Research Collection Working Paper Local perceptions and indigenous institutions as forms of social performance for sustainable forest management in Bhutan Author(s): Wangchuk, Sanjay Publication Date: 1998 Permanent Link: https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-a-001927030 Rights / License: In Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Permitted This page was generated automatically upon download from the ETH Zurich Research Collection. For more information please consult the Terms of use. ETH Library ISSN 1420-1143 Forstwissenschaftliche Beiträge 20 der Professur Forstpolitik und Forstökonomie Local Perceptions and Indigenous Institutions as Forms of Social Performance for Sustainable Forest Management in Bhutan Sanjay Wangchuk Zurich 2000 Acknowledgement I would like to take this opportunity to offer my sincere thanks to the Forestry Service Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Royal Government of Bhutan, for giving me the opportunity to carry out this research, which will improve my capability to serve the country more effectively. In particular, I would like to mention Dasho Sangey Thinley, Joint Secretary, for allowing me to spend such a long period of time out in the field, and at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich. This research could never have been possible without Prof. Dr. Franz Schmithüsen who very kindly consented to my working at the Chair of Forest Policy and Forest Economics, ETH Zürich, and to be the promoter of my research. His vast experience and intellectual excellence and depth have been a source of inspiration since I first discussed my research project with him in 1994. His background in European forestry was helpful in relation to our many discussions concerning the Bhutanese context. PD Dr. Klaus Seeland, M.A. has not only been my co-promoter, but also a constant source of inspiration for the last three years, and will always remain one in my life. I would like to express my sincere and deep gratitude to him, for guiding me during my research in the field and at the Chair of Forest Policy and Forest Economics, ETH- Zürich. He travelled throughout the country to ensure that we had a better understanding of the socio-economic conditions in the research sites and that the concepts we discussed, properly reflected this understanding. It was he who introduced me, a forester, to social empirical research that not only enabled me to conduct this study, but shed a new light on the forests and people of Bhutan, and will thus be a lasting professional orientation for the future. I once again offer my sincere gratitude to him for all he has done for me. It was Prof. Dr. Martin Menzi, who first introduced me to the Chair of Forest Policy and Forest Economics, ETH Zürich. This was in line with the priority of the Royal Government, which was to develop trained personnel who could shoulder responsibilities and reduce dependency on outside expertise. His experience and understanding of Bhutan’s research needs have always been a resource that I could fall back on whenever necessary. I would like to express my heartfelt thanks for his consenting to be co-promoter of my thesis and for being a constant source of advice. I would like to express my gratitude to the Swiss Development Corporation, Government of Switzerland, for funding my research, particularly to Dr. Hans Peter Maag, Mrs. Christine Grieder and Mrs. Particia Beutler at the Section Asia II for administering my stay in Switzerland. My thanks also go to Helvetas for rendering assistance during visits to the research sites. I would like to mention Mr. E. Werner Külling, Secretary General, Mrs. Christina Suter, D. Zürcher, Samdrup Chhetri and Mrs. Chenzom for their valuable support. My friends at the Chair of Forest Policy and Forest Economics, ETH-Zürich have been very nice and helpful during my stay at the Chair. I would like to mention in particular: Prof. Dr. Willi Zimmermann, Prof. Dr. Ingrid Kissling-Naef, Mr. Alois Keel, Mr. Gerhard Gasser, Mr. Stephan Wild, Mrs. N. Ottiger and Mrs. Christine Bächtiger. Special thanks are also due to Mrs. Kohler for handling my administrative matters. I would like to thank Mr. Lhab Gyeltshen, Dy. Ranger, Radhi and his wife; Mr. Karma Dukpa, Divisional Forest Officer, Bumthang; Mr. Gopal Mahat, Divisional Forest Officer, Paro; Mr. Dodo, Forester, Paro Dzongkhag and Mr. Kingzang, Bumthang Division for assisting me during my field survey in Radhi, Chumey and Shaba Gewogs respectively. I would also like to thank my colleagues at the Nature Conservation Section for giving me so much moral support during the research process. Finally, I would like to thank my family members who have constantly encouraged me to complete this research and who will always remain a source of inspiration throughout my life. Sanjay Wangchuk Table of Contents List of Figures VI List of Tables VII Abbreviations used in the Report VIII Summary IX Zusammenfassung X 1. Context, Objectives and Research Methodology 1 1.1 Context and Research Objectives 1 1.2 Research Approach and Methodology 2 2. Institutional Framework for Forest Resource Management at the National Level 8 2.1 National Development and Institutions 8 2.2 The Renewable Natural Resources Sector 14 2.2.1 National and Regional Organisation 14 2.2.2 Major Land Uses 17 2.2.3 Agro-ecological Zones and Agricultural Production 17 2.2.4 Livestock Production 18 2.2.5 Forest Cover 19 2.2.6 Forest Production and Growing Stock 22 2.2.7 Nature Protection and National Parks 23 2.2.8 Forest Conservation and Hydro Power Generation 26 2.3 Legislation Regulating Forest Resources Utilisation 29 2.3.1 Development of Regulatory Framework 29 2.3.2 Forest Act 1969 29 2.3.3 Land Act 1978 30 2.3.4 Livestock Act and By-Laws 1980 31 2.3.5 Forest and Nature Conservation Act 1995 31 2.3.6 Draft Social Forestry Rules 1996 32 3. Results of Household Surveys, Structured and Semi-structured Interviews and of the Analysis of Forest Offence Cases 34 3.1 Radhi Gewog 34 3.1.1 Socio-economic Base Line Data 34 3.1.2 Natural Resource Flow 37 3.1.3 Social Energy Flow in Radhi 41 3.2 Shaba Gewog 45 3.2.1 Socio -economic Base Line Data 45 3.2.2 Natural Resource Flow 47 3.2.3 Social Energy Flow Profile 50 3.3 Chumey Gewog 53 3.3.1 Socio-economic Base Line Data 53 3.3.2 Natural Resource Flow 55 3.3.3 Social Energy Flow 59 3.4 Social Organisational Capabilities 62 3.4.1 General Considerations 62 3.4.2 Collection of Firewood 63 3.4.3 Collection of House Construction Timber 67 3.4.4 Use of Shingles and Splinters 67 3.4.5 Weaving 68 3.4.6 Use of Pasture 69 3.4.7 Trading 70 3.5 Local Resource Management Institutions 71 3.5.1 Reesup (Village Forest Guard) 71 3.5.2 Meesup (Forest Fire Watcher) 74 3.5.3 Chusup (Drinking Water and Irrigation Water Watchman) 75 3.5.4 Shingsungpa (Agricultural Crop Damage Arbitrator) 77 3.5.5 Sokshing 79 3.5.6 Religious Trees and Forests 83 3.6 Traditional Sanctions and Offence Cases under the Forest Law 84 3.6.1 Traditional Forms of Sanctions (Reedum) 84 3.6.2 Offence Cases under the Forest Law 86 3.7 Summary of Important Aspects for Forest Policy Development 89 4. Discussion on Issues Related to Sustainable Forest Management 92 4.1 Towards a Combined Local and Government Resources Management Approach 92 4.1.1 Changes in the Role of the Government in Forest Resource Management 92 4.1.2 Development of Forest Management Institutions at the Local Level 95 4.2 Towards a Sustainable Supply of Firewood in Rural Areas 98 4.2.1 Firewood Consumption and Extraction in Rural Areas 98 4.2.2 A Proposal for a Programme Approach Based on Co-operative Action 103 4.3 Towards Alternative Strategies in Dealing with Shifting Cultivation 106 4.3.1 Issues 106 4.3.2 Policy Alternatives 110 4.4 Summary of Important Aspects for Forest Policy Development 113 5. Discussion on Issues Related to Forest Policy Development 116 5.1 Social Performance at the Regional and Local Level 116 5.1.1 The Use of Sokshing 116 5.1.2 The Use of Forest Products 120 5.1.3 The Importance of Shifting Cultivation 129 5.1.4 The Impact of Governmental Timber Pricing 125 5.1.5 The Policing Effect of Present Forest Regulation 127 5.2 Role of Government in Local Forest Resource Management 129 5.2.1 Present Government Objectives and Approaches 129 5.2.2 Promotion of Local Participation in Forest Utilisation through Decentralisation 130 5.2.3 Reinforcement of Local User Groups 132 5.2.4 Economic Benefits and Tenurial Arrangements as Preconditions for Local Forest Management Capabilities 138 5.2.5 Approaches to Strengthening Local Management Institutions 140 5.3 Role of Land Tenure Pattern and Legislation 142 5.3.1 Considerations with Regard to State Forest Tenure 142 5.3.2 Effects of Present State Control on Local Forest Uses 144 5.3.3 Considerations with Regard to Communal Forest Tenures 145 5.3.4 Gewog Forest Resources Management Committee 148 5.4 Summary of Important Aspects for Policy Development 151 6. Conclusions 153 6.1 With Regard to Sustainable Forest Management 153 6.2 With Regard to Forest Policy 155 6.3 With Regard to Forest Research Requirements 156 Bibliography 152 General References 152 References Related to Bhutan 155 References Related to South and South-East Asia 159 Annexure I: Glossary of Dzongkhag Terms Used in the Report 163 Annexure II: List of Important Tree Species in Bhutan 166 Annexure III: List of Questions and Coded Answers of Structured Interviews 169 Part A: Forests 169 Part B: Forest Resources Use 171 Part C: Socio-economic Aspects 173 Part D: Religious Practices 176 List of Figures Figure 1: Map Showing the Three Research Locations 4 Figure