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Hezbollah's Syrian Quagmire
Hezbollah’s Syrian Quagmire BY MATTHEW LEVITT ezbollah – Lebanon’s Party of God – is many things. It is one of the dominant political parties in Lebanon, as well as a social and religious movement catering first and fore- Hmost (though not exclusively) to Lebanon’s Shi’a community. Hezbollah is also Lebanon’s largest militia, the only one to maintain its weapons and rebrand its armed elements as an “Islamic resistance” in response to the terms of the Taif Accord, which ended Lebanon’s civil war and called for all militias to disarm.1 While the various wings of the group are intended to complement one another, the reality is often messier. In part, that has to do with compartmen- talization of the group’s covert activities. But it is also a factor of the group’s multiple identities – Lebanese, pan-Shi’a, pro-Iranian – and the group’s multiple and sometimes competing goals tied to these different identities. Hezbollah insists that it is Lebanese first, but in fact, it is an organization that always acts out of its self-interests above its purported Lebanese interests. According to the U.S. Treasury Department, Hezbollah also has an “expansive global network” that “is sending money and operatives to carry out terrorist attacks around the world.”2 Over the past few years, a series of events has exposed some of Hezbollah’s covert and militant enterprises in the region and around the world, challenging the group’s standing at home and abroad. Hezbollah operatives have been indicted for the murder of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri by the UN Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL) in The Hague,3 arrested on charges of plotting attacks in Nigeria,4 and convicted on similar charges in Thailand and Cyprus.5 Hezbollah’s criminal enterprises, including drug running and money laundering from South America to Africa to the Middle East, have been targeted by law enforcement and regulatory agen- cies. -
Iran, Hezbollah, and the Shi'ite Population in Europe
Radicalization in the Service of the Revolution: Iran, Hezbollah, and the Shi’ite population in Europe Danny Citrinowicz Report n.19, December 2020 Radicalization in the Service of the Revolution: Iran, Hezbollah, and the Shi’ite population in Europe Danny Citrinowicz, senior research fellow at the Abba Eban Institute for International Diplomacy in Israel European Eye on Radicalization Background Recently, following Islamist terrorist attacks in France and Austria, the discourse in Europe has increasingly turned to what can be done to monitor and curb those inciting such attacks by laying down the ideological basis for them.1 Naturally, since these attacks have come from the Islamic State (ISIS), most of the focus has been on those Sunni religious centers and mosques that have, directly or indirectly, assisted the terrorists. However, the discussion currently taking place across the European Continent misses a key facet of the Islamist challenge by focusing exclusively on its Sunni component, and ignoring the institutions created by the Iranian revolutionary government across Europe, which allows them deep purchase within Shi’ite Muslim populations on the Continent, as well as inroads with disaffected Sunnis and even European non-Muslims drawn to the language and posture of anti-Western radicalism. It is important to note that the criminal activities of the Iranian theocracy and its Hezbollah branch throughout Europe are not new. Some of this is ordinary criminality, from trafficking in contraband like weapons and drugs.2 Others are acts of terrorism, whether assassinations of dissidents or bombings, such as that in Burgas, Bulgaria, in 2012.3 Intelligence experts maintain that Hezbollah operatives are located in dozens of European states, including Belgium, Bosnia, Britain, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Lithuania, Norway, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and Ukraine.4 The Iranian radicalization infrastructure in Europe has been built assiduously over many decades. -
Taxation in Islam
Taxation in Islam The following article is based on the book Funds in the Khilafah State which is a translation of Al-Amwal fi Dowlat Al-Khilafah by Abdul-Qadeem Zalloom.1 Allah (swt) has revealed a comprehensive economic system that details all aspects of economic life including government revenues and taxation. In origin, the permanent sources of revenue for the Bait ul-Mal (State Treasury) should be sufficient to cover the obligatory expenditure of the Islamic State. These revenues that Shar’a (Islamic Law) has defined are: Fa’i, Jizya, Kharaj, Ushur, and income from Public properties. The financial burdens placed on modern states today are far higher than in previous times. When the Caliphate is re-established it will need to finance a huge re-development and industrial programme to reverse centuries of decline, and bring the Muslim world fully into the 21st century. Because of this, the Bait ul-Mal’s permanent sources of revenue may be insufficient to cover all the needs and interests the Caliphate is obliged to spend upon. In such a situation where the Bait ul-Mal’s revenues are insufficient to meet the Caliphate’s budgetary requirements, the Islamic obligation transfers from the Bait ul-Mal to the Muslims as a whole. This is because Allah (swt) has obliged the Muslims to spend on these needs and interests, and their failure to spend on them will lead to the harming of Muslims. Allah (swt) obliged the State and the Ummah to remove any harm from the Muslims. It was related on the authority of Abu Sa’id al-Khudri, (ra), that the Messenger of Allah (saw) said: “It is not allowed to do harm nor to allow being harmed.” [Ibn Majah, Al-Daraqutni] Therefore, Allah (swt) has obliged the State to collect money from the Muslims in order to cover its obligatory expenditure. -
Gunpowder Empires
Gunpowder Empires James Gelvin “Modern Middle East” Part 1 - Chapter 2 expanded lecture notes by Denis Bašić Gunpowder Empires • These empires established strong centralized control through employing the military potential of gunpowder (naval and land-based siege cannons were particularly important). • The major states of the Western Hemisphere were destroyed by European gunpowder empires while throughout the Eastern Hemisphere, regional empires developed on the basis of military power and new centralized administrations. • The world gunpowder empires were : the Ottoman, Safavid, Moghul, Habsburg, Russian, Chinese, and Japanese. • Emperor vs. King Military Patronage State • brought to the Middle East by Turkic and Mongolian rulers • Their three main characteristics are : • they were essentially military • all economic resources belonged to the chief military family or families • their laws combined dynastic laws, local laws, and Islamic law (shari’a) Ottoman Empire - 1st Islamic gunpowder empire • The Ottoman Empire was the first of the three Islamic empires to harness gunpowder. • Most probably the Ottomans learned of gunpowder weapons from renegade Christians and used it to devastating effects in the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. • The Ottomans used the largest cannons of the time to destroy the walls and conquer Constantinople in 1453. They conquered Constantinople the same year when the Hundred Years’ (116-year) War in Europe ended. The Siege of Constantinople (painted 1499) Sultan Mehmed II (1432-1481) on the road to the siege of Constantinople painter : Fausto Zonaro (1854-1929) The Great Ottoman Bombard Prior to the siege of Constantinople it is known that the Ottomans held the ability to cast medium-sized cannon, yet nothing near the range of some pieces they were able to put to field. -
Islamic Jurisprudence and the Regulation of Armed Conflict
ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE AND THE REGULATION OF ARMED CONFLICT FEBRUARY 2009 By Nesrine Badawi In collaboration with the Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research (HPCR) at Harvard University, HPCR International hosts a Professional Development Program aimed at enriching humanitarian debate and improving responses to conflict by offering opportunities for mid-career professionals to develop skills, deepen knowledge, and participate in informal expert networks. Occasionally, background papers produced by expert s for the trainings are made available to a more general audience. Background papers are selected for wider distribution based on such factors as their contemporary relevance and potential to contribute to ongoing discussions. This paper was produced for a February 2009 Thematic Workshop on Islamic Law and Protection of Civilians that took place in Amman, Jordan. The views expressed herein are those of the author alone and do not necessarily reflect the views of HPCR or HPCR International. PROGRAM ON HUMANITARIAN POLICY AND CONFLICT RESEARCH HARVARD UNIVERSITY 1033 Massachusetts Avenue, Fourth Floor, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA Ph: (617) 384-7407 Fax: (617) 384-5908 [email protected] www.hpcr.org ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE AND THE REGULATION OF ARMED CONFLICT The increase in violent attacks against civilians and non-civilians and the claims made by groups waging such attacks that their acts are legitimate under Islamic law generated wide interest in Islamic ‘laws of war’. This paper attempts to challenge the approach focused on comparison between international humanitarian law (IHL) and Islamic law on the basis of the rules adopted in each system and argues that both legal regimes are governed by certain theoretical and ideological paradigms that are distinct from each other. -
Tax) Certificate
Dear Senators My name is I am making a submission to you about Halal (Tax) Certificate. I am on a Disability Support Pension. We are not Islamic/Muslim and yet we are forced to pay another tax to who know what and what they do with the money. I would like to bring to your attention some interesting points from the Koran Question: Does Islam require people of other faiths to pay money to support the Muslim religion? The Qur'an: Qur'an (9:29) - "Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued." Muslim (19:4294) - There are many places in the hadith where Muhammad tells his followers to demand the jizya of non-believers. Here he lays down the rule that it is to be extorted by force: "If they refuse to accept Islam, demand from them the Jizya. If they agree to pay, accept it from them and hold off your hands. If they refuse to pay the tax, seek Allah's help and fight them" Bukhari (53:386) - The command for Muslims to spread Islamic rule by force, subjugating others until they either convert to Islam or pay money, is eternal: Our Prophet, the Messenger of our Lord, has ordered us to fight you till you worship Allah Alone or give Jizya (i.e. -
1 Khomeinism Executive Summary: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini
Khomeinism Executive Summary: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the country’s first supreme leader, is one of the most influential shapers of radical Islamic thought in the modern era. Khomeini’s Islamist, populist agenda—dubbed “Khomeinism” by scholar Ervand Abrahamian—has radicalized and guided Shiite Islamists both inside and outside Iran. Khomeini’s legacy has directly spawned or influenced major violent extremist organizations, including Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), as well as Lebanese-based terrorist organization and political party Hezbollah, and the more recently formed Iraqi-based Shiite militias, many of which stand accused of carrying out gross human rights violations. (Sources: BBC News, Atlantic, Reuters, Washington Post, Human Rights Watch, Constitution.com) Khomeini’s defining ideology focuses on a variety of themes, including absolute religious authority in government and the rejection of Western interference and influence. Khomeini popularized the Shiite Islamic concept of vilayat-e faqih—which translates to “guardianship of the Islamic jurist”— in order to place all of Iran’s religious and state institutions under the control of a single cleric. Khomeini’s successor, Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, relies on Khomeinist ideals to continue his authoritarian domestic policies and support for terrorism abroad. (Sources: Al-Islam, Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic, Ervand Abrahamian, pp. 15-25, Islamic Parliament Research Center, New York Times) More than 25 years after his death, Khomeini’s philosophies and teachings continue to influence all levels of Iran’s political system, including Iran’s legislative and presidential elections. In an interview with Iran’s Press TV, London-based professor of Islamic studies Mohammad Saeid Bahmanpoor said that Khomeini “has become a concept. -
Non-Muslim Integration Into the Early Islamic Caliphate Through the Use of Surrender Agreements
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville ScholarWorks@UARK History Undergraduate Honors Theses History 5-2020 Non-Muslim Integration Into the Early Islamic Caliphate Through the Use of Surrender Agreements Rachel Hutchings Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.uark.edu/histuht Part of the History of Religion Commons, Islamic World and Near East History Commons, and the Medieval History Commons Citation Hutchings, R. (2020). Non-Muslim Integration Into the Early Islamic Caliphate Through the Use of Surrender Agreements. History Undergraduate Honors Theses Retrieved from https://scholarworks.uark.edu/histuht/6 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the History at ScholarWorks@UARK. It has been accepted for inclusion in History Undergraduate Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UARK. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Non-Muslim Integration Into the Early Islamic Caliphate Through the Use of Surrender Agreements An Honors Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of Honors Studies in History By Rachel Hutchings Spring 2020 History J. William Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences The University of Arkansas 1 Acknowledgments: For my family and the University of Arkansas Honors College 2 Table of Content Introduction…………………………………….………………………………...3 Historiography……………………………………….…………………………...6 Surrender Agreements…………………………………….…………….………10 The Evolution of Surrender Agreements………………………………….…….29 Conclusion……………………………………………………….….….…...…..35 Bibliography…………………………………………………………...………..40 3 Introduction Beginning with Muhammad’s forceful consolidation of Arabia in 631 CE, the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates completed a series of conquests that would later become a hallmark of the early Islamic empire. Following the Prophet’s death, the Rashidun Caliphate (632-661) engulfed the Levant in the north, North Africa from Egypt to Tunisia in the west, and the Iranian plateau in the east. -
Conversion, Exemption, and Manipulation: Social Benefits and Conversion to Islam in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages
196 Conversion, Exemption, and Manipulation: Social Benefits and Conversion to Islam in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages Uriel Simonsohn* The choice of individuals and groups to embrace Islam in the first few centuries after its emergence is rightfully considered an act that was charged with spiritual meaning. At the same time, however, the act also brought with it dramatic implications for the configuration of communities whose social and political structures were dictated by theological ideologies, scriptural traditions and memories of primordial pasts. In this essay, I wish to focus on the social aspects of conversion to Islam, particularly on how shifts in confessional affiliation were prompted by social concerns. Once they entered into the Islamic fold, the new converts were able to enjoy a variety of benefits and exemptions from burdens that had been imposed on them as non-Muslims. Yet conversion to Islam did not only offer exemption from taxes or liberation from slavery. In the final part of this essay, I attempt to show that conversion to Islam, or even its mere prospect, could be used for obtaining various favours in the course of negotiations for social improvement. An ecclesiastical authorization to divorce without legal justification, the release of a Jewish widow from her levirate bonds, and the evasion of penal sanctions are examples of some of the exemptions that were sought out or issued in response to conversion to Islam. In the period under discussion, in the context of a social setting that was founded on confessional affiliation, conversion to Islam signalled a social opportunity that was at times manipulated by individuals for the sake of improving their personal status. -
Worldwide Estate and Inheritance Tax Guide
Worldwide Estate and Inheritance Tax Guide 2021 Preface he Worldwide Estate and Inheritance trusts and foundations, settlements, Tax Guide 2021 (WEITG) is succession, statutory and forced heirship, published by the EY Private Client matrimonial regimes, testamentary Services network, which comprises documents and intestacy rules, and estate Tprofessionals from EY member tax treaty partners. The “Inheritance and firms. gift taxes at a glance” table on page 490 The 2021 edition summarizes the gift, highlights inheritance and gift taxes in all estate and inheritance tax systems 44 jurisdictions and territories. and describes wealth transfer planning For the reader’s reference, the names and considerations in 44 jurisdictions and symbols of the foreign currencies that are territories. It is relevant to the owners of mentioned in the guide are listed at the end family businesses and private companies, of the publication. managers of private capital enterprises, This publication should not be regarded executives of multinational companies and as offering a complete explanation of the other entrepreneurial and internationally tax matters referred to and is subject to mobile high-net-worth individuals. changes in the law and other applicable The content is based on information current rules. Local publications of a more detailed as of February 2021, unless otherwise nature are frequently available. Readers indicated in the text of the chapter. are advised to consult their local EY professionals for further information. Tax information The WEITG is published alongside three The chapters in the WEITG provide companion guides on broad-based taxes: information on the taxation of the the Worldwide Corporate Tax Guide, the accumulation and transfer of wealth (e.g., Worldwide Personal Tax and Immigration by gift, trust, bequest or inheritance) in Guide and the Worldwide VAT, GST and each jurisdiction, including sections on Sales Tax Guide. -
The Economic Growth & Environmental Degradation Nexus
People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research University of Abou-Bekr Belkaid- Tlemcen Faculty of Economics, Commercial and Management Sciences Thesis submitted to the Department of Commercial Sciences in fulfilment of the Degree of Doctorate in International Commerce The Economic Growth & Environmental Degradation Nexus in Algeria Using the Fuzzy Logic Submitted by: Supervised by: LEMTAOUCH Latifa Pr. AKACEM Omar Board of Examiners: Pr. BENBOUZIANE Mohamed University of Tlemcen Chairman Pr. AKACEM Omar University of Adrar Supervisor Pr. BOUTELDJA Abdenacer University of Tlemcen Examiner Pr. BENSAID Mohamed University of Sidi Bel Abbes Examiner Pr. DERBAL Abdelkader University of Oran Examiner Dr. CHAKOURI Sidi Mohamed University Center of Maghnia Examiner Academic year:2017-2018 Dedication This project is essentially dedicated to our beloved bounteous land Algeria. I am immensely thankful to my notable teacher, colleague and supervisor Professor Akacem Omar for his guidance; pieces of advice, patience and encouragement throughout the preparation of this work, without your help, this work would not be accomplished. I am also eternally indebted to my distinguished teacher and assistant supervisor Doctor Cheikh Saous for his remarks and instructive criticism; his substantial help and consultations have pushed me to successfully conduct this scientific research. I am especially thankful to the various scholars who instructed me to complete the current project, especially Professor Researcher Arnold F. Shapiro for providing me with invaluable resources of information. Finally, I deeply express my gratitude to my colleagues, students, friends and family members for their constant moral support, especially my dearly treasured husband, Abd El Aziz, who values knowledge as a scholar should; my beloved parents for their constant support, my brothers and sisters and my all my friends, especially Zineb and Hadjer. -
The Idea That Islam Was Spread by the Sword Has Had Wide Currency At
Was Islam Spread by the Sword? The idea that Islam was spread by the sword has had wide currency at many diffrenet times and the impression is still widespread among the less reflective sections of the media and the wider public that people converted to Islam because they were forced to do so. This is, of course, a very useful argument in all sorts of ways. It allows non-Muslims to explain the otherwise problematic fact that so many people converted to Islam when it was, clearly, an inferior or even completely wicked religion. Claiming that people were forced to convert meant avoiding the difficult idea that people might have converted because of inadequacies or failings among the Christian clergy or worse, the intolerable thought that Islam was the true religion and that God was on the side of the Muslims. So much easier, then, to say that people were converted because they had no choice or rather that the choice was between conversion and death. In this paper I want to consider the role that violence and armed might played in the spread of Islam in the central Middle East between the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 and about the year 1000. By the central Middle East I mean the lands between Egypt in the west and Iran in the east. All these lands, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Iran were conquered in the years between 632 and 650. It was an astonishing series of campaigns and victories, campaigns and victories which have affected the history of the area ever since.