Managing Common Pool Resources
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Managing Common Pool Resources: Local Environmental Knowledge and Power Dynamics in Mopane Worms and Mopane Woodlands Management: The Case of Bulilima District, South-Western Matabeleland, Zimbabwe. Mkhokheli Sithole Doctoral thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the Department of Development Studies, Faculty of Humanities at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2016. Supervisor: Professor Muchaparara Musemwa Declaration I, Mkhokheli Sithole, declare that this work is my own, that all sources used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references, and that this thesis was not previously submitted by me or any other person for degree purposes at this or any other university. Signature…………… Date………….. i Abstract This study examines the dynamics of power and the significance of local environmental knowledge in natural resource management in Zimbabwe’s communal areas. It uses a case study of Bulilima District, broken down into into 3 components (Wards) for manageability of the study, to analyse the power configurations and the role played by local environmental knowledge in influencing decision-making processes among actors in the district with regard to mopane worms (Imbrasis beilina is the scientific name while icimbi is the vernacular name) and mopane woodlands (Colophospermum mopane is the scientific name while iphane is the vernacular name). It examines the significance of local environmental knowledge, i.e. indigenous knowledge and knowledge that developed as a result of a combination of knowledges from different ethnic groups and modern science. The study further examines the dynamics of the gendered nature of mopane worms and woodlands tenure regimes by putting under the spotlight the spaces and places where men and women interact, use and exert control over mopane worms and woodlands. It places history at the centre of our understanding of contemporary power dynamics and helps us to appreciate the importance of how local environmental knowledge has changed over time. To this end, the study argues that some of the contemporary conflicts over resources have their roots in the colonial era when the colonial government appropriated land from the locals and introduced discourses and practices such as conservation. Furthermore, it argues and demonstrates that the state is a critical player in determining access, use and control of natural resources. Based on rich ethnographic data collected by means of critical observations, in-depth interviews, narratives, and archival data, as well as aided by a brief survey, the study concluded that natural resource governance is a complex phenomenon in developing states. Power and knowledge play significant roles in influencing access, use and control of mopane worms and woodlands. Furthermore, while some locals still possess indigenous knowledge, practices and belief systems related to natural resource management, these are now less significant in influencing decisions on natural resource management. Indeed, the interplay of knowledge and power in resource management sees scientific culture and outside knowledge taking precedence over local forms of knowledge in the management of natural resources in the district. Key words: power, local environmental knowledge, indigenous knowledge, ZANU PF, natural resource management, access, mopane worms and woodlands, Bulilima, Zimbabwe ii Acknowledgements I wish to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my advisor, Professor Muchaparara Musemwa, for the continuous support he provided me with throughout my Ph.D study, for his patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. He did all this even during times when he was struggling with his health after a shoulder operation. His guidance helped me throughout field research and writing of this thesis. Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the rest of the people who provided generous and essential support during my studies. I acknowledge the people who helped me during my fieldwork in Zimbabwe. These include Fortunate Mathuthu, Nqabayezwe Moyo and Thobekile Mabaso. I appreciate their insights and cooperation. Special thanks also go to the residents of Bulilima District, particularly those from Dombolefu, Makhulela and Bambadzi wards where field work was done. I was welcomed and treated very well during the course of my fieldwork. Special mention goes to the local government and traditional authorities for treating me purely as a researcher and nothing else. My sincere thanks also go to the Director and staff at the Institute of Development Studies, National University of Science and Technology, for affording me the opportunity to go on study leave while they shouldered my teaching and administrative loads. To my family, the role you played in visible and invisible ways can never be expressed in words. You supported me spiritually throughout the writing of this thesis. To my wife, Nobuhle Sebata Sithole, and my lovely daughters, Mandisa and Luyanda Sithole, this thesis is for you! You endured long days and nights when I was away but you never gave up on me. Nobuhle: you were my first examiner by taking time to read my proposal and my chapters. You will never know how that gave me the strength never to give up so easily. My lovely daughter, Mandisa: you never understood why Daddy was always in and out but you loved me nevertheless. I will forever be grateful to you. To my mother, Mrs Landiwe Sithole, the pillar of our family, you believed in me from the start and never stopped encouraging me to aim higher. Work on this thesis was funded mainly by the National University of Science and Technology where I am employed and Witwatersrand University where I was a student. National University of Science and Technology funded me under the staff development fellowship programme, while the Faculty of Humanities at the University of the Witwatersrand availed a Ph.D Completion Grant. The other funding I received was a iii NUMSA Short Course Grant Committee stationed at Witwatersrand University. I would like to thank these institutions for their support. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration .................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iii List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ viii List of Boxes .......................................................................................................................... viii List of Acronyms ...................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1: SETTING THE RESEARCH AGENDA ........................................................... 1 1.2. Decentralisation of natural resource management systems ................................................ 4 1.3. Objectives of the study.................................................................................................... 8 1.3.1. Research Objectives and Questions: ........................................................................ 9 1.4. Problem Statement ............................................................................................................ 10 1.5. Rationale ........................................................................................................................... 12 1.6. Outline of the Thesis ......................................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS FOR ANALYSING POWER AND KNOWLEDGE IN COMMON POOL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ................................ 18 2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 19 2.2. Conceptual frameworks ................................................................................................ 19 2.2.1. Critique of Hardin`s tragedy of the commons ....................................................... 20 2.2.2. New Institutionalism (NI) ...................................................................................... 23 a) Property rights.............................................................................................................. 26 2.2.3. Common Property Resources (CPRs) theory ........................................................ 29 2.2.4. Governance of common pool resources in Southern Africa .................................. 32 2.2.5. Theoretical Discussions of Power .......................................................................... 34 a) What is Power? ............................................................................................................ 35 b) What exercises social power? ...................................................................................... 36 c) Power/knowledge nexus .............................................................................................. 38 2.2.6. Political Ecology: linking power and the environment .......................................... 44 a) Critique of political ecology literature ......................................................................... 47 2.3. Frameworks for analyzing natural resource governance .............................................. 49 2.3.1.