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Home , Albert Pighius, Bernardino Ochino, Gasparo Contarini, Girolamo Seripando, Infused righteousness, Johann Gropper

Great Heroes (and Antiheroes) of the Great Unit 6: The Roman Counter-Reformation

Cardinal Gasparo St. Ignatius de Loyola (1483—1542) (1491—1556) Reformation and Divisions in the 16th-Century Church • (Luther, Melanchthon, Zwingli, Calvin, Knox, Bucer, Bullinger, Cranmer, etc.) • Roman Catholic Evangelicals • Society of (Jesuits) • (1545—1547; 1551—1552; 1562—1563) • Papacy • Revival in the Religious Orders • New Spirituality (Mystics) • Extra-European Roman Catholic Expansion The Roman Catholic Evangelicals • Most, strongly affected by Augustine, mostly agreed with the Reformers’ doctrine of by grace alone through faith alone in Christ alone. • Disagreed with the Reformers’ break from allegiance to the papacy. • Mixed on Eucharist (transubstantiation vs. consubstantiation vs. spiritual presence vs. pure symbol) and other liturgical matters. • Agreed with Reformers’ pursuit of moral reform. • Worked 1521—1541 “to reform the Church of from within, towards a more Biblical theology and practice, and thus to win back the Protestants into the .” (Needham) • Key figures: , , Juan de Valdes, , Jacob Sadoleto, Gregorio Cortese, , , , Giovanni Morone • 1537, issued Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia (“Consultation on Reforming the Church”)—forthright condemnation of the moral state of the Roman Church; refused to publish it; leaked out; spread rapidly; Roman placed it on “Index of Forbidden Books” Leading Roman Catholic Evangelicals • Johannes von Staupitz (1460—1524), Luther’s spiritual guide in Augustinian order; agreed with almost all Luther’s doctrine but couldn’t break with papacy; yet all Staupitz’s writings were placed on Rome’s “index of forbidden books” in 1563. • “… you seem to me to condemn many outward things which do not affect a sinner’s justification. Why do you hate monasticism so much, when many have lived holy lives? There is nothing that men cannot abuse. … Do not condemn things which are not important … although you must of course speak out on matters of faith.” • Cardinal Gasparo Contarini (1483—1542): “By faith we have a twofold : first, an inward righteousness of our own, and the love and grace by which we are made partakers of the divine ; second, the righteousness of Christ, given and imputed to us. We ought to trust in Christ’s righteousness bestowed on us, and not in our own inward holiness and grace.” • Juan de Valdes (1500—1541), strongly influenced by and Luther, hosted study and prayer every Sunday, emphasized personal experience with Christ, “dismissing as mere opinion any faith that was based only on the Church’s teaching or on reason.” (Needham) Some disciples became Protestants. • Albert Pighius (1490—1542), Dutch theologian; anti-Augustinian on and ; opposed Luther and Calvin on them; defended ; but understood justification almost identically with the Protestants; later Protestants highly respected him. • Cardinal Jacob Sadoleto (1477—1547), Italian humanist and Biblical scholar; co- author of Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia; greatly admired Melanchthon and Bucer; wrote to Genevans to call back into communion with Rome; Calvin answered. • Gregorio Cortese (1483—1548), Benedictine , patristic scholar, sympathetic to Luther’s writings; member of Contarini’s reforming group; co-author of Consilium; elevated to cardinal by Paul III after. • Reginal Pole (1500—1558), English noble, humanist scholar, friend of Erasmus and Contarini, opposed Henry VIII’s break with papacy, fled England, wrote Pro Ecclesiasticae Unitatis Defensione against Henry; co-author of Consilium; one of three papal legates over first stage of Council of Trent • Johann Gropper (1503—1559), German theologian, of Erasmus, 1538 Enchiridion (handbook of doctrine, placed on Rome’s Index of Forbidden Books) compromised deeply with Protestant theology of justification; taught “double justice” or “twofold righteousness”: “… Christ’s righteousness was inwardly imparted to believers, when then did good works; but because sin remained in believers, spoiling their best performance, they could never perfectly meet God’s requirement. Therefore, when believers stood before God in judgment, He would graciously impute to their account just so much of Christ’s forensic righteousness as would cover the gap ….” (Needham) Cooperated heavily with Bucer in producing a joint statement on justification, the Book • Giovanni Morone (1509-1580), Bishop of Modena, close friend of Contarini, “worked for better relations between Rome and the Reformers”; Pope Paul IV imprisoned him “for his Protestant-leaning views on justification by faith and praying to the ” (Needham); restored by Pope Pius IV, presided over Council of Trent’s third session • Benedetto de Mantova (d. 1546), Benedictine monk, wrote The Benefits of Christ’s Death (1543), “taught a strongly Augustinian theology alongside a Protestant view of justification by faith” (Needham), much just a translation of Calvin’s Institutes; most popular book of the Roman Catholic Evangelicals, selling over 40,000 by 1549; eventually placed on Rome’s Index of Forbidden Books • Roman Catholic Evangelicals became most influential in 1539—1541, leading to series of RC and Protestant meetings authorized by Emperor Charles V and Pope Paul III aiming to restore unity of church The Colloquy of Regensburg (or Ratisbon), 1541 • Contarini presided; Gropper & Pighius other leading RCs; Calvin, Melanchthon, and Bucer leading Protestants; produced common statement on original sin and justification by faith; excerpts: • “No Christian should doubt that after the fall of our first parent all human beings are, as the apostle says, born children of wrath and enemies of God and thereby are in death and slavery to sin.” • “Likewise, no Christian should question that nobody can be reconciled with God, nor set free from slavery to sin, except by Christ the one Mediator between God and human beings, by whose grace … we are not only reconciled to God and set free from slavery to sin, but also made sharers in the divine nature and children of God.” • “… adults do not obtain these blessings of Christ, except by the prevenient movement of the Holy Spirit, by which their mind and will are moved to hate sin. For, as Augustine says, it is impossible to begin a new life if we do not repent of the former one. …” • “… the sinner is justified by a living and efficacious faith, for through it we are leasing and acceptable to God on account of Christ. … living faith is that which both appropriates mercy in Christ, believing that the righteousness which is in Christ is freely imputed t it, and at the same time receives the promise of the Holy Spirit and love. Therefore the faith that truly justifies is that faith, which is effectual through love. Nevertheless it remains true, that it is by this faith that we are justified (that is, accepted and reconciled to God), inasmuch as it appropriates the mercy and righteousness which are imputed to us on account of Christ and His merit, not on account of the worthiness or perfection of the righteousness imputed to us in Christ.” • “… every Christian should learn that this grace and this regeneration have not been given to us so that we might remain idle in that stage of our renewal which we at first obtained, but so that we may grow in everything into Him who is the Head. Therefore the people must be taught to devote effort to this growth which indeed happens through good works, both internal and external, which are commanded and commended by God. To these works God has … promised a reward on account of Christ—good things in this life, as much for the body as for the soul … and, after this life, in heaven. Therefore, although the inheritance of eternal life is due to the regenerate on account of the promise as soon as they are reborn in Christ, nevertheless God also renders a reward to good works, not according to the substance of the works, but to the extent that they are performed in faith and proceed from the Holy Spirit who dwells in us, free choice concurring as a partial agent.” • “Now those who say that we are justified by faith alone should at the same time teach the doctrine of repentance, of the fear of God, of the judgment of God, and of good works …. And that is to prevent this way of speaking [‘faith alone’] from being” misunderstood. Breakdown of Colloquy of Regensburg

• Consensus on justification. • No consensus on Eucharist • Roman Catholic Evangelicals insisted on transubstantiation. • Protestants refused because they believed it led inexorably to idolatrous worship of the communion bread and wine and to the doctrine of the mass as a propitiatory sacrifice of Christ. • Failure of Regensburg “marked the end of [the Roman Catholic Evangelicals’] official influence in the papal court.” (Needham) • “Many leading Roman Churchmen rejected the joint Roman-Protestant statement on justification by faith as a vile Lutheran ; paradoxically, some Protestants, including Luther, rejected it as a compromise with Rome! Pope Paul III removed Contarini from all positions of influence, and the great Catholic Evangelical leader died a year later.” (Needham) • “As a result of the Catholic Evangelical failure, Augustinian theology fell into disfavor in Rome. The way was clear for a policy of reforming the Church, not in order to win back the Protestants, but in order to make the Church an effective instrument for their extermination.” (Needham) The (Jesuits) • Spain most intensely Roman Catholic nation in Europe; combined RC with Spanish nationalism • Ignatius Loyola (1491—1556), Spanish military noble, crippled 1521, read lives of saints and Carthusian monk Ludolph of Saxony’s (1300—1378) Life of Our Lord Jesus Christ; renounced worldly ambitions; at Dominican convent in Manresa, devoted to prayer and ascetic self-discipline • On which he based his Spiritual Exercises, “one of the most influential religious books ever written” (Needham); purpose: to bring the soul into total obedience to Christ through total, unquestioning submission to the infallible Roman : “Setting aside all personal judgment of our own, we must keep our minds prepared and ready to obey in all things the true Bride of Christ our Lord, which is our holy mother, the Catholic Church. … To make perfectly sure of our orthodoxy, if the Catholic Church proclaims something to be black which appears to be white, we must accept that it is black.” • 1539, he and companions took on name “Society of Jesus,” with military flavor. • 1540: Pope Paul III recognized “Jesuits” as religious order with Loyola its “general.” • Four vows: • Three ordinary: poverty, celibacy, obedience to superiors. • One extraordinary: “going without delay wherever the pope might send them”; led to special relationship, with Jesuits being chief defenders of absolute papal authority over the church for next three centuries. • By 17th century: 400 Jesuit schools & colleges across Western Europe; “Give me a child before he is seven, and he will remain a Catholic for the rest of his life.” Named supreme guide in philosophy, in theology; made Thomas most widely studied theologian in RCC (previously ). • Destruction of became Jesuits’ chief goal; sent into every nation affected by Protestantism; Protestant governments put many Jesuits to death. • “Sweeping aside the Catholic Evangelicals, Loyola’s spiritual knights taught and spread a new, fiercely anti-Protestant expression of Roman and spirituality throughout Europe. With one hand, they dealt staggering blows to the Reformation; with the other, they founded orphanages, schools, centers for the care of the poor, houses for reforming prostitutes, and societies for ransoming Christian captives from Muslims.” (Needham) • Dominicans and fought for papal favor; fought Jesuit theology on sin and grace; many RC “moral teachers tried to combat what they believed were the Jesuits’ low and easy-going views of morality.” (Needham) E.g.: especially willingness to lie as spies in Protestant countries to undermine Protestant governments, and favoring of assassinating Protestant heads of state. The Council of Trent—Three Sessions • “Second great instrument of the Counter-Reformation”; not Western ecumenical but Roman ecumenical • Three bodies of delegates: Italians (papalists), Spaniards (imperialists with Charles V/conciliarists), and Roman Catholic Evangelicals • First Stage: 1545—1547 • Revelation and authority: • Equally in Scripture and traditions (papal legate del Monte); most bishops opposed, insisted only apostolic tradition authoritative • Three parties: apostolic tradition equal authority with Scripture; apostolic tradition subordinate to Scripture; Scripture contained all saving truth, but apostolic tradition its inspired and infallible interpreter. • Ruling: Church “venerates with the same sense of loyalty and reverence” OT & NT and “all [doctrinal and moral] traditions concerning faith and morality, as coming from the mouth of Christ, or being inspired by the Holy Spirit, and preserved in continuous succession in the Catholic Church.” • Justification: “is not only forgiveness of sins, but also the and renewal of the inward man, through the voluntary reception of the grace and gifts by which an unrighteous person becomes righteous, and an enemy becomes a friend, so that he may be an heir according to the hope of eternal life …. For although no one can be righteous unless the merits of our Lord Jesus Christ’s passion are communicated to him, yet this is done in this justification of the ungodly, when by the merit of that same most holy passion, the love of God is poured forth, by the Holy Spirit, in the hearts of those who are justified, and is inherent in them. Thus, in this justification, together with the forgiveness of sins, a person receives, through Jesus Christ in whom he is ingrafted, faith, hope, and love, all these infused at the same time. For faith, unless hope and love are added to it, does not unite a person perfectly with Christ, nor make a person a living member of His body.” • “Trent constantly … misinterpreted Protestants as teaching that there was nothing more to than a naked remission of sins.” (Needham) • 11: “If anyone says that human beings are justified either by the sole imputation of Christ’s justice, or by the sole remission of sins, to the exclusion of grace and the love which is poured forth in their hearts by the Holy Spirit and is inherent in them, or even that the grace by which we are justified is only the favor of God, let him be anathema.”—But “Since by ‘justified’ Trent meant the whole process of salvation, this anathema condemned only those who would claim forensic justification in the absence of sanctification.” (Needham) • “From a Protestant standpoint, the fundamental error of Trent on justification was its insistence that when Scripture used the word ‘justification’ it meant both justification and sanctification—a denial of the forensic nature of justification, so important to Protestant theology.” (Needham) Protestants also rejected justification based not only on imputed but also on infused righteousness. • Trent’s teaching on the beginning of justification “seems to contradict Augustine’s view that the first work of grace in a sinner does not require his cooperation, since he is at that point spiritually dead.” (Needham) But there was ambiguity, and “It was not until the Jansenist controversy in the second half of the 17th century that Rome gave something like a kiss of death to .” (Needham) • Trent moved strongly anti-Protestant on , causing Emperor Charles V to lose his temper because he wanted reconciliation for imperial unity. Paul III transferred Council from Trent to ; imperialist Spanish delegates refused to go; Paul III adjourned Council in September 1549. • Second Stage: 1551—1552 • Reconvened by Pope Julius III; Charles V forced him to allow Lutheran delegates, who wanted to reconsider decisions of First Stage; papalists refused; Lutherans walked out; Council became non-ecumenical. • Sacraments: • Seven: , mass, confirmation, penance, marriage, ordination, extreme unction. • Baptismal regeneration and necessity. • Transubstantiation, sacrificial nature of mass, cup withheld from laity. • Priesthood of clergy versus priesthood of all believers. • Third Stage: 1562—1563 • Pope Pius IV convened it; Emperor Ferdinand I (1558-1564) less hostile to Protestants than Charles V; wanted cup to laity, priests allowed to marry, hymns in native language, liturgy purged of dubious elements, papacy’s power stripped in favor of councils. Pius insisted earlier sessions unquestioned, packed session with Italian papalists, and only papal legates could propose resolutions. • Controversy over relation of pope and bishops; Pius claimed only pope had authority directly from Christ, bishops deriving theirs from him (curialism); many bishops disagreed (episcopalianism). Question referred to curia, which sided with pope. • “From Trent onwards there was a slow, creeping growth of curial views of the papacy …, paving the way at length for the of 1869—71, at which the pope was declared to be infallible when defining any matter or ‘faith or morals’.” (Needham) The Papacy in Reformation & Counter-Reformation • Papacy badly corrupted in Middle Ages; reform essential to survival of Roman Catholic Church. • Paul III (1534—1549): strongly supported reform, promoted Contarini and the like, recognized Jesuits, summoned first meeting of Trent. • Julius III (1550—1555), scandalous like popes • Marcellus II (1555), “a zealous reformer,” died after only 22 days. • Paul IV (1555—1559), carried on reform; originally a RC Evangelical, but by opposed Luther, believed RC survival required wiping out Protestants; 1557 issued first official “index of forbidden books,” including all works of Erasmus and translations of Bible into Europe’s native tongues; revised 1559; banned RCEs’ Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia of Contarini et al. • Pius IV (1559—1565), brilliant diplomacy guided Trent to papal triumph • Pius V (1566—1572), like Paul IV, devotee of inquisition, persecutor of Protestants, witches, homosexuals, and other deviants; ascetic morality; set papacy on long-term path of “puritanical ethos” (Needham). Masterminded alliance with and Spain against Ottoman Empire, victory at Battle of Lepanto in 1571 from which Islamic world never recovered; excommunicated Queen • Moral reform of papacy robbed Protestants of moral reform as major reason for Reformation, left them with theological doctrine as main reason. Revival in the Religious Orders • RC Counter-Reformation led to founding of new religious orders. • Oratory of Divine Love: a “holy club,” including leading RC Evangelicals, characterized by Christian • : offshoot of Oratory of Divine Love, combining rigorous rule of poverty with • Capuchins: reformed branch of Observant Franciscans, named for cap founder Matteo de Bascio believed St. Francis had worn; extreme , theatrical preaching , radical simplicity and plainness of church interiors. 1542, Vicar General converted to Protestantism. • : ministered to prisoners and the sick, but especially given to preaching; studied epistles of Paul; aimed to “regenerate and revive the love of divine worship, and a truly Christian way of life by frequent preaching and the faithful administration of the sacraments.” • Somaschi: founded by converted loose-living soldier Girolamo Emiliani (1481—1537) who entered priesthood in 1518; devoted to caring for poor, sick, and orphans • Ursulines: order for women founded by Angela de Merici (1474—1540), female teaching order to educate young women in RC faith; methods majored on rewards instead of punishments; huge success recruiting young women to become • Oratorians: founded by (1515—1595), a great saint of the Counter-Reformation; humanist; formed “ of the Most Holy ” for payer, religious discussion, and caring for Rome’s pilgrims and sick; 1551 entered priesthood; spiritual exercises included open dialogue based on joint reading of books; contrast to Jesuits, extolled individual freedom and self-direction; Neri “the lovable saint,” less opposed to Protestantism New Spirituality • Teresa of Avila (1515—1582) • Educated by Augustinian nuns, suffered lifelong illness; intense spiritual feelings, visions and voices • 1560, said angel appeared to her and pierced her heart with a flaming spear producing ecstacy of divine love; yet warned against any cult of such experiences • true piety lay not in “shedding tears, in feeling those spiritual pleasures and that sweetness which are normally so much desired, but in serving God in righteousness, strength of soul, and humbleness.” • Founded 17 convents for nuns and , rigor earned name “Discalced ” (“discalced” = “barefoot”) • Major writings: The Way of Perfection and The Interior Castle and her Life • (1542—1591), Teresa’s greatest disciple • Imprisoned by forces hostile to Teresa, tortured, started writing Spiritual Canticle, a mystical masterpiece • Major writings: The Ascent of Mount Carmel, The Dark Night of the Soul, The Living Flame of Love, The Spiritual Canticle, a collection of Poems • Heavily influenced by the Bible (much memorized) and Thomas Aquinas’s • Other figures: John of Avila (1499—1569), his Hear, O Daughter had some Protestant leaning confidence in God’s mercy through Christ’s merits, so listed in index of forbidden books; Luis of Granada (1504—1588), Spanish Dominican, Book on Prayer and Meditation and Guide for Sinners, drew from Savonarola and Erasmus, listed in index; Luis de Leon (1528—1591), Augustinian, refused to treat as sole authoritative text, appealed to Hebrew and Greek, imprisoned four years, returned to teach saying, “As I was saying the other day ….”; wrote life of Teresa, Names of Christ, and other works. • Movement eventually spawned Francis de Sales (1567—1622), Pierre de Berulle (1575—1629), and Vincent de Paul (1580—1660). Extra-European Roman Catholic Expansion

• Christopher Columbus’s 1451—1506) discovery of the Western Hemisphere led to widespread travels by traders, adventurers (like John Cabot, Amerigo Vespucci, and Vasco da Gama), and missionaries, planting of colonies in America, North America, Africa, India, and Asia. Dominican and Franciscan missionaries prominent. • Dominican Antonio de Montesinos argued for rights of native Americans; more famous and successful was Batholomew de Las Casas (1474—1566), campaigning for just treatment of native Americans; 1542 Spanish and native Americans guaranteed equality under law (but not black Africans) • (1506—1552), friend of , missions to India, Malaysia, Maluku (Moluccas), and Japan; RC’s consider him “greatest missionary since the apostles”; Jesuits followed his footsteps Four Great Effects of Counter-Reformation

• Triumph of papacy against external enemies and internal competitors for power. • Definition of doctrine: Council of Trent made Rome’s teaching official, imposing a standard of doctrine on RC theologians that rejected Protestant doctrine. • Flourishing of spirituality: great saints and spiritual teachers with exemplary lives. • Recovery of zeal: moral reform of scandalously wicked Renaissance papacy, curia, episcopacy, priesthood, and religious orders brought new spiritual vigor and commitment. Divisions in Modern Roman Catholicism • “… the Church of Rome is in reality more like a pluralist Protestant denomination than the bulwark of unbroken consistency that its popular apologists purport it to be.” (Kenneth Collins & Jerry Walls, Roman but Not Catholic: What Remains at Stake 500 Years after the Reformation) • “… most Catholics do not accept the authority claims of their Church. In actual belief and practice, they are much closer to the protestant view.” (Collins & Walls) • Notre Dame Professor Ralph McInerny, co-founder (with Michael Novak) of Crisis Magazine, “a voice for the faithful ”: “It was not clear to me [in 1982], when Mike Novak and I began this journal, how deep the divisions among Catholics were nor how much deeper they were destined to become. Nowadays, the very term ‘Catholic’ has become equivocal.” (“Quodlibets,” Crisis Magazine, May 1, 1987) • Traditional (pre-Vatican II) Roman Catholics—Latin rite; Augustinians, Thomists, Dominicans, , Jesuits, many others • Vatican II Roman Catholics—“functional liberal Protestants” (Collins & Walls) • “large divergence between official doctrine and the actual beliefs and practices of significant numbers of that denomination’s members” • “tolerating clergy and academics who ignore or even deny the official teachings of their church ad espouse theological views that are radically at odds with their doctrinal standards.” • “members of these denominations, particularly clergy, not infrequently ignore church law and engage in practices that are officially prohibited.” • “With regard to these three characteristics, the Roman Catholic Church may be functionally the world’s largest pluralist Protestant denomination.” • Vatican II documents were intentionally crafted to satisfy both liberals and conservatives—to maintain institutional unity despite doctrinal and moral division. • Lumen Gentium, 3, “while asserting traditional claims about the papacy and episcopal authority, also emphasized a strongly collegial view of the relationship between the pope and the college of bishops and of the power they shared. Pope Paul VI, however, thought the document had compromised papal authority and … inserted a ‘Note of Explanation’ that asserted a stronger view of papal authority ….” Roman Catholic Opinions on Doctrine & Morals • Pew Research Poll, 2014, of Roman Catholics, Mainline Protestants, and Evangelical Protestants • Clear standards of right and wrong: RC 30%, MP 32%, EV 50% • Abortion legal in most cases? RC 48%, 60% MP, 33% EV • Society should discourage homosexuality: RC 23%, MP 66%, EV 35% • Approve same-sex “marriage”: RC 57%, MP 57%, EV 28% (2015, , one of world’s most RC nations, approved by 62%) • Belief in heaven: RC 85%, MP 80%, EV 88% • Belief in hell: RC 63%, MP 60%, EV 82% • Many RCs reject papal authority on birth control • African RCs (and Protestants) tend to be much more conservative on doctrine and morals than European and North & South American. • “A significant majority of Roman Catholics are at odds with the teaching of their church on important issues. One some of these matters, they may be aligned with conservative Protestants (and Eastern Orthodox). … Many or most … also hold views that are more in line with liberal Protestants ….” Closing Acknowledgment and Recommended Readings • All lectures and notes for this series have depended heavily on N.R. Needham’s 2000 Years of Christ’s Power: Part Three: Renaissance and Reformation, an outstanding introduction to this period (as are the other volumes to early, medieval, and modern church history). • To see Protestant and Roman Catholic doctrine contrasted, I recommend: • For Protestant theology: the and Formula of Concord for Lutheran theology; the Westminster Confession of Faith and Catechisms for Reformed theology; the 39 Articles of the Anglican Church for Anglican theology; the 1689 London Baptist Confession for Baptist theology • For Roman Catholic theology: the Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent and the Catechism of the Catholic Church • For a respectful, appreciative modern evangelical interaction with Roman Catholic theology and practice, Gregg R. Allison’s Roman Catholic Theology & Practice: An Evangelical Assessment, which discusses the Catechism of the Catholic Church piece by piece • For Reformation history and theology generally I recommend: • J.H. Merle d’Aubigne, History of the Reformation of the Sixteenth Century and The Reformation in England • Owen Chadwick, The Reformation • James Atkinson, The Great Light: Luther and the Reformation • William Cunningham, Reformers and the Theology of the Reformation • Lewis William Spitz, The Protestant Reformation • G.H.W. Parker, The Morning Star: Two Centuries of Violence, from Wycliffe to Luther