! practices'in'North'America.' toxins”'and'to'“restore!body!heat”'through' ) a' combination' of' steam' baths,' and' Priessnitz.) Vincent' Priessnitz' (1799< generous'doses'of'peppers,'laxatives'and' 1851'CE)'was'one'of'many'entrepeneurs' the' emetic' Lobelia.' “Thomsonian! who'made'large'profits'from'the'Victorian' Hospitals”' and' “Botanical! Conventions”' taste' for' Alternative' Medicine.' He' began' flourished' and' a' “Guide! to! Health”' life' as' a' simple' Austriomassage,' chopping' population.' Those' who' experienced' poor' wood,' and' other' forms' of' vigorous' health' had' possibly' sinned' in' some' way.' exercise.' By' 1898,' his' approach' had' In'any'event,'they'were'expected'to'bear' become' so' popular' that' a' biographer' their' burdens' with' steadfast,' Job

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! ruling' classes' and' a' fight' for' survival' on' women' from' exploitation' in' factories' the'factory'floor'were'necessary'elements' (Fogel,'2000).' to' the' continuing' betterment' of' Liberal'churches'also'gave'strong'voice' humankind.'Some'Victorian'philosophers' to'attacks'upon'the'excesses'of'the'Gilded' began' to' question' the' very' nature' of' Age.''Church'leaders'took'active'measures' reality.' Revolutionary' solutions' to' the' to' enhance' the' lifestyle' of' their' younger' evils' of' society' were' proposed,' although' parishioners,' fostering' recreational' most' thinkers' accepted' the' need' to' groups' such' as' tennis' clubs,' and' giving' involve' either' the' individual' or' the' State' female' adherents' opportunities' to' meet' in'the'quest'for'good'health.'A'number'of' and'marry'the'“right”'sort'of'young'man.' political'leaders'gave'personal'expression' Such' attitudes' resulted' in' the' to' their' acceptance' of' this' belief' through' development'of'organizations'such'as'the' the'example'of'their'own'lifestyle.' YMCA,' the' Cooperative! Holidays! ' Association'and'the'Holiday! Fellowship' Theologians.' At' the' beginning' of' the' (below).' 19th' century,' most' theologians' were' )) strongly'opposed'to'the'views'of'Darwin,' Social) Darwinists.' Linking' the' free< and' (given' that' wealthy' patrons' market' concepts' of' Adam' Smith' (1723< controlled' most' of' the' prestigious' 1790' CE)' to' Darwin’s' idea' of' Natural' ecclesiastical' appointments)' the' clergy' Selection,' the' English' philosopher' firmly' upheld' the' privileged' position' of' Herbert' Spencer' (1820<1903' CE)' the' ruling' classes.' However,' there' were' proposed' a' concept' of' Social' Darwinism.' notable' exceptions.' John' Wesley' (1703< This' justified' the' stratification' of' the' 1791'CE)'brought'a'message'of'salvation' wealthy'and'poor,'because'it'encouraged' and' self

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! Debate' over' the' virtues' of' Social' Thompson,'Dickens,'Stevenson'and'Wilde.' Darwinism'had'a'substantial'impact'upon' Although'these'various'ideas'are'not'easy' Health' Policy.' It' sparked' a' vigorous' and' to' encapsulate,' many' Victorian' scholars' continuing' conflict' between' those' who' have,'in'their'own'way,'had'a'substantial' believed' that' good' health' and' influence' upon' our' concepts' of' Society,' maintenance' of' a' positive' lifestyle' were' Health'and'personal'fitness.' personal' responsibilities' and' those' who' ' argued' the' need' for' extensive' State' Hegel.' Georg' Wilhelm' Friedrich' Hegel' interventions' to' regulate' working' (1770<1831' CE)' was' one' of' the' creators' conditions,' environment' and' health' of' German' Idealism' (Losurdo,' 2004).' He' (Steinbrook,'2006).'In'the'U.S.,'the'debate' strongly' believed' in' personal' freedom' continues,' and' there' have' recently' been' and' the' capacity' for' self

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! Indeed,'this'became'the'title'of'a'book'of' problem' of' immigrant' workers.' They' his' thoughts' that' was' compiled' by' his' were' then' termed' the' “Ostfluch,”' and' sister' (Nietzsche,' 1986).' He' questioned' were' mainly' Polish' farm' workers' who' the' value' of' beliefs' that' drained' life’s' had' moved' into' eastern' Germany' as' the' inherent' energies,' and' (in' contrast' to' original' agricultural' labourers' shifted' to' Darwin' and' his' contemporaries)' factory'work'in'the'cities.'As'a'member'of' Nietzsche' did' not' see' the' “Struggle! for! the' Alldeutscher! Verband! (Pan`German! Existence”' as' a' major' determinant' of' League),' Weber' campaigned' vigorously' human'behaviour.''' against'allowing'any'such'immigration.' Nietzsche' is' perhaps' best' known' for' Marriage' to' a' distant' cousin' gave' him' his' pronouncement' Gott! ist! tod! (God! is! financial' independence,' and' in' 1896' he' Dead)!(Nietzsche,'1887):' was'appointed'as'Professor'of'Economics' ' in' Heidelberg.' He' became' a' leading' “God!is!dead.!God!remains!dead.!And!we! proponent' of' Methodological' anti< have! killed! him.! How! shall! we! comfort! Positivism,' arguing' that' Sociology' could' ourselves,!the!murderers!of!all!murderers?”!! only' be' understood' by' looking' at' the' ' meanings' individuals' attached' to' their' The' death' of' God' implied' the' loss' of' actions.' He' wrote' on' the' social' any' coherent,' objective' truth.' Everyone' “disenchantment”'associated'with'the'rise' retained' their' own' diverse' and' fluid' of' Capitalism,' arguing' that' the' most' perspective'on'things'("Perspectivism”),'a' important' aspect' of' society' was' not' its' view' that' certainly' ran' counter' to' any' productivity,'but'how'people'viewed'their' desire' for' a' central' direction' of' Health' world.'The'roots'of'Capitalism'were'to'be' Policy.' found' in' the' cultural' influence' of' the' ' Ascetic'and'Protestant'work'ethic,'with'its' Weber.' Maximilian' Karl' Emil' Weber' emphasis' upon' wealth' as' a' sign' of' (1864<1920)' was' born' to' a' prominent' salvation'(Weber'and'Kalburg,'2002).''' Civil'Servant'in'Erfurt,'Thuringen,'and'he' As' an' adult,' Weber' did' not' normally' had'an'early'interest'in'Sociology.'At'the' engage' in' any' exercise' other' than' age' of' 13,' his' Christmas' presents' to' his' occasional' duelling' and' hill' walking.' parents'were'two'historical'essays:'' Within' a' few' years' of' moving' to' ' Heidelberg,'he'began'to'suffer'from'bouts' “About! the! course! of! German! history,! of' depression' and' sleeplessness,' and' his' with! special! reference! to! the! positions! of! physician' dispatched' him' for' a' course' of' the!Emperor!and!the!Pope,"!and!"About!the! Hydrotherapy' (above)' at' a' spa' on' the' Roman! Imperial! period! from! Constantine! shores' of' Lake' Constance.' Unfortunately,' to!the!migration!of!nations.”' the' unaccustomed' exercise' did' not' cure' ' his'insomnia'(Weber,'1975).'' After'a'youth'spent'largely'in'drinking' Weber' was' sometimes' puzzled' that' and' fencing,' he' finally' passed' his' bar' others'did'no'share'his'intense'interest'in' examinations,' and' joined' the' Faculty' of' Sociology' and' Politics,' and' on' a' trip' to' Law' at' the' University' of' Berlin.' Around' America,' he' was' tremendously' surprised' this'time,'he'joined'a'new'Union'of'Social' to' find' that' the' annual' Harvard' vs.' Penn' Economists,' the' Verein! für! Socialpolitik,' State'football'game'attracted'much'more' and'he'wrote'an'early'tract'on'the'thorny' newspaper' coverage' than' either' the'

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! Presidential' campaign' or' the' Russo< Unlike'many'philosophers,'he'believed' Japanese'war'(Scaff,'2011).' in'tying'together'intellectual'and'physical' ) activity,'and'he'engaged'in'such'activities' Heidegger'''Martin'Heidegger'(1889< as'pushPrussia.' and' profiting' from' connections' with' the' During'Karl’s'studies'at'the'University'of' National' Socialist' party,' in' 1933' he' was' Berlin,'he'became'interested'in'the'ideas' appointed' Rector'of'Freiburg'University.' of' Hegel,' and' rejected' the' Positivism' of' He'quickly'told'the'students'(Farias'et'al.,' Auguste' Comte.' After' graduation,' he' 1989):' wrote' for' various' radical' newspapers,' ' particularly'the'Rheinische!Zeitung,'which' “Let!not!theories!and!‘ideas’!be!the!rules! despite'a'3

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'31'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! “the! work! offers! the! muscles! no! family,'with'an'estate'in'the'Volga'region.' opportunity!for!physical!activity”'' The' family' home' was' a' “nest! of! gentle` ' folks”' that' often' embarrassed' his' Much'of'the'writing'of'Marx'and'Engels' supporters,' and' perhaps' because' of' this' sought' to' interpret' Society' in' terms' of' a' patrician' upbringing,' Lenin' had' a' much' Class' Struggle.' Neither' author' wrote' greater' interest' in' physical' activity' than' anything' substantial' about' physical' either' Marx' or' Engels.' Lenin' is' said' to' culture.' Nevertheless,' their' ideas' have' have'had'the'body'of'a'well

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! stimulation' of' the' intellect' (Thoreau,' “Health!is!the!vital!principle!of!bliss,!and! 1840/1962):' exercise!of!health.”' ' ' “They! are! fatally! mistaken! who! think! Dickens.) Charles' Dickens' (1812<1870' that!while!they!strive!with!their!minds!that! CE)'was'the'leading'British'author'of'the' they!may!suffer!their!bodies!to!stagnate!in! Victorian' era.' His' best

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! he' is' best' known' for' his' opposition' to' opinion,' and' a' number' of' 19th'century' current' Epidemiological' wisdom.' Three' politicians' and' statesmen' set' a' good' examples' of' his' iconoclastic' advice' on' personal'example'in'this'regard.''We'will' lifestyle'may'be'cited'(Stevenson,'1887):'' comment' on' the' lifestyle' of' Benjamin' ' Franklin,'Thomas'Jefferson'and'Theodore' “No!woman!should!marry!a!teetotaller,! Roosevelt' in' the' U.S.,' and' Lord' Stanley' or! a! man! who! does! not! smoke....! Michelet! and'Lord'Grey'in'Canada.' rails! against! it! because! it! renders! you! ' happy! apart! from! thought! or! work;! to! Franklin.' Benjamin' Franklin' (1706< provident! women! this! will! seem! no! evil! 1790' CE)' enthusiastically' recommended' influence!in!married!life.”!! the' health' benefits' of' regular' physical' ! activity,' including' running,' swimming,' !“Extreme!BUSYNESS,!whether!at!school! and' basic' forms' of' resistance' training' or!college,!kirk!or!market,!is!a!symptom!of! (Karolides' and' Karolides,' 1993).'Two'at' deficient!vitality.”!!! least' of' his' “thirteen' virtues”' spoke' to' a' ! commendable'personal'lifestyle.' “The! love! of! living! is! stronger! in! an! ' Alpine! climber! roping! over! a! peril,! or! a! "Temperance.!Eat!not!to!dullness;!drink! hunter!riding!merrily!at!a!stiff!fence,!than! not!to!elevation."! in! a! creature! who! lives! upon! a! diet! and! ' walks! a! measured! distance! in! the! interest! "Industry.! Lose! no! time;! be! always! of!his!constitution.”! employ'd! in! something! useful;! cut! off! all! ) unnecessary!actions."' Oscar) Wilde) (1854U1900) CE).' The' ' satirist' Wilde' drew' attention' to' the' ' stereotype'of'hunting'as'a'healthy'form'of' He'was'very'aggrieved'when'overtaken' sport:'' by' repeated' attacks' of' gout.' This' malady' ' severely' limited' his' ability' to' exercise' “One!knows!so!well!the!popular!idea!of! (Franklin'and'Franklin'1818):' health:! the! English! country! gentleman! ' galloping! after! a! fox! `! the! unspeakable! in! Oh!!Eh!!What!have!I!done!to!merit!these! full!pursuit!of!the!unbeatable.”! cruel!sufferings?!Many!things;!you!have!ate! ! and! drank! too! freely,! and! too! much! However,'he'seems'also'to'have'had'an' indulged! those! legs! of! yours! in! their! aversion' to' any' type' of' exercise,' as' indolence...!the!quantity!of!meat!and!drink! illustrated'by'the'query'about'retaining'a' proper!for!a!man,!who!takes!a!reasonable! youthful'appearance'{Wilde,'1913}:'' degree! of! exercise,! would! be! too! much! for! ! another! who! never! takes! any....If! your! “To! get! back! my! youth! I! would! do! situation! in! life! is! sedentary,! your! anything!in!the!world,!except!take!exercise,! amusements,! your! recreations! at! least! get!up!early,!or!be!respectable.”''' should!be!active...”' ' ' Statesmen.) The' endorsement' of' Jefferson.' U.S.' President' Thomas' physical'activity'by'leading'statesmen'has' Jefferson' (1743<1826' CE)' introduced' the' sometimes' had' a' major' effect' on' public' pedometer' to' the' United' States,' and' he'

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'34'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! used' this' device' to' monitor' his' Council! on! Fitness'(now! the! President’s! demanding'personal'exercise'programme.' Council!on!Fitness,!Sports!and!Nutrition).' He'was'keen'to'underline'the'necessity'of' ' regular' activity' for' both' physical' and' Lord)Stanley.)A'brief'comment'will'be' mental'health'(Jefferson'1787/1966):'' made' on) Frederick' Arthur' Stanley,' 16th' ' Earl' of' Derby' (1841<1906' CE),' and) “Exercise!and!application!produce!order! Governor' General' of' Canada' from' 1888< in!our!affairs,!health!of!body,!cheerfulness! 1893.' Lord' Stanley' was' an' avid' of!mind,!and!these!make!us!precious!to!our! sportsman' (Shea,' Wilson' and' Clarkson,' friends”' 2007).'He'quickly'embraced'our'Canadian' ' winter' pursuits,' and' was' particularly' Although' some' might' argue' that' he' interested' in' ice

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'35'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! concern' for' social' reform,' and' he' is' said' conventions'and'the'requirement'to'wear' to' have' had' greater' personal' interest' in' restrictive' clothing' (Sterling,' 1999).' the' music' and' drama' festivals' that' he' However,' feminist' leaders' clamoured' for' originated'than'in'sporting'events.' greater' opportunities' to' engage' in' ' vigorous' exercise.' In' her' “Discourse! on! The!voice!of!women.)' Women”' of' 1849,' Lucretia' Mott' Throughout' most' of' the' Victorian' era,' demanded'that'a'woman'(Wiggins,'1995):' women' had' little' voice' in' University' ' Faculties' and' remained' politically' !“receive! encouragement! for! the! disenfranchised.' ' Thus' their' views' on' cultivation! of! all! her! powers...! issues' of' Public' Policy' such' as' the' strengthening!her!physical!being!by!proper! enhancement' of' Health' and' Fitness' exercise! and! observance! of! all! the! laws! of! generally'had'to'be'expressed'through'the' health.”' mouths' of' their' husbands' or' male' ' relatives.'Nevertheless,'Public'Health'was' Elizabeth' Stanton' was' a' regular' enhanced' through' the' advocacy' of' contributor' to' the'New! York! Journal,' and' outspoken' individuals' such' as' Florence' in' her' column' she' often' advocated' that' Nightingale' (above).' A' few' women' also' women' shorten' their' skirts' so' that' they' attained' leadership' roles' in' small' could'increase'their'physical'activity.'She' Christian' sects.' Mary' Eddy' Baker' (1821< argued'that'(Griffith,'1985):' 1910'CE)'founded'the'Church'of'Christian' ' Science,'and'gave'full'bent'to'her'singular' '“mental!discipline!and!physical!activity! views'on'health'and'illness.'The'Salvation' produce!mental!health.”''' Army,' from' its' foundation' in' 1865,' ' accorded'equal'rights'to'women'and'men,' And' in' the' opinion' of' Susan' Anthony' and' it' did' much' to' enhance' the' personal' (Hall'and'Oglesby,'2002):' lifestyle' of' its' adherents' in' the' poorer' ' areas' of' large' cities.' And' the' Quaker' “In!the!battle!for!equality,!women!need! movement'insisted'on'the'equality'of'men' strong!bodies!as!well!as!quick!minds”' and' women,' profoundly' influencing' the' ' thinking'of'such'U.S.'feminist'advocates'as' In' Britain,' the' early' suffragette' Sylvia' Lucretia' Mott,' Elizabeth' Cady' Stanton,' Pankhurst' (1882<1960' CE)' was' confined' and'Susan'B.'Anthony'(Sterling,'1999).'' to' Holloway' Prison' in' 1906,' but' her' Some' women' became' entitled' to' vote' jailors'noted'with'respect'that'she'did'not' in' Britain,' Sweden,' and' western' U.S.' neglect' her' exercise' routine,' marching' states'in'the'1860s,'but'universal'suffrage' silently'round'and'round'the'prison'yard' did' not' arrive' until' much' later:' New' for'30'minutes'every'morning.'' Zealand' (1893),' South' Australia' (1895),' Canada’s' best' known' advocate' of' Finland'(1907),'Norway'(1913),'Denmark' women’s' rights,' Nellie' McClung' (1873< (1915),' Canada'except'Quebec'(1918).'' 1951' CE),' was' an' advocate' of' physical' Great' Britain' (1918)' and' the' U.S.' (1920)' and' mental' eugenics.' She' called' for' the' (Blackburn,'1970).' enforced' sterilization' of' children' with' Female' participation' in' active' limited' intelligence' (Strong

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'36'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! including' the' provision' of' medical' and' supplant' humans' as' a' means' of' dental' services' for' schoolchildren,' performing'the'heaviest'forms'of'work.' mothers’' allowances' and' factory' safety' ' requirements.'' Domestic) activities.' Most' working' Towards' the' end' of' the' 19th' century,' class' women' still' had' a' very' heavy' introduction'of'the'bloomer'dress'and'the' physical' workload,' caring' for' large' safety' bicycle' brought' women' new' families,'although'new'technology'slowly' opportunities' for' an' active' lifestyle' began'to'reduce'some'of'the'demands'of' (below).' their' daily' routine.' Piped' water' ' supplanted' the' need' to' carry' buckets' Physical! activity! trends! in! Victorian! from'the'nearest'well,'and'gas'or'electric' society! heating' eliminated' the' need' to' carry' During' Victorian' times,' many' factors' wood' or' coal' and' to' tend' grates' and' continued' the' trend' to' a' reduction' of' cooking'stoves.'! habitual' daily' activity' that' had' already' Introduction' of' the! domestic' sewing' been' initiated' by' the' spectator' activities' machine'greatly'reduced'the'time'needed' of' the' Renaissance' (Shephard,' 2012d),' to' make' household' clothing' and' linen.' and' the' shift' from' physical' labour' to' Between' 1850' and' 1880,' the' Singer' water' and' steam' power' during' the' Corporation' sold' some' 3' million' sewing' industrial' revolution'(Shephard,'2013).' machines' in' the' U.S.' alone' (Scott,' 1880).' Advances' in' technology' progressively' However,'easy'access'to'birth'control'and' reduced'the'need'for'effort

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! 1832.' Steam' (1873)' and' then' electricity' invasion' from' our' Americans' neighbours' (1881)' soon' replaced' the' horse' as' the' to'the'south.'' source' of' power' for' these' vehicles.' The' These' disparate' initiatives' spurred' Siemens'Company'led'this'initiative'with' formation' of' several' professional' the'opening'of'an'electric'streetcar'route' associations.'The'American!Association!for! in' a' suburb' of' Berlin.' ' Blaise' Pascal' had' the! Advancement! of! Physical! Education' introduced' a' public' bus' line' to' Paris' in' was' founded' in' 1885,' setting' as' its' 1662,' but' rising' fares' soon' led' to' its' primary' objective' the' support' of' demise.' HorseTurners,' but' Canadian' An' enthusiastic' disciple' of' Rousseau,' he' interest' in' physical' education' was' set' about' reforming' the' Prussian' strongly' coloured' by' continuing' fears' of' educational' system' along' the' lines'

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'38'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! described'in'the'book'“Emile”'(Shephard,' often'than'not,'the'consequences'of'bodily' 2013).' Basedow' had' begun' his' career' as' strength' (Mosse,' 1998).' GutsNapoleon.' He' argued' that' an' enhanced' based' on' human' nature' rather' than' on' physical' development' of' the' German' the'privileges'of'the'nobility'(Lang,'1891;' people' through' outdoor' gymnastics' had' Wildt,'1971).'Modernizing'of'the'knightly' political' potential' as' a' tool' in' the' exercises' progressed' steadily' with' the' rebuilding' and' reunification' of' his' assistance'of'two'French'educators'Simon' country.'As'he'explained'in'the'Deutsches! and'Du'Toit.'They'joined'with'Basedow'to' Volkstum!(The!German!Way!of!Life)'(Jahn,' develop' the' Dessau' pentathlon' (running' 1991):' jumping,' throwing,' carrying' and' ' balancing)'(Naul,'2008).' “Only!when!all!men!of!military!age!have! ' become! capable! through! physical! GutUMuths.' Like' Basedow,' Johann' education! of! bearing! arms,! have! become! Christian' Friedrich' Guts

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'39'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! grounds,'the'Turnplatz,'where'they'found' establishment' opened' in' nearby' simple' apparatus' based' on' the' ideas' of' Bloomsbury,' two' years' later.' Purpose< Guts

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! These' establishments' flourished' during' public'schools'in'the'region'were'offering' the' period' 1855<1875,' usually' under' the' gymnastics'courses.'' direction' of' the' proprietors' of' the' local' Following' disasters' in' the' Napoleonic' German' language' newspaper' (Gray,' wars,' Frederik' VI' created' the' Institute! of! 1990).'' Military! Gymnastics' in' Copenhagen' in' ' 1804.' Nachtegall' was' appointed' as' its' Denmark.' Scandinavian' Gymnastics' first' Director.' This' Institute' provided' has' often' been' viewed' as' an' educational' instruction' for' future' NCOs' in' both' the' tool,' in' contrast' with' the' militaristic' army' and' navy.' The' following' year,' emphasis' of' its' German' alternative.' Nachtegall' prepared' a' detailed' Nevertheless,' a' military' component' can' gymnastics' manual' for' this' course' be' seen' in' both' Danish' and' Swedish' (Leonard,'2009):' programmes.' Important' figures' in' the' ' Danish'segment'of'the'Scandinavian'story' “lnstruction! i! Gymnastikken,! for! de! were'Christiani,'Nachtegall'and'Bukh.'' Laerere! som! ere! ansatte! ved! Kavalleriets! ) og! Infanteriets! Underofficeer`!og! Christiani.'Denmark'and'Norway'were' Exerceerskoler.) (lnstruction! in! gymnastics! united'as'a'single'kingdom'until'1814.'At' for! teachers! who! are! employees! of! naval! the'end'of'the'18th'century,'the'young'and' and!infantry!NCO!exercise!schools).”'' liberal' Regent' was' Frederik' VI' (1786< ' 1839' CE).' He' instituted' many' reforms,' In' 1807,' King' Christian' VII' appointed' including'the'abolition'of'serfdom'(1788)' Nachtegall'Professor'of'Gymnastics'at'the' and' the' first' university' of' the' joint' University' in' Copenhagen,' although' he' kingdom' was' named' after' him' in' Oslo.' never' seems' to' have' taught' formally' in' Given' this' promising' educational' any'of'its'lecture'halls.'The'following'year,' atmosphere,' in' 1795' Frederik’s' court' Nachtegall' was' awarded' an' honorarium' chaplain' Christiani' opened' a' private' of' 300' Rix

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'41'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! Bukh.'Niels'Ebbesen'Bukh'(1880<1950' Schnepfenthal! institution' in' 1784' CE),' was' born' in' rural' Denmark.' His' (Christoph' et' al.,' 1800).' This' Institution' mother'thought'him'a'sickly'boy,'with'in< was'dedicated'to'new'modes'of'education,' pointing' toes' and' too' large' a' head.' with'Natural'Law'and'Enlightement'as'its' However,' he' became' the' charismatic' watchwords.' Salzmann' had' previously' leader' of' modern' Danish' gymnastics,' taught' at' Basedow’s' philanthropinum'in' building' on' the' tradition' of' Nachtegall' Dessau,'and'he'was'heavily'influenced'by' (Bukh,' 1938).' Although' an' exponent' of' the' ideas' of' Rousseau.' In' his' text' on' folkelighed'(sport'for'all),'much'of'Bukh’s' Gymnastics!for!Youth,'written'jointly'with' interest' was' focussed' upon' elite' GutsStockholm,' well< free' movement' approach' seems' to' have' known' today' for' such' scholars' as' P

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! knowledge'of'Medicine'was'such'that'his' “remarkable' decrease”' of' Physical' programme' gained' the' respect' of' local' Working' Capacity' as' young' men' moved' physicians,'and'in'1831'he'was'elected'a' from' their' school' programmes' into' the' member' of' the' Svenska! läkaresällskapet! first'year'of'Swedish'compulsory'military' (Swedish!General!Medical!Association).'' service'(Linroth,'1957).'The'author'of'this' The' therapeutic' component' of' Ling’s' report' suggested' that' the' pattern' of' programme' (Swedish' massage)' became' physical'training'and'occupational'duties' widely' accepted,' with' its' characteristic' adopted' by' the' army' failed' to' take' components' of' effleurage' (stroking),' adequate' account' of' the' individual’s' petrissage'(kneading),'friction,' abilities'at'recruitment.' tapotement'(brisk'tapping)'and'vibration.' ' Some' Physical' Therapists' ' viewed' Ling’s' Czechoslovakia.) Czechoslovakian' exercises' as' but' one' component' of' gymnastics' followed' closely' along' the' orthodox' Medical' Science,' but' others' (as' lines' of' the' German' Turnverein,' and' exemplified' by'Henrik'Kellgren'(1837– during' the' 19th'century'the'Turnverein' 1916' CE)' claimed' that' Swedish' massage' movement' spread' quickly' throughout' was' a' cure' for' disease' in' its' own' right.' Slavic' parts' of' the' German' empire.' The' The'demand'for'Swedish'massage'quickly' Turnverein'was'in'part'a'reaction'against' exceeded' the' teaching' capacity' of' Ling’s' the' industrialization' and' urbanization' of' school,'and'this'stimulated'a'demand'for' central'Europe,'an'attempt'to'get'exercise' machines' that' could' assist' staff' in' out' of' the' classroom' or' gymnasium' and' providing' active,' assisted' and' resisted' into'the'open'air.' exercise.' One' outcome' of' this' was' the' In'Czechoslovakia,'it'became'known'as' medicoSokol,' the' elaborated' by' Gustaf' Zander' (1835<1929' Slavic' word' for' falcon.' This' Czech' CE)'(Levertin,'1893).''' expression' of' nationalistic' gymnastics' 'Ling' recognized' that' exercise' was' originated' in' Prague' in' 1862,' under' essential' for' everyone,' although' he' Miroslav' Tyrš' (1832<1884' CE)' and' maintained' that' exercise' programmes' Jindřich' Fügner' (1822<1865' CE).' should' be' tailored' to' respect' individual' Ostensibly,' it' was' “above! politics,”' but' it' differences.'He'also'insisted'that'Physical' played' an' important' role' in' fostering' Educators' acquire' a' sound' knowledge' of' Czech' nationalism,' particularly' through' Physiology' in' order' to' understand' the' lectures'and'theatrical'performances'that' health'importance'of'physical'activity'and' accompanied'the'mass'gymnastic'festivals' fitness.'Probably'for'this'reason,'the'Royal! or'Slets'(“meeting!of!birds”).'' Central! Gymnastic! Institute,' in' The'overall'aim'of'the'Sokol'movement' collaboration' with' the' nearby' Karolinska! was'to'provide'a'combination'of'physical,' Institute,' has' continued' to' play' a' moral,' and' intellectual' training' for' the' dominant' role' in' Clinical' Exercise' working' classes.' The' physical' activity' Physiology' for' some' two' centuries' component' focussed' on' marching' drills,' (Matthews,'1969).'' fencing,' weight

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'43'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! first'decade'of'the'20th'century,'alignment' Pestalozzi' set' out' his' educational' with' the' Czech' National' Socialist' party' philosophy' in' the' book' “How! Gertrude! brought' about' an' unfortunate' “ethnic' Teaches! Her! Children”' (Pestalozzi' and' cleansing”' of' non

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'44'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! believed' strongly' in' the' virtues' of' développement! de! tous! nos! facultés! (the! rhythmic' movement,' urging' their' pupils' rational! science! of! our! movements! and! to'express'themselves'through'dance'and' their! relationship! to! our! senses,! our! thus' to' exercise' various' body' parts.' intelligence,! our! mores,! and! the! Delsarte' taught' relaxing' exercises' and' development!of!all!our!faculties)”! breath' control' for' actors,' but' he' also' ' believed' that' certain' physical' exercises' Like' many' of' his' contemporaries' in' contributed' to' poise,' grace,' beauty' and' Physical' Education,' Amorós' once' more' health.' Towards' the' end' of' the' 19th' found'himself'in'conflict'with'the'reigning' century,' a' vogue' for' Delsarte' gymnastics' government.' His' new' problems' arose' developed' in' North' America' (Stebbins,' from) the' Bourgeois' Revolution' of' July' 1888),' and' this' trend' was' perpetuated' 1830' that' had' ended' the' Bourbon' into' the' 20th'century'by'such'individuals' monarchy.' According' to' the' Great! Soviet! as'Rudolf'von'Laban'(1879<1858'CE)'and' Encyclopedia'of'1979,'in'the'aftermath'of' Frederick' Matthias' Alexander' (1869< this' action,' Amorós' was' removed' from' 1955'CE).''''' both' his' position' as' leader' of' the' army’s' ' Physical' Education' programme' and' from' Military)gymnastics.'The'army'played' the' School' that' he' had' founded' in' 1832.' a' major' role' in' the' development' of' Nevertheless,' the' army' continued' to' Physical'Education'in'France.'The'colonel' follow' the' Amorós'plan'of'physical' responsible' for' this' initiative,' Francisco' training'when'it'established'a'permanent' Amorós' (1769<1848' CE)' was' born' in' Gymnastics'school'in'the'Parisian'suburb' Valencia,' Spain.' He' had' founded' the' of'Joinville

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'45'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! that!one!is!thrown!unwittingly!form!some! received,'and'soon'afterwards'Hébert'was' high!place!without!being!able!to!avoid!it).! appointed' Director' of' the' Athletes’' ) Secondary' School' in' Reims.' He' also' Perhaps' as' a' reaction' to' defeat' of' the' assumed' responsibility' for' the' physical' French' army' by' the' Prussians' in' 1870,' training' of' French' troops' during' World' French' schools' made' military

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'46'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! Thomas) Arnold.) At' the' beginning' of' and' organized' games' within' the' “Public”' the'19th'century,'headmasters'of'the'more' school' tradition.' Interest' spread' reputable' “Public”' schools' in' England' progressively' from' this' social' elite' to' seemed' united' against' any' participation' those'who'were'seeking'to'emulate'them.' of' their' pupils' in' sport.' D.' Keate,' the' Thus,' many' of' the' Middle

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'47'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! exercise,'and'he'believed'the'best'cure'for' comment' on' social' issues.' During' the' weariness' or' stress' was' physical' action.'' period' 1851<1886,' he' became' firstly' one' He' noted' that' in' many' school' of'Her'Majesty’s'Inspectors'of'Schools'and' programmes,'the'intensity'of'recreational' eventually' Chief' Inspector.' His' exercise' and' sport' was' insufficient' to' employment' involved' criss

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! contributing'to'the'fitness

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! After' further' (but' incomplete)' Medical' Hitchcock' preferred' light' to' heavy' studies'at'Harvard,'he'began'practicing'in' gymnastics,' and' made' extensive' use' of' Port' Byron,' NY,' where' his' partner' Lewis' dumb

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'50'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! moved'to'Yale,'taking'his'school'with'him,' Roosevelt.' Sargent' published' texts' and' in' 1894' he' became' Director' of' the' describing' anthropometric' apparatus' renamed! Anderson! School! of! Normal! such' as' a' stadiometer' and' a' girth< Gymnastics.'He'wrote'several'texts'on' measuring' device' (Sargent,' 1887),' Physical' Education,' and' contributed' to' together' with' simple' tests' of' strength,' the'recognition'of'this'field'as'a'legitimate' endurance' and' power' for' each' of' six' Academic'subject.' major' muscle' groups' (Sargent,' 1902).' In' The'titles'of'two'of'his'books'point'to' Health,!Strength!and!Power,'he'presented' an' Aesthetic' viewpoint:' “Light! fitness

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'51'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! the' gymnastic' instructors.' Commonly,' 1969).''In'terms'of'politics,'he'became'the' they' were' retired' army' sergeants.' But' archrival' of' John' Strachan,' Anglican' despite' these' early' initiatives,' Bishop' of' Toronto.' Ryerson' vigorously' opportunities'for'Physical'Education'were' opposed' the' “Family' Compact,”' a' small' still'lacking'in'many'parts'of'Canada.'''' junta'of'wealthy'men'who'held'the'reins' The' first' Canadian' Institution' to' train' of' power' in' Upper' Canada' from' 1810< full

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'52'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! foreshadowed'the'enforced'attendance'of' Scott.'In'Quebec,'Henri

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'53'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! that'he'taught'at'the'Catholic!Commercial! Sports,!recreation!and!entertainment! Academy!of!Montreal.'' During' the' 19th' century,' the' founding' Scott’s'influence'soon'extended'beyond' of'a'wide'range'of'sporting'organizations' the' school' classroom.' In' 1905,' he' offers'evidence'of'increased'participation' established' the' Société! Nationale! de! in'active'leisure'among'the'Middle'Class,'a' Gymnastique.'This'organization'planned' growing' popular' interest' in' Spectator' to' set' up' gymnastics' societies,' gymnasia,' Sport' and' a' wide' variety' of' new' and' vacation' camps' throughout' Quebec.' recreational' opportunities.' Technological' Gymnasts' began' performing' at' St' Jean' innovations' such' as' the' safety' bicycle' Baptiste'Day'celebrations,'and'a'Montreal' provided'new'possibilities'for'both'active' newspaper' (La! Presse)' assigned' a' commuting' and' active' leisure.' The' columnist' (Joseph

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'54'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! Associations' and' organizations' serving' surgeon' who' believed' that' the'best'way' many'individual'sports.'' to' prevent' illness' was' through' physical' ! exercise.' In' 1850,' Brookes' had' already' Olympic) Games.! The' concept' of' the' held'a'local'athletic'competition'involving' Modern' Olympic' Games' is' often' activities' that' ranged' from' running' to' attributed' to' Pierre' de' Freddy,' Baron' de' soccer.'This'event'had'taken'place'at'the' Coubertin' (1863<1937' CE),' a' French' Gaskell' Recreation' Grounds' in' Much' educationalist' and' historian.' de' Wenlock,' Shropshire,' and' it' had' been' Coubertin’s' family' were' aristocrats,' described' as' "Meetings! of! the! Olympian! dedicated' to' the' traditional' values' of' Class"' (Hill,' 1996).' Brookes' went' on' to' royalty,' the' church' and' the' classics.' de' organize' “Olympic! Festivals”'in'Liverpool,' Coubertin' himself' was' educated' at' a' from' 1862' to' 1867,' and' a' “National! Jesuit' college' and' subsequently' lived' in' Olympic! Games”'at'London’s'Crystal' the' family' chateau' (Domaine! de! Palace'in'1866.'' Coubertin)'at'Chevreuil

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'55'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! interest' in' such' an' initiative' had' been' the' participation' of' many' youngsters' strong' subsequent' to' their' War' of' from' poorer' families.' ' Some' classes' of' Independence' (1821),' and' indeed' one' Olympic'competition'carry'inherent'risks' Olympic'Games'had'already'been'held'in' of' serious' injury' and' death' (as' with' Athens' in' 1859.! Thus,! with' the' generous' fatalities'in'the'Luge'events'at'Innsbruck' support' of' several' substantial' Greek' in'1964'and'Whistler'in'2010),'and'such' legacies,' the' original' Panathinaiko' hazards' are' compounded' by' the' Stadium' (which' had' been' rebuilt' some' temptation' to' engage' in' various' types' of' forty' years' earlier)' was' further' Doping.''On'several'occasions,'politicians' refurbished' for' the' first' Modern! have' seized' upon' the' Olympic' Games' as' International!Olympic!Games'of'1896.'The' one' more' weapon' to' be' exploited' in' a' Opening' Games' brought' together' 241' Cold' War.' Poor' countries' have' been' athletes' from' 14' nations;' they' pressured'to'divert'an'inordinate'fraction' participated'in'43'competitions.' of' their' Gross' National' Product' to' the' de' Coubertin' valued' Amateurism' construction' of' Olympic' facilities' (although'some'have'regarded'this'as'an' (sometimes,'at'the'expense'of'health'care' attempt' to' restrict' participation' to' the' for' the' ordinary' citizen),' and' even' the' “right”' sort' of' people,' from' his' level' in' choice'of'the'site'of'competition'has'been' Society).' He' also' viewed' the' Games' as' a' marred'by'reports'of'large'bribes'paid'to' means' of' encouraging' international' members'of'the'Organizing'Committee.' harmony,' and' although' he' encouraged' a' Some' 45' individual' Canadians' high'level'of'performance,'he'argued'that' competed'in'the'St.'Louis'Olympic'Games' the' important' thing' was' participation' of' 1904,' but' the' first' “official”' Canadian' rather'than'winning'(Hill,'1996):' team'of'84'contestants'attended'the'1908' ' Olympic'Games'in'London.'The'Canadian! “L'important!dans!la!vie!ce!n'est!point!le! Olympic! Committee' was' formally' triomphe,! mais! le! combat,! l'essentiel! ce! constituted' in' 1913.' Canadian' athletes' n'est!pas!d'avoir!vaincu!mais!de!s'être!bien! were' also' featured' in' the' Buffalo' Pan< battu.! (The! important! thing! in! life! is! not! American' Exposition' of' 1901,' presaging' the!triumph!but!the!struggle,!the!essential! introduction' of' the' Pan`American! Games,' thing!is!not!to!have!conquered!but!to!have! and'in'1911'Canadians'participated'in'the' fought!well).”! Festival!of!Empire'at'the'Crystal'Palace'in' ' London.' This' event' marked' the' The' contribution' of' the' Modern' Coronation' of' George' V.' For' most' of' the' Olympic' movement' to' Population' Health' participants,'it'was'seen'as'the'forerunner' and' Fitness' is' still' hotly' debated.' For' of' the' British! Empire! Games,' first' held' in' much' of' the' world’s' population,' the' 1930,'but'for'the'organizers'it'was'in'part' Olympic' Games' are' just' one' more' a' reaction'to'difficulties'in'recruiting' Spectator' event.' Olympic' feats' stimulate' young'men'of'adequate'fitness'to'fight'in' some'youngsters'to'pursue'excellence'in'a' the'Boer'War.'' particular'athletic'discipline,'but'top

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'56'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! nation.”' After' the' war,' charity' hockey' thus' persuading' his' boss' to' support' him' matches' hosted' by' this' organization' financially.' The' first' YMCA' opened' in' raised' funds' to' help' the' resettlement' of' London,'England,'in'1844,'with'the'stated' returning'veterans.' aim' of' putting' Christian' principles' into' ' practice' by' developing' "a! healthy! spirit,! Worker) Sports) Movements.! Perhaps' mind,! and! body.”' ' The' institution' quickly' because' of' the' perceived' “upper' crust”' became' one' practical' expression' of' the' nature' of' the' Olympic' Games,' Labour' “Muscular! Christianity”' that' many' movements' have' at' various' times' Victorians'viewed'as'a'means'of'“leading! established' SocialistYMCAs' in' the' United' Ghent,' Belgium' in' 1913;' it' brought' States,' Australia,' Switzerland,' Belgium,' together' various' national' worker' sport' Germany,' the' Netherlands' and' France.' movements.' After' the' disruption' caused' Individual' branches' offered' Evangelical' by' World' War' I,' the' Confédération' Christianity' through' Sunday' and' resurfaced'as'the'Socialist!Sports!Workers! weeknight'services,'and'they'encouraged' International.' It' began' organizing' good' sportsmanship' in' gyms' (where' Workers’! Olympiads,' and' exported' an' basketball' and' volleyball' were' invented)' explicitly' class

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'57'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! women'who'are'migrating'to'the'city'and' Association'(1863),'the'Rugby! Football! for'women'with'abusive'partners,'as'well' Union'(1871),'the'Yacht! Racing! as'seeking'to'build'the'confidence'of'their' Association'(1875),'the'Bicyclists! Union' members' through' sports' and' fitness' (1878),' the' National! Skating! Association' programmes'(Rice,'1947).' (1879),' the' Metropolitan! Rowing! Agnes' Blizzard' opened' the' first' Association'(1879),'the'Amateur! Athletic! Canadian' YWCA' in' Saint' John,' New' Association'(1880),'the'Amateur! Boxing! Brunswick' in' 1870,' and' other' branches' Association' (1884),' the' (Field)! Hockey! quickly' appeared' across' Canada.' Association'(1886),'the'Lawn! Tennis! Members' were' soon' learning' Association'(1888),'the'Badminton! phonography,' stenography' and' typing,' Association'(1895)'and'the'Amateur! trades' that' at' the' time' were' considered' Fencing!Association'(1898).' too'demanding'for'women.'However,'the' Parallel' organizations' emerged' in' first'course'for'female'Physical'Education' Canada' during' the' Victorian' and' Directors'was'not'held'till'1933.' Edwardian' eras,' although' often' with' a' ' time' lag' of' a' few' years' relative' to' their' YMHA) and) YWHA.' In' response' to' the' British'counterparts.'Thus'Canadians'saw' specific'Christian'orientation'of'the'YMCA' emergence' of' the' Amateur! Skating! and' YWCA,' parallel' Jewish' associations' Association'(for'both'speed'and'figure' were'established.'These'catered'to'Jewish' skaters)' in' 1887,' the' Amateur! Athletic! dietary' preferences,' and' played' an' Association! of! Canada' (1883),' the' important' role' in' helping' Jewish' Canadian!Baseball!Association'(1876),'the' immigrants' adapt' to' conditions' in' the' Ontario! and! Quebec! Basketball! New' World.' The' YMHA' began' in' Associations'(1911),'the' Canadian! Rugby! Baltimore,' in' 1854,' and' the' first' YWHA' Football! Union'(1882),'the'Canadian! was' set' up' as' an' annex' to' the' New' York' Canoe! Association'(1900),'the'Canadian! YMHA'in'1888.' Cricket! Association'(1892),'the'Canadian! ' Branch! of! the! Royal! Caledonian! Curling! Other) sports) organizations.' The' Club'(1852),' the' Canadian! Wheelman’s! Montreal! Amateur! Athletic! Association' Association'(1882),'the'Royal! Canadian! made'its'debut'in'1880,'and'the'Amateur! Golf! Association'(1894),'the'Amateur! Athletic!Association!of!Canada'dates'from' Hockey!Association!of!Canada'(1886),'the' 1884.' At' the' urging' of' Theodore' Canadian!Lacrosse!Association'(1887),'the' Roosevelt,' the' U.S.! National! College! Canadian!Lawn!Tennis!Association!(1890),' Athletic!Association'was'founded'in'1906' the' Canadian! Association! of! Amateur! to' “protect! young! people! from! the! Oarsmen'(1880),'the'Canadian! Snowshoe! dangerous! and! exploitive! athletics! Union'(1907),'the'Dominion! Football! practices! of! the! time,”' with' a' particular' Association'(soccer)(1878),'the'Canadian! emphasis' upon' regulating' American' Squash! Racquets! Association'(1913),'the' football.' Royal! Life! Saving! Society'(1909)'and'the' Peter'McIntosh'(McIntosh,'1971)'offers' Canadian!Jockey!Club'(1895).' an'impressive'listing'of'individual'English' ' sporting'organizations'that'were'founded' Sports! and! Entertainment.! Middle' during'the'nineteenth'century,'including:' and' Upper

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'58'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! recreation' during' Victorian' times<'not' Australia,' Horse' racing' also' became' only' yachting,' but' also' punting,' rowing,' popular'in'North'America'during'the'final' canoeing'and'snow

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'59'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! Chatham,' ON,' was' frequently' crowded' camping' trip' to' Canada' and' the' U.S.' with'small'rowing'boats'(Daley,'1977).' MacGregor' constructed' his' own' canoes' The'same'could'be'said'of'the'English' and' used' them' in' both' Europe' and' the' River' Thames' at' Maidenhead' and' Middle' East' (MacGregor,' 1866).' He' Windsor.' ' Growing' emancipation' opened' founded'the'Royal!Canoe!Club'in'1866'and' up'recreational'boating'to'women'as'well' launched' the' Paddling' Challenge' Cup' in' as' men,' although' more' frequently' they' 1874.'' were' assigned' the' task' of' steering' the' ' boat' for' their' perspiring' sweethearts.' Sailing.' ' The' construction' of' sailing' Sometimes,'rowing'holidays'extended'for' vessels' has' a' long' history' in' Canada,' a'week'or'more,'as'in'Jerome'K.'Jerome’s' beginning' with' the' Port

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'60'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! Cycling.) The' first' bicycle

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'61'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! 1901,' Archie' McEachern' of' Toronto' His' lifespan' (75' years)' was' shared'the'$1500'first'prize'after'winning' outstanding'for'his'era.'' a' paired' 6

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'62'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! most'celebrated'distance'competitors.'He,' Victorian' pundits' proclaimed' also,' was' a' runner' rather' than' a' walker,' Pedestrianism' as' both' immoral' and' although' his' training' programme' excessively' strenuous' for' frail' creatures' included' alternate' walking' days,' a' such' as' women' (Vertinsky,' 1994).' Many' practice'that'was'roundly'condemned'by' of' the' general' public' also' viewed' his' contemporaries.' Longboat’s' career' pedestriennes'as'brazen'entertainers,' began' when' he' won' the' Hamilton,' ON' always'ready'to'violate'the'current'moral' “Around!the!Bay”!race'of'1906.'He'set'an' standards.' Some' even' argued' that' such' eye

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'63'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! In' 1877,' the' Montreal! Snow`shoe! Club' Association'(organized' by' Albert' was' still' sufficiently' active' to' send' an' Mansbridge' in' 1903)' and' the' Federation! exhibit'to'the'Paris'World'Fair.'However,' of! Rambling! Clubs! (formed' in' 1905)' a' poor' attendance' at' the' Annual' helped' to' promote' physical' activity' Championships' of' 1900' heralded' a' among' poorer' British' citizens' by' waning'interest'in'this'form'of'sport.! negotiating' discounted' railway' fares' for' ! their'members.'' Hiking.' Towards' the' end' of' the' 19th' At' times,' they' found' themselves' in' century,'group'hikes'across'areas'of'open' conflict'with'the'local'aristocracy,'who'for' moorland' became' popular' in' England.' many' years' had' regarded' the' moorlands' Treks' were' often' organized' by' the' as' their' private' domain' for' hunting,' Cooperative! Holiday! Association! (CHA,' fishing' and' shooting.' In' England' and' founded' in' 1897).' This' Association' was' Wales,' the' right' to' roam' over' moorland' developed' by' a' young' Congregational' was' finally' resolved' by' the' Countryside! Minister' (Thomas' Arthur' Leonard)' and' and! Rights! of! Way! Act!2000.' was'affiliated'with'the'English!Cooperative! Unfortunately,'much'of'the'open'space'in' Movement.' It' offered' the' working' poor' a' North'America'is'still'regarded'as'private' week’s'stay'in'a'large'country'house'for'a' property,' but' parallels' to' the' struggle' of' modest'fee,'organizing'daytime'treks,'and' the' English' rambling' associations' can' be' evenings' of' vigorous' country' dancing.' seen' in' campaigns' such' as' that' of' the' Griffiths' commented' (Stephenson' et' al.,' Coburg! Beach! Society,' whose' members' 1989):' have'been'active'in'insisting'upon'public' ' access'to'the'shores'of'Lake'Ontario.'This' “the!great!majority!of!young!folk!did!not! right' became' enshrined' in' the' Ontario' know! how! to! get! the! best! out! of! their! Provincial'Legislature'with'the'enactment' holidays.”' “he! led! the! people! of! Colne! (a' of'Bill'32,'the'Great!Lakes!Shoreline!Right! Lancashire' industrial' town)!out!of! of!Passage!Act!of'2011.' Blackpool! (a' sedentary' seaside' resort)! Development' of' the' Youth' Hostel' into! the! mountains.' In! June! 1891,! he! took! Association' (YHA)' provided' a' further' members! of! the! Rambling! Club! associated! resource' for' hikers' and' cyclists' with' a' with! his! chapel! for! a! four`days! holiday! in! limited' income.' The' YHA' had' its' the! Lake! District! at! a! cost! of! 21s! a! head,! beginnings' in' Germany.' Richard' including!railway!fare.”! Schirrmann' (1874<1961' CE),' a' Prussian' ! schoolmaster,' and' Wilhelm' Münker,' a' The' original' accommodation' at' the' Conservationist,' saw' the' need' for' simple' CHA' Centres' was' quite' Spartan.' Some' overnight' accommodation' in' the' members' sought' to' make' the' facilities' countryside'when'their'pupils'(who'were' more' comfortable,' and' partly' for' this' engaged'in'a'1907'field'trip)'had'to'spend' reason,'Griffiths'left'the'CHA'in'1913.'He' their' nights' sleeping' in' drafty' barns.' then' formed' a' similar' organization,' Schirmann' decided' that' during' the' calling' it' the' Holiday! Fellowship.' These' summer' months' he' would' open' his' own' two' groups,' along' with' various' one

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'64'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! the' recently' reconstructed' Altena' Castle.' progressively' professionalized' from' the' The' full' blossoming' of' the' youth' hostel' mid<1860s.'' movement' occurred' immediately' In' Canada,' local' baseball' clubs' were' following' World' War' I,' although' formed' by' 1854,' and' in' 1859' Toronto' unhappily' in' Germany' the' arrival' of' the' faced' Hamilton' in' the' first' recorded' Nazi' youth' movement' soon' left' no' place' match' between' the' two' cities.' Formal' for' Schirrmann' and' his' Wandervögel! leagues' had' appeared' by' 1877,' and' in' (“migrating'birds”).'Under'the'Führer,'all' 1885' the' Toronto! Baseball! Club'was' legs'were'expected'to'march'to'the'goose< sufficiently' professionalized' that' it' step'(Williams,'2007).'' needed'to'form'a'joint'stock'company.'In' ' 1896,' the' word' “Amateur”' was' officially' Baseball.! Baseball' apparently' had' its' deleted' from' the' title' of' the' Canadian! origins' in' England,' usually' under' the' Baseball!Association.' name' of' stoolball.' In' 1700,' the' Puritan' ' preacher' Thomas' Wilson' expressed' his' Basketball.! The' game' of' basketball,' disapproval' of' people' who' engaged' in' also,' is' sometimes' claimed' as' a' U.S.' “Morris! dancing,! cudgel`playing,! baseball! invention.' In' fact,' it' originated' in' 1891' and!cricket”'on'Sundays'(Block'and'Wiles,' with' the' Canadian' clergyman,' educator' 2006).' The' rules' of' Englische! Base`ball"' and'physician'Dr.'James'Naismith'(1861< were' published' in' 1796' (Saltzman' and' 1939' CE)' of' Almonte,' ON' (Naismith,' GutsMuths,' 1800)'and'in'1798<1799,' the' 1941).' The' first' game' was' played' in' the' athletic' heroine' of' Northanger' Abbey' U.S.,' but' many' of' the' participants' were' expressed' her' preference' for' cricket,' university' students' from' Quebec.' baseball,'riding'on'horseback'and'running' Naismith'had'been'charged'with'the'task' about' the' countryside' to' the' reading' of' of' inventing' a' new' indoor' sport' while' insipid'books'(Austen,'1818).'The'rules'of' conducting' an' international' physical' baseball' were' summarized' in' the' British' education' class' at' the' YMCA' training' Boy’s! Own! Book'of'1828'(Clarke,' school'in'Springfield'Mass,'and'the'game' 1828/1831).'' was'introduced'to'Canada'through'YMCAs' Immigrants'brought'the'game'to'North' in' Montreal,' QC,' and' St.' Stephen’s,' NB.' America,' and' by' 1791' the' game' had' Naismith' saw' the' new' sport' as' his' become'sufficiently'prevalent'in'Pittsfield,' contribution' to' “Muscular! Christianity,”' Mass.' that' the' local' council' passed' a' by< particularly' during' the' harsh' months' of' law' prohibiting' people' from' playing' the' winter,'when'outdoor'recreation'was'less' game' within' 80' yards' of' the' town' feasible.'Others,'also,'saw'basketball'as'a' meeting' house.' The' US' Spalding! wholesome' influence' that' would' (Sclar,' Commission! of' 1908' concluded,' 2008):' erroneously,' that' Abner' Doubleday' had' ' established' the' first' rules' of' the' game' in' “transform! the! children! of! American! 1839,' and' a' Baseball' Hall' of' Fame' was' immigrants...into!productive!Americans!by! established' in' Doubleday’s' hometown' teaching!them!American!values.”' (Cooperstown,'NY).'The'first'team'to'play' ' under'North'American'rules'was'the'New! Curling.! Curling' was' popular' in' York! Knickerbockers.' Their' club' was' Scotland' from' the' 16th'to'the'19th' founded' in' 1845.' The' game' became' centuries.' Two' monks' had' reportedly'

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'65'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! engaged' in' a' curling' match' in' 1541,' border' competition' with' their' Canadian' although' the' term' curling'was'first'used' counterparts.''''' in' 1620,' when' the' Scottish' poet' and' ! Provost'of'Perth,'Henry'Adamson'(1581< Football.!Rules'for'the'form'of'football' 1639' CE)' wrote' an' elegy' describing' his' associated' with' Arnold's' Rugby' School' friend,' Mr.' Gall' (Adamson,' 1638/1774)' were' first' formulated' in' 1845,' and' the' as:'' schism' between' Association' and' Rugby' ' football' was' formalized' in' 1863.' The' "a!citizen!of!Perth,!and!a!gentle`man!of! Rugby' Union' has' continued' to' be' goodly! stature,! and! pregnant! wit,! much! associated' with' privilege' and' Private' given!to!pastime,!as!golf,!archerie,!curling! Schools,'whereas'the'Rugby'League'form' and!jovial!companie.”'' of' the' game' became' a' working' class,' ' professional'sport'(Collins,'2006).''' The' game' quickly' became' almost' too' Rutgers' University' played' some' form' popular' in' Scotland.'In'1638,'a'Glasgow' of'football'against'Princeton'in'1869,'and' Assembly' of' Presbyterians' accused' Yale' and' Harvard' adopted' the' Rugby' Bishop'Graham'of'Orkney'of'a'terrible'act:' Union' code' in' 1875.' Artillerymen' in' the' he'was'a'Sabbath'curler.'' British' Army' also' began' playing' Rugby' Curling'is'now'most'firmly'entrenched' Union' football' while' in' Canada,' and'in' in'Canada,'having'been'brought'to'North' 1874' they' competed' against' McGill' America' by' Scottish' soldiers' and' University' (Football' Canada.,' 2012).' The' immigrants.' ' Troops' serving' with' game' was' no' less' violent' in' the' 19th' Generals' Murray' and' Wolfe' reputedly' century' than' it' can' be' today,' and' there' brought' the' sport' of' curling' to' the' St.' were'reports'of'deaths'from'injuries'in'St.' Charles' and' St.' Lawrence' Rivers' during' John,'NB'(1884)'and'Victoria,'BC'(1913).' their'occupation'of'Quebec,'from'1759'to' Some' of' the' trophies' associated' with' 1763' (Schrodt,' Redmond' and' Baka,' Rugby' competitions' have' quite' a' long' 1980).' The' Montreal! Curling! Club'was' history;' for' example,' the' McKechnie' Cup' established' in' 1807' (Richard,' 2007);' was' first' presented' to' the' BC' Rugby' members'of'this'club'constructed'the'first' Union' by' Dr.' McKechnie,' a' Vancouver' covered' curling' rink' in' North' America' Island'physician,'in'1896.' near' the' Lachine' River.' By' 1843,' a' Some'Canadian'schools'still'play'the' Canadian' had' won' the' prestigious' classical'form'of'Rugby'Union'football,'but' Denham' Medal,' and' a' Toronto' journalist' a' divergence' of' rules,' introduced' by' boasted'(Redmond,'1982):' Walter'Camp'(1859<1925' CE),' adviser' to' ' the' Yale' football' team,' led' to' the' ”'Curling!may!now!be!considered!in!this! development' of' both' American' and' Province,! a! Canadian! rather! than! a! Canadian' forms' of' football' (Braunwart' Scottish!game.”! and' Carroll,' 2012).' In' Australia,' the' ' Melbourne' club' set' the' rules' for' The'boast'seemed'vindicated'by'1908,' Australian'football'in'1859.'' when' a' Canadian' team' toured' Scotland,' ' winning'23'of'26'contests.''By'the'1830s,' Horse) racing.' For' many' early' North' there'were'also'many'curling'clubs'in'the' American' settlers,' ownership' of' a' horse' U.S,' and' they' often' engaged' in' cross< was' a' status' symbol,' and' horse' racing'

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! became' a' popular' spectator' activity' Harness'racing'began'in'rural'areas'of' during' the' 18th'and'19th' centuries.' A' North' America' towards' the' end' of' the' racecourse' was' constructed' at' Digby,' NS' 18th'century,'and'it'is'still'popular'in'some' as' early' as' 1787.' Nevertheless,' some' of' rural'areas'of'Canada.'A'trotting'race'for'a' the' city' fathers' looked' askance' at' horse' purse' of' $50' was' held' at' St.' Pierre,' racing.' A' Halifax' city' statute' of' 1771' Montreal'in'1830,'and'the'Quebec!Trotting! banned'horse'racing'because'it'made'the' Club'was'established'in'1864.'Pneumatic< population' “idle,! immoral! and! gamblers.”' tyred' sulkies' were' introduced' in' 1892,' This'decision'had'evidently'been'reversed' increasing' speeds,' and' the' Canadian' by'1825,'when'the'Halifax!Turf!Club!was' driver'Dave'McClary'achieved'the'first'2< founded.'The'Québec!Turf!Club'dates'from' minute'mile'in'1897.'' 1789,'and'the'King's!Plate,'with'a'purse'of' The'first'equestrian'competitions'were' 100' guineas,' was' first' held' in' Trois< held'in'Toronto'as'early'as'1842,'and'by' Rivières' in' 1836.' Initially,' this' last' race' 1909' an' Equestrian' team' was' able' to' was' restricted' to' horses' bred' in' Lower' compete'in'London,'England.' Canada,' but' in' 1859' horses' from' Upper' ' Canada'were'also'admitted.'The'following' Sedentary!activities.'During'Victorian' year,' the' Queen’s! Plate'was'held'in' times,' patterns' of' sedentary' Toronto'for'the'first'time.'This'event'has' entertainment' varied' widely,' depending' been' run' every' year' since,' making' it' 15' upon' the' individual's' social' class.' As' an' years' older' than' the' better

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! gaming' clubs' such' as' the' Beefsteak! Club' from' a' mere' 500' in' 1801' to' 14,000' in' or'Savages.'Many'of'the'less'wealthy'went' 1881.' Many' visitors' took' a' quick' dip' in' to' the' neighbourhood' “pub,”' drank' large' the'ocean,'but'the'water'was'too'cold'for' quantities'of'ale,'joined'in'raucous'singing' extended' swimming,' and' much' of' a' and' gambled' on' foot' races' and' boxing' week’s'holiday'was'spent'in'a'deck

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'68'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! Montreal' facility' in' 1802.' Bowling' was' participation.' Statistics' of' the' British' brought'to'North'America'as'the'game'of' Registrar!General!of!Births!and!Deaths'for' Nine

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! and' 1875' also' established' public' baths' expectancy'between'the'wealthy'Counties' and' wash

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'70'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! Owen' organized' a' Model' Community' four' or' five' crowded' apartments' were' for' his' employees' at' the' New' Lanark' served' by' a' single' cold

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! Slavery.)The'abolition'of'slavery'had'a' Fitness.'As'noted'above,'the'Victorians' major' impact' upon' the' health' of' a'large' first' considered' fitness' in' the' context' of' segment' of' the' North' American' survival,' with' Social' Darwinists' joining' population.' An' estimated' 12' million' ideas'on'the'Origin!of!Species'to'the'views' slaves' were' transported' to' the' Americas' of' Malthus' on' over

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'72'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! Such' pursuits' favoured' (Kingsley,' fitness' mainly' as' the' development' of' 1874):! prodigious' strength.' Benedetto' Morpugo' ! (1861<1944'CE),'a'pathologist'from'Turin,' !“self`restraint,! fairness,! honour,! developed' the' concept' of' progressive' unenvious!approbation!of!another’s!success! resistance' exercise,' and' he' reported' a' and!all!that!‘give!and!take’!of!life."! 55%'increase'in'the'girth'of'the'sartorius' ' muscle' when' he' trained' dogs' by' having' Possibly,' they' also' contributed' to' the' them'run'on'an'exercise'wheel,'He'argued' Military' Spirit' of' the' Victorian' British' that'muscular'dimensions'were'increased' Empire'(Mangan,'1981),'as'exemplified'in' through'a'hypertrophy'of'existing'muscle' Sir'Henry'Newbolt’s'Vitae!Lampada!:'' fibres' (hypertrophy)' rather' than' by' an' ' increase'in'the'total'population'of'muscle' “The! voice! of! a! schoolboy! rallies! the! fibres' (hyperplasia),' a' view' that' is' ranks.! “Play! up!! Play! Up!! and! play! the! generally' maintained' to' this' day.' The' game!”! family' of' Murpugo'were'Jewish,'and'he' ' was'finally'forced'to'flee'to'the'Argentine' Many'of'the'well

Health'&'Fitness'Journal'of'Canada,'ISSN'1920<6216,'Vol.'6,'No.'2'⋅'May'30,'2013'⋅'73'''' Understanding!of!Health!and!Fitness!

! “young! men! who! are! now! putting! Height) and) body) mass.' Large

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! all'too'often'ways'were'found'to'avoid'the' The' importance' of' conditioning' supposed'requirements.' programmes' for' new' recruits' was' During' the' U.S.' Civil' War,' repeatedly' underlined' by' the' poor' “Stonewall”'Jackson' trained' a' brigade' of' physique' of' the' general' population.' The' rural' Virginians' rigorously' by' such' U.S.! Draft! Report'for'World'War'I'shows' measures'as'speed'marches'carrying'a'27' that'one'man'in'3'was'unfit'for'combat'at' kg' pack' under' winter' conditions.' This' recruitment' and' many' of' the' remainder' was' followed' by' success' in' a' series' of' were' in' relatively' poor' condition' when' “lightning! strikes.”' But' fitness' was' the' they'first'enrolled.''The'picture'in'Britain' exception'rather'than'the'rule'during'this' was' very' similar;' 2' of' every' 5' men' conflict,' Robert' E.' Lee' lost' 16,000' volunteering'to'fight'in'1915'were'judged' stragglers' in' a' single' march' as' he' unfit'for'military'service'because'of'poor' approached'the'critical'battle'of'Antictam.'' health'and/or'fitness.' Towards' the' end' of' the' 19th' century,' )) Herman' J' Koehler' succeeded' in' Conclusions.! integrating' Gymnastics' and' Physical' During' the' 19th'century,'thinking' Culture' into' the' curriculum' of' the' West! became' progressively' more' rational,' and' Point!Academy'(1885).'A'gymnasium'was' less' reliance' was' placed' upon' constructed'in'1892,'and'100'years'later'I' metaphysical' explanations' of' the' remember' the' vigorous' sounds' of' both' universe.' Many' details' of' whole' organ' male' and' female' recruits' being' chased' Physiology'were'clarified,'and'there'was'a' around' the' sports' fields' by' their' Gym' growing' understanding' of' Biochemistry,' Instructors'at'6'a.m.'every'morning.''' Metabolism,' and' Microbiology,' all' of' In'1896,'General'Nelson'Miles'ordered' which' set' the' stage' for' a' modern' all' U.S.' soldiers' at' Western' posts' to' approach'to'the'promotion'of'Population' engage'in'at'least'30'minutes'of'physical' Health,'fitness

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! Author’s!Qualifications! expression!and!physical!education! The'author’s'qualifications'are'as' legislation.'Paper'presented'at'the'The' 3 history,'the'evolution'and'the'diffusion'of' follows:' Roy' J.' Shephard ,' M.B.B.S.;' M.D.' sports'and'games'in'different'cultures.' [Lond.];'Ph.'D.;'D.P.E.;'LL.D.' Proceedings'of'the'4th'HISPA'Seminar,' ' Leuven,'Belgium.' References! Barrow,'H.'M.,'and'Brown,'J.'P.'(1988).'Man!and! Adamson,'H.'(1638/1774).'The!Muses!threnodie:! movement:!Principles!of!physical! or,!Mirthful!mournings!on!the!death!of!Mr! education.'Philadelphia,'PA:'Lea'&' Gall.!Containing!variety!of!pleasant! Febiger.' poetical!descriptions,!moral!instructions,! Becquerel,'A.'C.,'and'Breschet,'G.'(1835).'Mémoire' historical!narrations,!and!divine! sur'la'chaleure'humaine.'Ann.!Chim.!Phys.,! observations,!with!the!most!remarkable! 59,'113.' antiquities!of!Scotland,!especially!of!Perth.' Beecher,'C.'(1856).'Physiology!and!Calisthenics!for! Perth,'Scotland:'G.'Johnston.' Schools!and!Families.'New'York,'NY:' Amoros,'F.'(1838).'Nouveau!manuel!d'éducation! Harper.' physique,!gymnastique!et!morale.'Paris,' Benedict,'F.'G.,'and'Emmes,'L.'E.'(1915).'A' France:'Librairie'de'Roret.' calorimetric'calibration'of'the'Krogh' Anderson,'W.'G.'(1897).'Phsical!eduation:!health! ergometer.'Am.!J.!Physiol.!,!38,'52<61.' and!strength,!grace!and!symmetry.'New' Bernard,'C.,'Atlee,'W.'F.,'and'Robin,'C.'(1854).' York,'NY:'A.D.'Dana.' Notes!of!M.!Bernard's!lectures!on!the! Arnold,'M.'(1865).'Culture!and!Anarchy:!An!essay! blood:!with!an!appendix.'Philadelphia,'PA:' in!political!asnd!social!criticis.'London,'UK:' Lippincott.' Smith,'Elder'and'Co.'.' Bischoff,'T.'L.'W.,'and'von'Voit,'C.'(1860).'Die! Atwater,'W.'O.,'and'Rosa,'E.'B.'(1899).'Description! Gesetze!der!Ernährung!des!Fleischfressers! of!a!New!Respiration!Calorimeter!and! durch!neue!Untersuchungen!festgestell.!! Experiments!on!the!Conservation!of!Energy! (The!laws!of!the!diet!of!the!carnivore!found! in!the!Human!Body.'Washington,'D.C.' by!new!investigations).'Leipzig:'C.F.' 'U.S.'Department'of'Agriculture,'Office'of' Winter.' Experiment'Stations,'Government' Bishop,'P.'J.'(1977).'A'bibliography'of'John' Printing'Office,'Bulletin'63.' Hutchinson.'Med.!Hist.!,!21,'384<396.' Austen,'J.'(1818).'Northanger'Abbey.'London,'UK:' Blackburn,'H.'(1970).'Women's!suffrage.'New' John'Murray.' York,'NY:'Source'Book'Press.' Bach,'T.'(1877).'Anleitung!zu!Turnfahrten,! Block,'D.,'and'Wiles,'T.'(2006).'Baseball!before!we! Wanderungen!und!Schulrreisen!(gymnastic! knew!it:!A!search!for!the!roots!of!the!game.' rides,!hikes!and!school!trips)!!Leipzig,' Lincoln,'NE:'University'of'Nebraska'Press.' Germany:'Eduard'Strauch.' Bowditch,'J.,'and'Ramsland,'C.'(1961).'Voices!of!the! Baginsky,'A.,'and'Janke,'O.'(1900).'Handbuch!der! industrial!revolution.'Ann'Arbor,'MI:' Schul!Hygiene:!Zum!gebrauche!für!Ärzte,! University'of'Michigan'Press.' Sanitätsbeamte,!Lehrer,!SchulVorstånde,! Bowler,'P.'J.'(2003).'Evolution!:!the!history!of!an! und!Techniker.'Stuttgart,'Germany:'Enke.' idea,!3rd!ed.'Berkeley,'CA:'University'of' Bain,'L.'L.'(2010).'Evaluating'the'Quality'of' California'Press.' Qualitative'Research.'In'J.'R.'Thomas,'J.'K.' Braunwart,'B.,'and'Carroll,'B.'(2012).'The!journey! Nelson,'S.'Silverman'and'S.'J.'Silver'(Eds.),' to!Camp!`!The!origins!of!American!Football! Research!methods!in!physical!activity.' from!ancient!times!to!1889:'Professional' Champaign,'IL:'Human'Kinetics.' Footballers'Research'Association' Bange,'C.'(2009).'Claude'Bernard,'the' (www.profootballresearchers.org/books. experimental'method,'and'the'Société'de' htm)'accessed'26th'April'2012.'.' Biologie.'J!Soc!Biol.!,!203,'235<247.' Brobeck,'J.'R.,'Reynolds,'O.'E.,'and'Appel,'T.'A.' Barcroft,'J.'(1914).'The!respiratory!function!of!the! (1987).'History!of!the!American! blood.'Cambridge,'UK:'Cambridge' Physiological!Society.!The!first!century,! University'Press.' 1887`1987.'Bethesda,'MD.':'American' Barney,'R.'K.'(1976).'German!Turners!in!19th! Physiological'Society.' century!America:!their!role!in!exercise!

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! Bukh,'N.'(1938).'Fundamental!gymnastics:!the! Cushman,'H.'W.'(1855).'A!Historical!and! basis!of!rational!physical!development,! biographical!genealogy!of!the!Cushmans:! Volume!3.'Boston,'Mass.:'E.P.'Dutton.' The!descendants!of!Robert!Cushman,!the! Burkhardt,'R.'W.'(1970).'Lamarck,'evolution,'and' Puritan,!from!the!year!1617!to!1855.'New' the'politics'of'science.'J.!Hist.!Biol.,!!3,'275< York,'NY:'Little,'Brown'&'Co.' 298.' Daley,'R.'D.'(1977).'Impulse!to!addiction:!A! Byles,'J.'B.,'and'Osborn,'S.'(1898).'First'aid.'In'H.'C.' narrative!history!of!sport!in!Chatham,! Howard'(Ed.),'The!Encyclopedia!of!Sports! Ontario,!1790`1895.'London,'ON:'Faculty' &!Games.'London,'UK:'Heinemann.' of'Education,'University'of'Western' Canby,'H.'S.'(1958).'Thoreau.'Boston,'MA:'Beacon' Ontario,'M.A.'Thesis.' Press.' Darwin,'C.'(1909).'The!Origin!of!Species.!New'York,' Carneiro,'R.'L.,'and'Perrin,'R.'G.'(2002).'Herbert' NY:'P.F.'Collier'&'Son.' Spencer's''Principles'of'Sociology:''a' Darwin,'E.'(1794<96).'Zoonomia.'Dublin,'Ireland:' centennial'retrospective'and'appraisal.' P.'Byrne.' Ann.!Sci.,,!59!221<261.' Darwin,'E.'(1797).'A!plan!for!the!conduct!of!female! Chadwick,'E.'(1839).'Report!on!the!Sanitary! education!in!boarding!schools.'London,' Conditions!of!the!Labouring!Population!of! UK:'J.'Drewry.! Great!Britain:!A!Supplementary!Report!on! Delpech,'J.'M.'(1828).'De!l'Orthomorphie:!par! the!Results!of!a!Special!Inquiry!Into!the! rapport!à!l'espèce!humaine!:!ou!Recherches! Practice!of!Interment!in!Towns.!Made!at! Anatomico`Pathologiques!sur!les!causes,! the!Request!of!Her!Majesty's!Principal! les!moyens!de!prevenir,!ceux!de!guérir!les! Secretary!of!State!for!the!Home! principales!difformités,!et!sur!les!veritables! Department.'London,'UK:'W.'Clowes'&' fondemens!de!l'art!appelé!Orthopedique.' Sons.! Paris,'France:'Gabon.' Chesney,'K.'(1970).'The!anti`society:!an!account!of! Dickens,'C.'(1859).'All!the!Year!Round.'London,' the!Victorian!underworld.'London,'UK:' UK:'Self

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! Fogel,'R.'W.'(2000).'The!Fourth!Great!Awakening! Hilton,'J.,'and'Jacobson,'W.'H.'A.'(1879).'On!rest! and!the!Future!of!Egalitarianism.'Chicago,' and!pain:!a!course!of!lectures!on!the! IL:'University'of'Chicago'Press.' influence!of!mechanical!and!physiological! Football'Canada.'(2012).'Canadian'football' rest!in!the!treatment!of!accidents!and! timelines'(1860

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