The New Inquisition in the Schools

God and Morality Sidney Hook Naturalistic Humanism Corliss Lamont

:. Don•t look,boy, WS a Secular humanistl.! A Positive Humanist Sexual Morality Robert Francoeur

The Growth of Fundamentalism Worldwide

How the Old Testament Was Written Gerald Larue

Also: Founding the First Secular Humanist Center; More on Reincarnation; Update on Faith-Healing; Atheism in the Soviet N ...... Union; Anti-Abortion and Religion; Humanism in Mexico and Holland; and Polygamy and the Mormon Church Free In. u,r3% WINTER 1986/87, VOL. 7, NO. 1 ISSN 0272-0701 Contents

3 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 14 PERSPECTIVE 62 CLASSIFIED 12 ON THE BARRICADES 60 IN THE NAME OF GOD 4 EDITORIALS The New Inquisition Paul Kurtz / Naturalistic Humanism, Corliss Lamont / God and Morality, Sidney Hook / Secular Humanist Center Founded, Tom Flynn / FREE INQutRY's Fifth Annual Conference ARTICLES 15 A Positive Humanist Statement on Sexual Morality Robert T. Francoeur 18 The Growth of Fundamentalism Worldwide: A Humanist Response Paul Kurtz BELIEF AND UNBELIEF WORLDWIDE 25 Unbelief in the Netherlands Rob Tielman 26 Dutch Humanism G. C. Soeters 27 Belief and Unbelief in Mexico Mario Mendez-Acosta

30 How the Old Testament Was Written Gerald A. Larue 38 The Case Against Reincarnation (Part 2) Paul Edwards VIEWPOINTS 49 Justice Rehnquist vs. the Founders Robert Heard 50 FREE INQUIRY in Court: Half a Loaf 51 Atheism Is Not Humanism: Reflections on a Visit to the Soviet Union Howard B. Radest 52 Communism, Secular Humanism, and AIDS Vern L. Bullough BOOKS 53 The Emperor's New Pornography Report William F. Ryan 55 Polygamy in the Mormon Church George D. Smith, Valeen T. Avery CSER's FAITH-HEALING UPDATE 58 Nonhealing a Nonexistent Tumor Gary P. Posner

61 Subliminal Scriptural Messages F K. Donnelly

Cover Illustration by Clay Bennett, Courtesy of the St. Petersburg Times.

Editor: Paul Kurtz Associate Editors: Doris Doyle, Steven L. Mitchell, Lee Nisbet, Gordon Stein Managing Editor: Andrea Szalanski

Contributing Editors.' Lionel Abel, author, critic; Robert S. Alley, professor of humanities, University of Richmond; Paul Beattie, president, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; Jo-Ann Boydston, director, Dewey Center; Vern Bullough, historian, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Paul Edwards, professor of philosophy, Brooklyn College; Albert Ellis, director, Institute for Rational Living; Roy P. Fairfield, social scientist, Union Graduate School; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, University of Virginia Medical School; Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading University, England; R. Joseph Hoffmann, chairman, Department of Philosophy and Religion, Hartwick College, Oneonta, N.Y.; Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, NYU; Marvin Kohl, philosopher, State University of New York College at Fredonia; Jean Kotkin, executive director, American Ethical Union; Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical history, USC; Ronald A. Lindsay, attorney, Washington, D.C.; Howard Radest, director, Ethical Culture Schools; Robert Rimmer, author; Svetozar Stojanovic, professor of philosophy, University of Belgrade; Thomas Szasz, psychiatrist, Upstate Medical Center, Syracuse; V. M. Tarkunde, Supreme Court Judge, India; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, Union College; Sherwin Wine, founder, Society for Humanistic Judaism

Editorial Associates: James Martin-Diaz, Thomas Flynn, Thomas Franczyk

Executive Director of CODESH, Inc.: Jean Millholland Book Reviews: Victor Culotta Associate Director of Public Relations: Barry L. Karr

Systems Manager: Richard Seymour Typesetting: Paul E. Loynes Layout: Alain Kugel Audio Technician: Vance Vigrass

Staff: Norman Forney, Steven Karr, Jacqueline Livingston, Valerie Marvin, Alfreda Pidgeon

FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published quarterly by the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (CODESH, Inc.), a nonprofit corporation, 3159 Bailey Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14215. Phone (716) 834-2921. Copyright ©1986 by CODESH, Inc. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo, New York, and at additional mailing offices. National distribution by International Periodicals Distributors, San Diego, California. Subscription rates: $18.00 for one year, $32.00 for two years. $42.00 for three years, $3.75 for single copies. Address subscription orders, changes of address, and advertising to: FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005. Manuscripts, letters, and editorial inquiries should be addressed to: The Editor, FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005. All manuscripts should be accompanied by two additional copies and a stamped, addressed envelope. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors or publisher. if humanists themselves declare (secular) humanism is a religion we are left with no LETTERS TO THE EDITOR defense. The creationists sift humanistic literature carefully, and they love to beat us with the bludgeons we leave about. If humanism is subclassified, logic re- quires that there be a mutually exclusive, nonsecular—i.e., religious—subset when the Secular Humanist Takeover individuals can be pluralistic. It can be made subset "secular" is defined, unless the latter of the Schools up of many individuals with varying points is not a proper subset. Paul Beattie places of view none of which in any way relate to himself in the former subclass, to no objec- Mark Spitzer wrote about the evils that the view of the organization. A nation can tion from secular humanists. would result from a takeover of the educa- most certainly be that sort of organization. The plurality of humanism is one of its tional system by secular humanists, even To remain consistent to that position, a more attractive features, to my thinking. I though Nick Pacino asserted in the same nation must not reflect any individual point can disagree with any humanist and still be issue that such a takeover was no threat of view in its public schools. Those schools "part of the fold." But, please, not about (Letters, FI, Fall 1986). Although many can attempt to provide everything the stu- something so simple as a standard, dic- readers of FREE INQUIRY would agree with dents need as mature citizens of our society, tionary definition. Mr. Pacino, I submit that it has in fact social as well as intellectual, including reli- already occurred. gious beliefs. They can be taught as beliefs Kent Harker My friends are surprised when I modestly in social science classes, in philosophy classes San Jose, Calif. tell them that I have taken over the school dealing with metaphysics. However, there is system at Mahwah High, a public school no relation between, for instance, personal located in the Ramapo foothills of northern beliefs and math. Newton was a believer, To Our Readers New Jersey. The most striking aspect of my but that has nothing to do with the validity insidious work was that no one noticed. In of his laws of motion. Other than empirical As FREE INQUIRY enters its seventh science classes can explore the possibility of fact I didn't even notice it myself. And yet year of publication, we are pleased to the logic of the situation is irrefutable. It a legislator of those laws. In this way public announce a new circulation record. had to be me, since I was the only card- schools must be secular and are philosoph- The press run of our Summer 1986 ically neutral. carrying, dues-paying humanist on the staff. issue was 26,000 copies. Thus far paid Looking back over the past three decades, 1 circulation for that issue was 22,011, realize now that all the time that I appeared Hal Klapman and the total distribution is 24,081. to be going about my duties as hall monitor, Los Angeles, Calif. Thank you for helping us grow. potty watcher, lunchroom supervisor, test- tube washer, classroom teacher, and paper- Defining Secular Humanism grader, I was quietly taking over. I fooled FREE INQUIRY's Faith-Healing them all. My principal and superintendent Paul Kurtz's article "On Definition- Investigation thought I was just another teacher. They Mongering" (FI, Fall 1986) was well taken did not realize that the curriculum was a and necessary. It is equally uncomfortable After reading about FREE INQUIRY'S investi- perfect example of secular humanism. Let for me to feel compelled to address a subject gation of faith-healing in the local paper, 1 the fundamentalists beware. At Mahwah as transparent as a definition. decided to inject my two-cents worth regard- High we teach only knowledge and skills, 1 am involved in debates with "scientific" ing the Reverend Pat Robertson. not religion or catechism. The curriculum is creationists and am active in efforts to halt A couple of years ago, my sister came to secular throughout. the growing specter of their religious dogma my home to watch "The 700 Club." Her being foisted upon the school curriculum. thirteen-year-old granddaughter was the Mitchell Modisett The creationists' attack on the teaching of subject of faith-healing on that day. Accord- Mahwah, N.J. evolution has many prongs. They do not ing to the program, she had been taken to a have a positive case for presentation to the doctor who stated she had curvature of the scientific body, so they carp away at evolu- spine. After her mother prayed for her for a Religious Neutrality in the tion. week, she was seen by another doctor who Public Schools Since the creationists have no scientific stated that she did not have curvature of case, they have turned to demagoguery. The the spine. 1 do not recall if the mother's Richard J. Burke's "Is Secularism Neutral?" political strategy of their agenda is twofold: church was involved in the prayer or not. (FI, Fall 1986) reaches the conclusion that (I) press for "fairness" in presenting alterna- I questioned my sister as to who had public schools, if "secular," are not and tive models of origin; (2) demonstrate that examined the girl the first time, what kind cannot be neutral. If an individual believes evolution is really a religious doctrine, and of doctor had seen her the second time, and that a god or gods exist, he is not neutral. If hence it deserves no less constitutional scru- if X-rays had been taken. After my sister he says that he does not know one way or tiny than creationism. They have largely inquired into it, she told me a chiropractor the other, he is an agnostic. If he believes a failed in path (1), so they are turning, with had seen the girl the first time, an ortho- god or gods do not exist he is an atheist. increasing success, to method (2). In pedist had seen her the second time, and Each has a point of view. On the other hand Humanist Manifestos I and II, evolution is that no X-rays had been taken. an organization comprised of a group of stated as a tenet of (secular) humanism. Now (Continued on p. 61)

Winter 1986/87 3 tradition. To seek to exclude humanism in Editorials this sense would be to denude the curriculum of its content. To teach only that which is in accord with the Bible is to indoctrinate The New Inquisition in the Schools students with one point of view. The goal of education should be to develop critical thinking, but some parents fear that to do so would undermine Bible-based beliefs and n mid-October I was called as a witness Asimov, Hans Christian Andersen, and values. I for the defense in the now infamous Anne Frank. If parents in other parts of the The issue was not humanism, however, Mobile, Alabama, textbook case. The case country follow suit, this could wreak havoc but secular humanism. Secularism is a is of considerable significance, for if the in the public schools, for people of all per- powerful movement in modern society and, plaintiffs are successful, the viability of pub- suasions could complain that the books like industrialism and urbanism, it is a deep lic school education in America will be being used violate their religious conscience trend: Many institutions and disciplines in seriously undermined, indeed perhaps and could have their children removed from the modern world—from medicine and destroyed. the classroom/ or have other texts sub- physics to literature and art—could and did The plaintiffs, 624 parents, contend that stituted at home. develop quite independently of a biblical the textbooks used in Alabama public Conservative religious forces in the coun- concern or religious constraints. In some schools promote the "religion of secular try have been preparing for these cases for societies—such as Islam—it is often difficult humanism" and that this is contrary to the years. If they are successful in their goals, to distinguish religion from the state; but in Establishment Clause of the Constitution. they will be able to drastically transform the Western democratic societies, secularism has They are asking that the books they find educational system of America. Even if in been rapidly developing and it cuts across offensive be rejected and that they be re- the end they do not prevail, their efforts are all religious sects. In one sense, secularism placed by texts that portray the Judeo- bound to have a chilling effect. Both teachers and modernism are equivalent. Christian—more precisely, the Christian— and worried textbook publishers are apt to What is secular humanism, I was asked. point of view. Their indictment is sweeping, tread lightly in the future about anything It is, 1 submit, basically (I) a method of but they have focused on forty-five text- controversial. inquiry using reason and science, (2) a con- books. They maintain that history texts do stantly expanding world-view based on the not pay sufficient heed to religion and that What Is Humanism? findings of the sciences, and (3) a set of home economics and psychology texts ex- moral values in which individual happiness press value judgments that present the he lawyers representing the twelve and social justice are emphasized. There is secular-humanist viewpoint and especially Tparents who were defendants of the an ethical tradition, from Aristotle to Kant reflect the influence of humanist educator school board called on me to rebut the claim and Mill, that holds that ethics is autono- John Dewey. that secular humanism is a religion. Until mous, without religious foundations, and The plaintiffs are supported by a legal my appearance, the ACLU and the People capable of independent rational treatment. fund established by televangelist Pat Robert- for the American Way were reluctant even The humanities, the sciences, and ethics can son. Governor Wallace (for the State of to admit that there was such a thing as and should be taught in the schools—for Alabama) and the County School Board "secular humanism." You could not define these are the common heritage of human have already conceded the case. The State it, they said. Like Jello, it couldn't be nailed civilization. Additionally, secular humanism Board of Education was persuaded to con- to a tree. As an expert witness on secular is skeptical of religious claims. It is a form test the suit by the ACLU and the People humanism, I was to respond to the un- of nontheism. This aspect of it is not and for the American Way, who are providing answered charges, lest they be sustained by should not be taught in the schools. funds for legal costs. The federal judge in default. the case, Brevard Hand ("Unlearned Hand," I pointed out that humanism (with a Is Secular Humanism a Religion? as he is called), is sympathetic to the plain- small "h") represents the oldest intellectual tiffs and is expected to rule in their favor. tradition of Western civilization and that it s humanism a religion? The plaintiffs' This case is important; for it is the first time is an essential part of our philosophical, I charge focused on the organized human- that the courts have been asked to decide ethical, scientific, and artistic heritage. It can ist movement in the United States. They whether secular humanism is or is not a be traced from the early Greek philosophers insisted that this movement—perhaps com- "religion." and poets, through the Roman period, the prising only 10,000 persons—controls educa- Judge Hand has permitted twelve parents Renaissance, the Enlightenment, the de- tion, the media, the courts, and virtually to intervene in the case in order to defend velopment of modern science, and the demo- everything else influential in America. The the textbooks. Whatever the ruling, it will cratic revolutions of the eighteenth and nine- platform of this conspiracy is allegedly out- no doubt be appealed to higher courts. The teenth centuries down to the present. I also lined in Humanist Manifesto II (a docu- federal judge in a similar case in Hawkins pointed out that there were both religious mented I drafted in 1973) and the Secular County, Tennessee, surprised everyone by and nonreligious humanists and that both Humanist Declaration (first published in ruling that children did not have to read the teaching of the humanities and the FREE INQUIRY in 1980)—both have been en- required textbooks if their parents objected development of the methods of scientific dorsed by many prominent and influential on religious grounds, particularly because inquiry expressed a humanist strain. scientists and authors. It is ludicrous to of the innocuous character of many of the Thinkers as widely different as Spinoza, maintain that a "secular humanist conspir- readings—everything from Cinderella and John Stuart Mill, Erasmus, and St. Thomas acy" exists. Since the three million teachers Little Red Riding Hood to books by Isaac Aquinas participated in the great humanist in American schools come from all walks of

4 FREE INQUIRY walks of life and represent differing religious lifetime—more than twenty-five books and quoting out of context and that this distorted faiths, surely the schools are not dominated five hundred articles. (They even carted my meaning, for I believed in moderation, by a humanist elite. many of them in during the trial and heaped temperance, balance, and practical wisdom But is secular humanism a religion? The them on the table in front of me.) They as the guide to life and in the moral virtues. lawyers in this case insist that it is and they proceeded to go through my writings and I was instructed by Judge Hand to answer subpoenaed the bylaws and other documents quote material out of context. They wanted yes or no. of the major U.S. humanist organizations to show that at one time in my career I was At the end of the cross-examination, I to prove it. The organized humanist move- sympathetic to the functional view that felt not unlike Socrates, who at his trial (as ment in America is put in a quandary; for humanism is a religion. I did not deny that, depicted in the Apology by Plato) was forced the Fellowship of Religious Humanists (300 but said that I had long since modified my to answer three charges: (I) that he cor- members), the American Ethical Union views. rupted the youth of Athens, (2) that he made (3,000 members), and the Society for The brunt of their critique was the insin- the better appear the worse, and (3) that he Humanistic Judaism (4,000 members) con- uation that secular humanism was "im- denied the gods of Athens. Socrates said sider themselves to be religious. Even the moral." This I denied, since I have always that he was committed to rational inquiry American Humanist Association (3,500 maintained that, if one rejects an absolute and insisted that his focus was basically members), which has both religious and biblical morality, this doesn't mean that ethical. But his defense fell on deaf ears and nonreligious members and is often con- there is no basis for morality. Indeed, I hold he was convicted and condemned to drink sidered to be a "naturalistic humanist" (with Aristotle, Kant, Mill, and others) that the hemlock by those who sought to silence association, has a religious tax exemption. there is a rational basis for ethical conduct, him. The Alabama textbook proceedings (I should point out that I and others have that one can lead a life of moral excellence, were remarkably similar. For what was at repeatedly urged the AHA to abandon its be considerate of the needs of others, and stake here, too, was freedom of inquiry. religious exemption, but to no avail.) Re- contribute to justice and the social good. Authoritarian fundamentalists today wish grettably there are no humanist membership During the deposition and the cross- the state to intervene, to censor textbooks, organizations that are nonreligious in legal examination, I felt I was in the midst of a and select only those that conform to reli- status. The only exception is the Council New Inquisition—but today it is the secular gious orthodoxy. They fear dissent, the open for Democratic and Secular Humanism humanists who are the bait. "Professor mind, and critical reason. They are engaged (publisher of FREE INQUIRY magazine), Kurtz, did you write this?" Tom Kotouc in a witchhunt to drive out the defenders of which has a nonprofit educational exemp- shouted, and he proceeded to quote my free inquiry. If they succeed it is not only tion, but as yet has not been a membership views on abortion, euthanasia, the need for those who identify with organized humanism organization. some measure of sexual autonomy for who will suffer, but everyone committed to Even if the organized Humanist (capital adults, and so on. free inquiry, quality education, tolerance, "H") movement is religious in terms of its "Yes," I said, but 1 protested that he was and democracy.—Paul Kurtz legal exemption, this does not mean that humanism (small "h") is religious per se and should be excluded from the schools, for this would rob the curriculum of its philosophical, scientific, literary, and artistic content. In any case, secular humanism is not a religion—for it does not postulate a supreme being or a supernatural or divine reality, nor does it have a creed, a dogma, or prayers. If religion is defined functionally as the religious and if this means a commit- ment to ideal ends and values or an expres- sion of an ultimate concern, then vegetarian- ism, feminism, libertarianism, and almost all points of view by the same token must be excluded from the curriculum. We have debated this issue in the pages of FREE INQUIRY.

The Grand Inquisitor

was personally distressed by the cross- I examination process: First, I was cross- examined for ten hours by the opposing attorneys—including Tom Kotouc, a born- again Christian—when I gave a deposition in Washington several weeks before the trial; and again at the trial itself, following my own testimony. The thing that surprised me was that the prosecuting attorneys had read virtually everything I had written in my

Winter 1986/87 5 clearly weakens the influence and scope of true naturalistic humanism.

Naturalistic Humanism he rightist religious zealots have added Tto this complex scenario by resorting to legal action in order to "expose" and destroy humanism. Thus in both Alabama Corliss Lamont international peace, women's rights, and and Tennessee fundamentalist Christians other social concerns. Purposely omitted are have sued to have books, especially text- y allegiance has long been to natur- humanism's basic philosophic principles, books, removed from public schools on the Malistic humanism, which I define as such as disbelief in any form of supernatur- ground that they are brainwashing students a philosophy or way of life that rejects all alism and advocating the use of reason and by promoting secular humanism and down- belief in the supernatural, including God and scientific method for the solution of human grading Christianity. immortality, and renders supreme ethical problems. In Alabama, where some six hundred commitment to service for the welfare and The recently founded Humanist Institute, parents and teachers are plaintiffs in a law- happiness of all humanity. In seeking this for instance, gives no adequate definition of suit against the State Board of Education, goal humanism relies primarily on reason humanism in its published announcements, one of them, a Mr. Smith, decries humanism and scientific method, democracy and com- nor does the Society for Humanistic Juda- as a "nontheistic religion that states that man passion. ism. Even the American Humanist Associa- is the center of all importance ... whereas Naturalistic humanism of course dis- tion has become entangled in the semantic God is the center of everything that is im- agrees with the theologies of the traditional labyrinth. Thus in 1968 it most unwisely portant." A plaintiff in Tennessee, Mrs. religions, but incorporates many of the added the term religious to the official Vickie Frost, wishes to exclude mention of ethical principles of those religions, such as designation of the organization. Although Leonardo da Vinci because he represented "Thou shalt not kill," "Thou shalt not bear the AHA movie "Making Bigger Circles" "the Renaissance belief in the worth and false witness," and "Thou shalt not steal," does a good job on the whole, it makes a dignity of human beings.... The painters all set forth in the Ten Commandments. serious blunder by bringing into the picture of this time glorified or elevated the human Humanism also supports Jesus' admonitions so-called Christian Humanists, which I con- form in paintings ... whereas God is to be in the Sermon on the Mount on behalf of sider a self-contradictory category. Humanist glorified, not man." Mrs. Frost appealed to peace and brotherly love. And humanists advocate Joseph Ben-David takes the prize all Christians to pray for the judge to make show their compassionate concern by acting for absurdity by establishing the Church of a favorable decision. as Good Samaritans. Humanism, which holds "inspirational meet- The fundamentalist Christians in Tennes- Today humanists are happy to cooperate ings" every Saturday evening. see won in a federal district court, but the with Christian churches in the struggle to The truth is that humanism and humanist humanists are appealing. The defendants in abolish nuclear weapons and establish peace are such warm and attractive words that the Alabama suit will no doubt do the same throughout the world. We also work closely individuals and groups are prone to appro- if necessary. So the final outcome of these with Christian and Jewish organizations to priate them and assign to them, for their incredible anti-humanist cases is still in maintain the separation of church and state own purposes, mistaken and confusing doubt. The whole situation is ludicrous be- as guaranteed in the First Amendment of meanings. This semantic mischief is rife cause actually no public school in the United the Constitution. within the humanist movement itself and States teaches any form of humanism. • At the same time naturalistic and secular humanists retain their anti-theological prin- '* OIy.l R5Ç# O U11\41 wEu S ciples and do not accept the frequent claim MODERN UL that humanism is itself a religion. Far-out MAN attempts to redefine "religion" so as to in- CPO-Mt010/4 clude humanism have been part of a deep- MAN seated semantic controversy that has been NEANDERTNAI going on for at least a century. Recently this semantic battle has included MAN WRITING a widespread tendency among humanists to 1' make humanism more respectable in coun- PEKING tering the nationwide attacks on this phi- MAN CAVE pAINTING losophy by fanatical right-wing religious \ \ • TENNESSEE groups. In some humanist circles humanism FLINT is being described merely as a progressive TOOLS MAN grouping, like Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), that supports civil liberties,

Corliss Lamont is the author of The Phi- SCHOOL losophy of Humanism, The Illusion of Im- STONE TOOLS mortality, and other humanist works. He was the recipient of the 1977 Humanist of the Year Award.

6 FREE INQUIRY plored by the pious as "a breakdown in moral behavior"? If faith in religion is re- quired to sustain the standards of a moral society and our present-day society is re- garded as immoral, what justification is there God And Morality for believing that a return to religion would lead to an improvement in moral behavior? Obviously it cannot be a return to "the good old-fashioned religion of the past." For that did not do what was expected of it. Must we find a new religious outlook? If there is a return to religious faith in order to safeguard the foundations of moral Sidney Hook behavior, what measures will be adopted to prevent the leaching out of that faith and the spread of the skeptical outlook that led he relation between religion and moral- clearly begs the question and reverts to the to the secularization of society and the Tity, public and private, has so many demonstrably false belief that unless we be- demise of "old-fashioned religion" in the first facets that a brief treatment can only suggest lieved in God we would not know the mean- place? Surely it is not being proposed in the lines for development. Although we continu- ing of good and bad, right and wrong. But, interests of a new religious faith to curb the ally hear that the validity of a moral judg- in the end, those who argue for the necessity progress of scientific research, whose ment presupposes the existence of God or of undergirding moral behavior by religious Copernican and Darwinian revolutions did some transcendental power, it is demon- belief assert as a matter of empirical fact so much to call the religious dogmas of the strable that no one can derive a judgment that, despite the presence of some secular past into question. And if the new religion of what is good or right from the alleged saints or moral, law-abiding atheists, no is prepared to leave the catalogue of the fact of a divine command without ante- society can survive for long as a morally furniture of heaven and earth to the dis- cedently claiming to know the meaning of good society if religious belief and practice coveries of scientific cosmology, how does it good and bad, right and wrong. This is a have been eroded. Sooner or later, if reli- differ from the religion of Ethical Culture Platonic and Kantian commonplace. gious belief and practice fall into desuetude, except in its colorful pageantry? Similarly, whether "a person led a good the norms of public and private morality There is a further difficulty in reading life and significantly contributed to society that have been internalized as a result of the historical record as it concerns the moral without the benefit of religious belief' is not religious training are themselves gradually behavior of religious societies. Despite the a problematic question. Everyone is ac- undermined. Everything then seems morally common religious beliefs of Western socie- quainted with someone or has read about permissible. Only the exercise or threat of ties, there are marked variations in the pub- someone like Socrates, Spinoza, Mill, or police power keeps people in line. lic and private moralities of these societies Dewey who, without belief in the gods of The view that religious belief and practice reflected, for example, in the reports written religious faith, led a life that would be uni- were indispensable for the preservation of by foreign travelers on the way they have versally considered a good life. social order, not only between classes, but been treated or mistreated. And within any The genuine problem that seems to recur within classes, seems to have been held by particular religious society there are marked whenever there is a periodic outbreak of leading statesmen like Napoleon and Met- differences in behavior considered acceptable criminality or anti-social conduct that results ternich, who were not themselves noteworthy and unacceptable, as in Puritan and Resto- in social disorder is whether, despite the for their religious piety. Some members of ration England. Can these variations in autonomy of moral judgment, human be- elite groups in Western society who cite moral behavior plausibly be correlated with havior in the large will conform to the themselves as illustrations of the possibility different intensities of religious faith? Does standards of morality in the absence of mass of living by a morality without religion are transcendental religious dogma of any kind belief in some form of organized religion. dubious about the same being true for the uniquely determine a pattern of ethical be- Those who maintain that public and private commonality of mankind. Whatever may be havior or judgment? If a person calls himself morality ultimately depends upon sincere the case for the enlightened thinker, "we need or herself a Christian, will he or she sub- religious belief and religious practices admit religion for the masses." scribe to the moral values of Torquemada that here and there atheists and agnostics The great difficulty with the position or Tolstoy, Aimee Semple McPherson or can live the good life of men and women that, regardless of its intellectual validity, Mother Teresa? and perform all the duties of good citizens. belief in God and instructional practices Finally, there seems to be good reason Usually it is said that these worthy citizens associated with that belief are required for to believe that the moral behavior of indi- are living on the moral capital, so to speak, the preservation of morality is the historical viduals does not depend so much on ratioci- of past religious belief, an assertion that record itself from antiquity to the present. nation as on early education. If, according Until very recently, all Western societies have to Matthew Arnold, conduct is nine-tenths Sidney Hook is professor emeritus of phi- been religious societies in which divine wor- of morality, habit, according to John Dewey, losophy at New York University and Senior ship and church attendance were normal is ninety-nine one-hundredths of morality. Research Fellow at the Hoover Institution modes of behavior. Why is it that these The moral virtues—honesty, thoughtfulness, on War, Revolution, and Peace at Stanford, religious societies have become secularized, truthfulness, etc.—to be operative must be- California. He is a member of the Secre- and why have religious education and belief come habits long before children can under- tariat of the Academy of Humanism. failed to sustain modes of ethical behavior stand the justification for them. The moral different from the current mores often de- situation arises in human experience when

Winter 1986/87 7 values conflict. Even if the child is taught s far as my own personal history goes, what we pleased without let or hindrance, that violations of moral value will be pun- Ait was my moral judgment that under- most human beings would continue on their ished by God or hellfire, this by itself does mined my religious belief. Shortly before my round of duties. The patterns of habit, the not determine the specific action that is confirmation, I discovered the problem of weight of peer pressure, family, and public morally desirable in the situation. Here is evil. I could not reconcile divine omnipo- opinion would still operate. It is true, of where reflective morality begins and with it tence with the sufferings of the innocent and course, that in the absence of any physical responsibility for the consequences of actions the affluence of the wicked. Neither my rabbi sanctions for a sustained period of time or taken or not taken. There is a need for im- nor my parents could allay my doubts. Nor the breakdown of law and order, there would proving the quality of moral education in in the course of a long life have I found be an increase in immoral and criminal our schools to supplement and sometimes anyone who could. This creates a difficulty behavior among those few who had lived to modify the moral education children re- for those who by some variation of the argu- up to the demands of the law primarily out ceive at home, if they receive any. A good ment from design have convinced themselves of fear of the law, and then among others case can be made on reflective grounds for that the world has a rational designer. The who were influenced by the spectacle of the existence and recognition of rules and conclusion is not logically impossible but others violating the traditionally accepted laws as in general law-abiding behavior. Al- has a low degree of probability. But if there canons of law-abiding behavior with im- though it is not the best and should not be is a rational designer he is more like a Devil punity. the only reason, fear of the law is sometimes than like an all-loving God. And that could But does this not vindicate the position a good reason for obeying the law. If law hardly serve as a premise for human moral- of those who plead the social necessity of enforcement becomes capricious, uncertain, ity. religion? No, because fear of the Lord and or lax, this may be a contributing factor to I do not believe there is empirical evi- hellfire is certainly not the same as fear of the decline of public morality. dence that large ideas about the existence of the law. Whatever may have been the case There are a great many problems and God, freedom, and immortality have a direct in the primitive religious societies of the past difficulties in developing and implementing bearing on human behavior and that the is certainly no longer true in modern secular a program of moral education in our schools erosion of transcendental beliefs gets ex- cultures. Some religious thinkers who believe and homes. But, if our aim is to develop pressed in immoral conduct. Man is more in the total depravity of man may resign reflective men and women who are prepared a creature of habit than of sudden impulse themselves to the belief that only fear of the to accept responsibility for the moral choices inspired by belief or loss of belief. 1f we Lord and his terrible punishments can keep they make, at no point will the injection of were to be told that all laws were suddenly the feet of man on the path of virtue. Most religious faith facilitate the process. to be suspended and that we were free to do religionists today would not regard very highly moral behavior inspired only by fear of being caught out. They, too, admit that Annnouncing there are other causes as well as grounds of moral behavior independent of speculative fancies and fears of otherworldly creatures. FREE INQUIRY's There are some who postulate the exis- tence of God and an afterlife in order to achieve cosmic harmony or justice in which Six-Year Index the wicked who prosper at the expense of the virtuous in this world and the virtuous For the first time, FREE INQUIRY has been indexed, from who suffer at the hands of the wicked get Volume 1, Number 1 (Winter 1980/81) to Volume 6, their deserts. But such a postulate is ob- viously question-begging since it assumes Number 4 (Fall 1986). The six-year index is a compre- that the cosmic order is a moral order. There hensive, easy-to-use reference that has been divided ac- is no evidence for such an assumption. The cording to author, title, and subject. ways of the cosmos, the order of things, are indifferent to human weal and woe, to good Total: $8.95 ($10.00 with postage and handling) and evil. There is no point in wailing about this or hurling romantic defiance against ❑ Check or Money Order enclosed nature. It is sufficient that the cosmos make Charge my ❑ Visa ❑ MasterCard # Exp possible the organization of a good society and the pursuit of a good life or one better than what we have known in the past. Name A pious friend once told me that such a view of the world required more courage Address than was available to most people he knew. Perhaps he was alluding to the fact that it had no rational place for prayer or, since City State Zip Code prayer can take many different forms, prayers for intercession into the natural Telephone order. It may very well be that human beings Return to: FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 716-834-2921 cannot live without belief in some vital il- 7/1 lusions. But even if true, this does not re- quire belief in the illusions of super- naturalism. • 8 FREE INQUIRY interested humanists in other cities to follow its lead. Granted, the Center is still more an ideal than a blueprint. But that simply leaves Secular Humanist Center Founded room for groups in diverse communities to explore a variety of approaches simul- social opportunities in the workplace or the taneously and to share their findings. Net- Tom Flynn neighborhood—all without turning to a working among a number of local groups will help to speed the identification of effec- Coeditor, Secular Humanist Bulletin group whose members define themselves according to a shared philosophy of life. tive programming approaches. At the same n ad hoc group of humanists in Creativity is called for to ensure that the time, the establishment of multiple indepen- AWestern New York has undertaken to Friendship Center truly offers humanists a dent groups will project the secular humanist found the nation's first secular-humanist special habitat in which to share experiences outlook at a grassroots level throughout the Friendship Center. As envisioned by Bob that cannot be attained elsewhere. nation, providing locally based community- Wisne (FI, Winter 1985/86; Fall 1986), Vern For these and other reasons, the fledgling oriented humanist advocacy. Bullough (FI, Fall 1986), and others, the organization's choice of first activities will For the Friendship Center movement— Friendship Center represents a fundamen- be crucial. Vern Bullough and others have which, in a very real sense, has with its first tally different approach to the establishment written of future Friendship Centers that will manifestation just now earned the right to of a humanist organization. Configured as combine the attributes of a service organiza- be called a "movement"—the future can a wholly autonomous entity operating on a tion, a coffeehouse, and a prosperous subur- scarcely be less than exciting. • local or regional scope, it will more closely ban community center. But realism tells us resemble the independent local groups as- that no Friendship Center can expect to Centers in Other Cities sociated with the Committee for the Scien- command such resources as athletic facilities, We are pleased to report that many tific Investigation of Claims of the Para- social halls, or performance spaces without readers have responded to our invita- normal (CSICOP) than, say, the national having first staged successful programs on a tion in the Fall 1986 FREE INQUIRY charter chapters of the American Humanist much smaller scale. to organize secular humanist centers Association (AHA). Unlike the Unitarian It is thus interesting that the Buffalo in their areas. We list the cities and Universalist church in recent years, its focus organizers have chosen to build their first states below of the readers who have will be determinedly humanistic and secular. group activity around magic—not the de- contacted us. If you would like to And, unlike most humanist chapters and bunking of the purportedly paranormal, but join a center in one of these areas, local freethought groups, its primary empha- simply the enjoyment of well-executed sleight please let us know and we will put sis will not be upon lectures and discussions. of hand. This shows marketing savvy; the you in touch with the appropriate The Friendship Center will, its founders Buffalo area is historically fertile ground for person. We would also be delighted hope, provide a forum for social and recrea- magical entertainment. And it acutely, if to hear from you if you would like to tional activities—a nexus that will serve the obliquely, addresses humanist interests, since found a new center. local humanist community. Secular human- to perform or enjoy magic on a sophisticated ists have often lamented that being un- level requires a certain willingness to func- Mountain Home, Ark. churched deprives them of a framework tion playfully with rules of evidence—a Los Angeles, Calif. distinctively their own in which to find domain in which the typical skeptical Mountain View, Calif. opportunities for self-expression, social in- humanist feels at home. Oxnard, Calif. teraction, community activities, and perhaps It is hoped that this initial program focus San Diego, Calif. recognition of the milestones in their lives will enable the Buffalo group to identify a San Mateo, Calif. and those of their family and friends. unique constituency—in the language of Norwalk, Conn. In their attempt to fill this need in the marketing, to position itself as a resource to Miami Beach, Fla. Buffalo area, computer specialist and which area humanists can turn to address Grafton, Va. humanist Keith Randolph and his compa- needs and desires that are both real and Royston, Ga. triots are charging into uncharted territory. truly not met elsewhere. From this beginning Iowa City, Ia. Saying that the Friendship Center will not may come a strong and growing organization Chicago, Ill. be in any way like a church or a chartered whose programs will eventually encompass Silver Spring, Md. discussion group is facile. Saying what it social, recreational, artistic, and family ori- Milton, Mass. will be like is far more difficult. Many ented activities. From it may also come a Reading, Mass humanists who have rejected church life have new community resource for those among Columbia, Mo. also cast aside the entire cultural model the churched who are growing uncomfort- Kansas City, Mo. under which individuals sought social and able with their faith and would like a setting St. Louis, Mo. cultural outlets primarily among those peo- in which they can explore alternative out- Haddenfield, N.J. ple who shared their personal philosophy. looks free of pressure. Ultimately, the fate Point Pleasant, N.J. In our secular culture, the unchurched can of the Western New York Friendship Center Albany, N.Y. easily express themselves in little theater, depends on the enthusiasm, acuity, and re- Cincinnati, Ohio singing clubs, or writers' organizations; pur- sourcefulness of its founders and future Philadelphia, Pa. sue shared interests in sports, from tennis to members as they recognize and respond to Wyncote, Pa. skydiving, at commercial clubs or in in- those needs within their community that they Tullahoma, Tenn. formal groups; associate with fellow hobby- are best qualified to address. Houston, Texas ists in any field from photography or crafts FREE INQUIRY applauds the foundation Alexandria, Va. to computers and simulation gaming; seize of this seminal Friendship Center and urges Madison Heights, Va.

Winter 1986/87 9 FREE INQUIRY's Fifth Annual Conference

FREE INQUIRY's Fifth Annual Con- an alternative, humanist morality CSER announced the formation ference, on "Ethics in Conflict: Biblical based on rationality. Although the of its Religion and Politics Project, vs. Secular Morality," held at the Reverends Jerry Falwell and Pat which will explore the relationship University of Richmond in Richmond, Robertson were invited to debate the between religious institutions and the Virginia, October 31 and November issues, they did not respond. state. It will be chaired by Robert S. 1, 1986, was a stimulating and enjoy- The highlight of the conference was Alley. Conference participants met able event. the Saturday night banquet, at which informally in smaller groups with The speakers included leading bib- Theodor Gaster, Morton Smith, others from their area to plan the lical scholars who critically examined Joseph Fletcher, and Joseph Blau re- organization of secular-humanist cen- Bible-based morality. They pointed ceived Distinguished Scholar Awards. ters throughout the country. (See page out the numerous contradictory state- In his after-dinner talk, James Randi, 9.) ments on morality in the Bible, with principal researcher of CSER's Faith- FREE INQUIRY'S Sixth Annual special focus on the Old Testament Healing Investigation Project, de- Conference has been tentatively and its relevance to modern living. scribed the fraudulent practices of scheduled for September 10 and 11, Biblical morality was compared with some faith-healers. 1987, in Washington, D.C.

(From left to right) Gerald Larue, Theodor Gaster, Morton Smith, Paul Kurtz (right) presents the Distinguished Scholar Award to and Robert and Norma Alley at the head table of the conference's Joseph Fletcher (middle) while his wife, Forrest (left), looks on. closing banquet.

R. Joseph Hoffmann (left) and Joseph Blau James Randi, magician and CSER's principal C0DESH Executive Director Jean Millholland (right) at the cocktail party before the ban- faith-healing investigator, performs at the (left) and Secular Humanist Bulletin Coeditor quet. Saturday evening banquet. Tom Flynn (right) at the banquet.

Photos by David Alexander

10 FREE INQUIRY FREE INQUIRY Conferences on Audio and Video Tape NOW AVAILABLE! "ETHICS IN CONFLICT: BIBLICAL VS. SECULAR MORALITY" University of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia October 31 and November 1, 1986 Session #1—$8.95—"Welcome," Paul Kurtz. "The Session #3—$8.95—"Religion vs. Secular Morality," Origins and Impact of Biblical Ethics," Gerald A. Vern L. Bullough, Richard Rubinstein, Lewis S. Larue, Theodor Gaster, John F. Priest, Frank Eakin. Feuer, Joseph E. Barnhart, James Hall. Session #4—$8.95—"Religion and Morals," Paul Session #2—$8.95—"Biblical and Contemporary Kurtz, Joseph Blau, Richard Taylor, Joseph Fletcher. Views of Morality," R. Joseph Hoffmann, Morton Banquet—$6.95—"Faith-Healing: How It Is Done," Smith, Ellis Rivkin, Robert S. Alley. James Randi. Complete set $39.00 (10% savings). New: FREE INQUIRY's Richmond conference on video tape. Complete set $89.00 (Postpaid) VHS and Beta Also available on audio tape only: "Jesus in History and Myth" "Armageddon and Biblical Apocalyptic: "Religion in American Politics" University of Michigan Are We Living in the Last Days?" National Press Club Ann Arbor Campus University of Southern California Washington, D.C. April 19 and 20, 1985 Los Angeles Campus March 16, 1983 Complete set $39.00 February 27, 1984 Complete set $26.50 Complete set $19.00

FREE INQUIRY Conference Tapes Order Form Please send me the following: Biblical Versus Secular Morality Audio Tapes Video Tape ❑ Session #1 $8.95 ❑ Session #3 $8.95 ❑ Banquet $6.95 ❑ Complete Set $89.00 ❑ Session #2 $8.95 ❑ Session #4 $8.95 ❑ Complete Set $39.00 (postpaid) Add 81.50 per audio tape for postage and handling. Save 10% by ordering the complete set. Also, please send me these conferences available on audio tape only: ❑ Religion & Politics, $26.50 ❑ Biblical Apocalyptic, 319.00 ❑ Jesus in History and Myth, 339.00

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options for dealing with Galileo retrospec- ON THE BARRICADES tively, and Pope John Paul II has taken the course of commending Galilean studies News and Views under Vatican auspices. But he has not, to the best of my knowledge, pardoned ANIIIMMII Galileo."

New Laureates Elected to the Episcopalians Condemn CBN Programs Linked to Violence Academy of Humanism Vatican Repression The Christian Broadcasting Network is one The Academy of Humanism is pleased to The 518-member Convention of the Episco- of America's largest cable television net- announce that the following men and women palian Diocese of New York has unanimous- works and advertises itself as "The Family have been elected Humanist Laureates: Jean ly passed a resolution that deplores "coercive Entertainer." However, a new study by the Dommanget, director of the Royal Observa- discipline" or other action "that narrows the National Coalition on Television Violence tory of Belgium; Lawrence Kohlberg, pro- realm of free debate" among theologians and reports that CBN's most popular programs fessor of psychology at Harvard University biblical scholars. are high in violence and have harmful effects and author of The Psychology of Moral The author of the resolution, the on young children and adolescents. Development; John Passmore, professor of Reverend Christopher Webber, says it was In June 1986 Pat Robertson announced philosophy and member of the History of prompted by recent actions by the Catholic that CBN had twelve of the fifteen most Ideas Unit of the Research School of Social church that "are creating an impression of popular programs on cable television and Sciences at Australian National University; the Christian church as authoritarian and that it "limits its programs to ones that Bonnie Bullough, dean of nursing at the not open to freedom and diversity." strengthen the family." Nationally syndicated State University of New York at Buffalo The resolution, entitled "Freedom and columnist Michael McManus has reported and the author of numerous books in her Authority in the Catholic Church," reads, that Robertson objected to the violence on field; Wardell Baxter Pomeroy, psychother- in part: "We believe that truth is best served commercial television and proclaimed that apist and the author of many books on by free and open inquiry and that God calls broadcasters "should be aware of our re- human sexuality; and Svetozar Stojanovic, us to allow and preserve to the fullest possi- sponsibility." professor of philosophy at the University of ble measure freedom of biblical and theo- However, an NCTV investigation has Belgrade. logical scholarship and diversity of expres- found that all of the twelve most popular sion within His church. For these reasons, CBN programs are cowboy westerns high in we deplore any action that narrows the realm violence. A two-week study of CBN drama- of free debate. With concern for the greater action programming found that the cowboy Baptist Professor Accused of Heresy unity within the church, we would avoid shows and the "Man from U.N.C.L.E." any use of coercion because we believe the series averaged thirty-four violent acts per G. Temp Sparkman, Southern Baptist semi- witness and mission of the whole church is hour. CBN's movies average twenty-one nary professor, has been charged by funda- impeded by such action." violent acts per hour. mentalists within his denomination with The NCTV study also found that CBN's being a universalist and with teaching heresy action programming averaged almost five through his interpretation of the Bible. Galileo Still Not Exonerated instances of alcohol consumption per hour The Southern Baptist Convention has and that 77 percent of the beverage con- sumption was alcoholic in nature. Although 14.5 million members. Moderates in the In a letter to the editor in the October 24, several program episodes portrayed the Convention believe that individuals should 1986, Science, Owen Gingerich of the dangers of alcohol consumption realistically, be allowed to interpret the Scriptures as they Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astro- NCTV said, the average CBN action pro- choose. Professor Sparkman has received a physics commented: gram dramatically overrepresents alcohol vote of confidence from the Southern Bap- "David Dickson's article about Galileo consumption. Only 16 percent of real-life tists' board of trustees. (News & Comment, 8 August, p. 612) rein- beverage consumption is alcoholic in nature. But his fundamentalist critics believe that forces the widespread misimpression that the the denomination's six seminaries, including Vatican or Pope John Paul II has actually the one at which Professor Sparkman 'pardoned' the seventeenth-century astron- teaches, have some irresponsible professors omer. In 1633 the Inquisition found Galileo Creationism Among whose unorthodox teachings are undermin- guilty of defending the heliocentric system College Students ing the faith of young Southern Baptists. in his Dialogue on the Two Great World Said the Reverend Paige Patterson, one Systems, essentially a charge of disobeying More than one-half of the students in three of Sparkman's critics: "Sure we believe in orders. Under the circumstances of the day colleges in Texas, California, and Connecti- academic freedom, but there are responsible the verdict was probably correct, but from cut believe in the literal interpretation of the lines. I'm sure our medical institutions be- our modern vantage point the sentence— account of creation given in the Bible, ac- lieve in academic freedom, but I'm sure they house arrest for the remainder of his life— cording to a recent survey. wouldn't tolerate a professor that taught was vindictively harsh. These historical cir- The poll also indicated that students who bleeding as a cure for all our ills." cumstances leave the papacy with limited believe in creationism are less likely to read

12 FREE INQUIRY books, are more politically conservative, and before Graves is a wet county, because we've "My ultimate obedience to the will of have a lower grade-point average than stu- let the evil forces in." God led me to the conclusion that I must dents who did not. The school board's action in rejecting continue my public ministry of speaking and "Overall, the higher you scored on the the book has led to the institution of a writing," said McNeill. creationist segment of the survey, the lower formal review process, which includes the your grade-point average—this was a ten- establishment of a seven-member committee dency," said Francis Harrold, professor of to hear complaints and make recommenda- Supreme Court Decides in Favor of archaeology at the University of Texas in tions to the superintendent. The committee's Christian Science Healing Arlington. "What really surprised us were first task will be to determine whether the the number of students who believed in what ban on As I Lay Dying should be lifted. The Supreme Court has upheld an Illinois we call 'cult beliefs' or unproven pseudosci- lower court's decision that cleared a Chris- entific theories. We all agree that for a tian Science healer of the charge that he leading scientific nation, this is not a good ... And in Buffalo! directly contributed to the death of his elder- sign of the effectiveness of our science edu- ly patient, who had been diagnosed as suf- cation." The Buffalo Board of Education has agreed fering from prostatitis and uremic poisoning, Nearly 1,000 students participated in the to withdraw two family life textbooks from by refusing to allow the patient's wife to survey. Most were white liberal-arts majors the list of approved textbooks pending fur- summon medical help. The lower court had between the ages of eighteen and twenty- ther review. Its action came in response to a also decided that, despite the circumstances, two. At the Texas school, 71 percent said complaint by James W. Comerford, an the terms of the deceased patient's will that they believed in the story of Adam and elected member of the school board. He said should be carried out and his funds be- Eve, while 51 percent did so in Connecticut that he objected because "some people think queathed to the Christian Science church. and 47 percent in California. An average of that secular humanism is a religion and I 44 percent of the students in the three states want to know why humanists are being said that the story of Noah's Ark was true. quoted in the books." And if humanists are quoted, he said, "Why should the writings Election-Day Losses for the of Jeremiah, Mark, Luke and John be ex- Religious Right Book-Banning in Israel... cluded?" The two books are Family Matters: Con- Born-again voters who lean toward Republi- The Education Ministry of Israel has banned cepts in Marriage and Personal Relation- can politicians were unsuccessful for the the works of several prominent authors, ships and a companion teaching guide. The most part in getting their candidates elected including a Nobel Prize-winner, from reli- introduction to the teaching guide refers to this year. gious schools. the late A. H. Maslow, a humanistic psy- On November 4, 1986, four Republican About 25 percent of Israeli schools are chologist. "I don't want the kids looking at freshman senators—Jeremiah Denton of religious. Among the authors who have been their book," said Comerford. Alabama, James T. Broyhill of North banned are Nobel laureate Isaac Bashevis Carolina, Paula Hawkins of Florida, and Singer, Vladimir Nabokov, and Gabriel Mack Mattingly of Georgia—lost their seats. Garcia Marquez. Their books were not An exit poll had shown that between 60 deemed suitable for devout students. Priest Expelled for Ministry to and 68 percent of born-again voters had Singer is a Polish-born Jew who writes Homosexuals supported these candidates. in Yiddish. His novels and short stories were And in the House of Representatives, all rejected because "his values do not conform The Catholic church has expelled the but one of the dozen Republican challengers to the values of the religious public," ac- Reverend John J. McNeill, a prominent identified with the Religious Right lost, as cording to Education Ministry official Ariel Jesuit psychiatrist, for refusing to give up well as did one incumbent, William W. Ziv. his public ministry to homosexuals. Cobey, Jr., of North Carolina. "We represent a public that has values The order is being viewed as a part of a Election day also saw strong victories of its own. We are constantly choosing Vatican crackdown on dissent in the church, for church-state separation. By a 70 to 30 books that are appropriate for this public," spearheaded by Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, percent vote, Massachusetts residents de- said Ziv. "This is our lawful right, similar to head of the Congregation for the Doctrine feated an amendment that would have the right to appoint suitable teachers for of the Faith. Ratzinger has called homo- allowed the legislature to provide unlimited religious schools." sexuality an "objective disorder" and has tax aid to sectarian private schools. The reiterated church teaching that all homosex- voters rejected another amendment that ual acts are immoral. would have authorized the legislature to limit ... And in Kentucky... In his book The Church and the Homo- or prohibit abortion by eliminating Medicaid sexual, published ten years ago with the funding of abortions for poor women and William Faulkner's 1930 novel As I Lay approval of his religious superiors and after prohibit private insurance coverage for abor- Dying has been banned from the classroom a four-year peer review, Father McNeill tions. Voters in Rhode Island, Arkansas, and in Graves County, Kentucky, after one argued that homosexual behavior can be Oregon also rejected limits or total bans on parent complained that it contained profan- morally good. By reinterpreting some bib- abortion. ity, touched on reincarnation, and in some lical passages that have been used to con- The only sour note on the state front places seemed to describe masturbation. demn homosexuality, Father McNeill advo- was in South Dakota, where voters decided The parent cited use of the book as cated that stable homosexual relationships by a margin of 60 to 40 percent to allow the evidence of "secular humanism" in the should be evaluated by the same standards state legislature to provide textbooks to schools and warned that "it won't be long as similar heterosexual ones. sectarian private schools.

Winter 1986/87 13

Perspective Anti-Abortion and Religion

Betty McCollister

Betty McCollister's "Perspective" will appear regularly in future issues. She lives in Iowa City and also writes for the Des Moines Register and the Cedar Rapids Gazette.

s the abortion battle waxes more don't overlook the father's part in conception placed revenue for abortifacient ads above Aglandular and violent, it is easy to for- or his responsibility to his child, which anti- righteousness and called the clerics of the get what a new battle it is, especially in its abortionists often do, especially those who time cowards and hypocrites, as in this blast religious aspects. combine their crusade with the misogynistic, from the Missouri State Medical Association Although conservative Catholics and anti-sexual bias that has characterized much in 1863: fundamentalist Protestants now claim to of Christianity since St. Paul so powerfully speak for God on the matter—while Jews shaped the new faith. Typically, the fanati- Fearful as are the numbers of criminal and mainstream Christians tend to support cally religious anti-abortionists display the abortions . . . we have yet to find the pro-choice—America's abortion laws were same intolerance and callous indifference to subject entertained by any one of the put on the books by doctors, not clergy. human suffering that God's bullies always numerous conclaves of the religious men of our country who sit in high authority And, although the church did condemn have. They insist on the right of the fetus to all over the land, and who pronounce abortion from time to time, it usually recog- be born but are indifferent to its fate after upon topics political, religious, and nized the "quickening" doctrine, proposed birth. governmental. by Aristotle and accepted by Augustine and And yet medical men got the laws passed Thomas Aquinas, which stated that ensoul- with no help from the churches. The best A short excursion into American history ment took place at forty days if the fetus account of abortion history in this country won't end the war, but it should defuse the was male, at eighty days if female. Dispatch is in James Mohr's Abortion in America: religious argument to an extent. Whether or before ensoulment was not considered a The Origins and Evolution of National not abortion is permissible, it has rarely been crime until the Vatican Council promulgated Policy. It is short, clear, lively, fascinating, a religious issue until the past decade. As a the idea that the fetus is human at concep- and well illustrated, as well as being scholar- reviewer in the Christian Century wrote: tion. The same council defined papal infalli- ly. Mohr writes that abortion was taken for "Mohr makes it abundantly clear that the bility and the primacy of Rome. It was led granted in America, as it had been for mil- Supreme Court decisions of the 1970s were by Pope Pius IX, who had earlier proclaimed lennia everywhere (especially when it was not a modern weakening of moral standards as dogma the Immaculate Conception of the between a woman and her midwife) until but a return to what Americans believed Blessed Virgin (not to be confused with the about 1850, when members of the newly and practiced a hundred years ago." Virgin Birth). organized American Medical Association Nor does Scripture give authority to the Anti-abortionists argue that modern sci- became concerned over the number being anti-abortionists. The word abortion itself ence has confirmed the full humanity of the performed dangerously by medical quacks. is not to be found in any of the Bible's 1,200 zygote, or fertilized egg. They conveniently Motivated at first by a laudable desire to pages. There are only two references to the overlook other discoveries of modern sci- protect women's health, they later included matter, neither suggesting that the conceptus ence; e.g., that about a third of all concep- in their propaganda arsenal the anti-feminist is fully human. In Exodus 21, a person who tions are spontaneously aborted, usually argument that God created women to bear causes a woman to lose her fetus against without the pregnant woman's awareness; children and the racist argument that racially her will must pay a fine; if she dies as well, that the fetus is wholly dependent on the inferior and undesirable Catholic women— he must pay with his life. The woman is mother in utero and very much so after "the ignorant, the low-lived, and the fully human; the fetus is not. In Numbers 5, birth; and that babies deprived of good care, alien"—were outbreeding "our own popula- a woman accused of adultery is required to either pre- or post-natally, are seriously at tion" as WASP women aborted, and that drink a potion; if she aborts, she is found risk physically and emotionally. "America is fast losing her national charac- guilty. This hardly implies a fully human Combatants on both sides believe in the teristics." As an example of how things fetus. sanctity of human life. The standoff is over change, this argument, which is not used at Religious citizens have every right, it what constitutes it. Pro-choice advocates all nowadays, was very effective with state should go without saying, to believe for sec- emphasize quality over quantity. They un- legislatures when they were lobbied by doc- tarian reasons that abortion is murder. But derstand that the zygote is genetically coded tors fighting against abortion. religious history isn't behind them on this but view as "potential" that which must be The doctors leveled more than one one. Neither is the First Amendment, which nurtured by parents and community for fif- broadside at churches and clergy. Medical requires us to respect the religious beliefs of teen to twenty years if it is to flower. They journals acidly suggested that the churches others. •

14 FREE INQUIRY

A Positive Humanist Statement on Sexual Morality

FREE INQUIRY invited several prominent sexologists to formulate new codes for sexual conduct. The first offering by Robert Francoeur follows. Additional state- ments will be published in future issues.

Robert T. Francoeur

an Christian, Jewish, Muslim, and ality as well as many other sexual relations us, descended from Adam and Eve) and texts C other religious traditions accept an commonly accepted in liberal theology and that ask whether such rational life might authentic, positive humanist statement of humanist tradition. not communicate by mental telepathy when sexual morality? I believe they can, if Ali was the most radical religious funda- it is obvious that only God has that ability. humanists and believers alike are open to mentalist I had ever encountered. He main- In the fall of 1986, new actors appeared discussing the irreducible essentials that tained that the late Anwar Sadat and other on stage. Pope John Paul II and Cardinal make us humane and human. Certainly the Egyptians, the Ayatollah Khomeini and Ratzinger decreed that Father Charles Cur- endorsement of a statement of commonly Iranian Shiites, Turks and Saudi Arabians ran could no longer teach as a Catholic shared positive sexual values, accepted by are not true Muslims because they do not theologian at the Catholic University of both religious persons and humanists, would follow the Council of Nine, which heads his America or any other Catholic institution be a drama with major political conse- particular fundamentalist Suni Muslim sect because he does not agree with the Vatican's quences. The overthrow of the Puritan anti- and alone preserves the true faith of condemnation of all contraception, mastur- sexual ethic of prohibitions that has domi- Muhammad. Ali maintained that the Coun- bation, homosexual relations, divorce, abor- nated American culture for centuries and its cil of Nine was not dictatorial, dogmatic, or tion, and premarital sex. In demanding that replacement by a commonly accepted sex- arbitrary. The members of the Council of Curran give both external and internal assent positive morality would be the tale of a Nine speak for Allah and are most demo- to what they now term "informally infalli- revolution. cratic in their leadership, he explained, be- ble" moral positions, the Vatican has in Such a drama would naturally involve cause they are always unanimous in their effect labeled him, and every Catholic priest, certain actors and a plot line. So, before I interpretations. When I posed a hypothetical nun, laywoman, layman, and bishop who describe the climax of what could be a most situation in which the Council of Nine would agrees with any one of his dissenting views, dramatic event in our cultural and political actually disagree over the interpretation of veritable heretics. Implicitly, the Congrega- history, let me tell you about the actors and some passage in the Koran, Ali explained tion for the Defense of the Faith and the their present and future roles. how religious tolerance and democracy pope have declared 60 to 80 percent of This past summer 1 had a very intense would work. Since the majority and minority American and European Catholics heretics debate with a young Palestinian Muslim who opinions could not be allowed to coexist, a and relegated them to the ranks of infidels was taking a sexuality course at a New unanimous consensus would be quickly along with secular humanists. Jersey college. Ali took exception to my achieved by "democratically" beheading If this judgment seems too harsh, con- statements about the tolerance of homo- those endorsing the minority view. sider just one event in the aftermath of the sexuality in many Arabic and Islamic tradi- Islamic fundamentalists have other com- Curran affair. In September, New York's tions. He contended that the Koran specif- rades on stage. Certainly the leaders of the John Cardinal O'Connor warned all pastors ically and repeatedly prohibited homosexu- Moral Majority (now the Liberty Federa- to exercise "great care and prudence" in ex- tion) have prominent roles to play in our tending invitations to any speaker whose drama. There are leaders of the New (reli- "public position is contrary to and in op- gious) Right who publicly call on their fol- position to the clear unambiguous teaching lowers to pray that God will strike dead all of the church." When New York's Governor Robert Francoeur is professor of human gay persons and United States Supreme Mario Cuomo suggested that this policy sexuality at Fairleigh Dickinson University Court judges who support legal abortion. could lead to a "restraint of intellectual in Madison, New Jersey, and the author of There are the Reverend Wildmort s National activity," the Cardinal's vicar general said many books on sexuality, including the Federation for Decency and the Dallas-based that "under no circumstance would [he] highly acclaimed college textbook Becoming American Renewal Foundation. And some invite [the governor] to speak to young a Sexual Person (Macmillan). A Catholic Tennessee parents who object to elementary people at a graduation" because Mr. Cuomo priest, he married in 1967 with permission school textbooks that encourage students to is "so smart he would confuse young peo- of the Vatican and, by mistake, was not use their imagination and think about the ple." Is the bishop suggesting that Mr. reduced to the lay state. possibility of rational creatures on other Cuomo would deliberately set out to mislead planets (unthinkable, unless they have, like innocent youth or that he (the bishop) is a

Winter 1986/87 15 safe speaker because he is not intelligent masturbating, couples having intercourse, acceptance of pluralistic lifestyles and values. enough to confuse young people? Of course and homosexual activity. Bomb scares and It is more comfortable to prohibit New York we can hope that no one is misled or con- threats of lawsuits against churches and Assemblyman John Dearie from speaking fused when Cardinal O'Connor states that ministers greeted "About Your Sexuality." at any event in the parish where more than gay persons "have no rights whatsoever, as Today this program has been adopted by a forty-six years ago he was baptized, went to far as I'm concerned," or when he openly variety of Protestant churches. school, was married, and had his children campaigns for repeal of New York City For several years, the fundamentalist and baptized, because, although he personally legislation protecting gay men and women conservative actors have played all the opposes abortion, he voted to give Medicaid against discrimination in housing and em- dominant roles and had all the lead lines. coverage to poor women for abortions. The ployment. They have had the advantage, gaining head- passion of witchhunts stirs people more than lines and evening television coverage with pleas for tolerance of differences, dissenting "Humanists and mainstream their very clear, black-and-white statements views, and the quest for a truth not yet about what is right and wrong in sexual possessed. Christian church leaders are be- relations. They denounce immorality, prom- It is much easier to rally support by ginning to ask whether we can iscuity, lust, corrupting value-free sex educa- telling people that Armaggedon is just develop a positive statement of tion in the schools, pornography, sexual around the corner, that the world is damned sexual values that will counter the violence, the slaughter of innocent screaming because it has abandoned the traditional fetuses—all of which are promoted by deadly values that held society together in the past, dogmatic prohibitions of funda- secular humanists, liberal Christians, and and that the only way to survive is to join mentalists, and the Vatican's atheistic communists! They are very articu- the elect in adhering to those values. anti-sexual morality. [Can] a late. They know what they stand for and, It is much more difficult to rally people positive, person- and relationship- even more important, they have identified in support of a sexual morality that states whom they are against, "the enemy." They firmly that our whole ecosystem is changing oriented statement of sexual know what they have to do in order to be radically and irreversibly because of women's morality be devised that is accept- among the 144,000 God will choose for liberation, contraceptives, an exploding able to both humanists and liberal "rapture" when Armageddon occurs in a few singles population, an unbalanced sex ratio, years. and dual career families. In this new world, religious persons?" Meanwhile, humanists and other liberals traditional sexual moralities still prohibit any have been on the defensive. Unfortunately, sexual expression outside the procreative Liberal actors in our drama include Ray- liberals are usually so tolerant of divergent marital act. But this no longer speaks to the mond Hunthausen, archbishop of Seattle, views that they remain apathetic until their lives and concerns of the sexually mature and Father Anthony Kosnik. In September rights and freedoms are threatened. In recent teenager, the single adult, the divorced, the 1986, the Vatican relieved Hunthausen of all months, liberal actors seem to be awakening widowed, the pregnant fifteen-year-old or pastoral authority in the areas of marriage and starting to think of working together. the wife with five children and an unem- and annulments, liturgy and worship, health Finally, humanists and mainstream Christian ployed husband, the sterile paraplegic, the care instructions, and any dealings with church leaders are beginning to ask whether mentally retarded, gay and lesbian couples, priests who are leaving or have left the celi- we can develop a positive statement of sexual cohabiting couples, or couples in intimate bate ministry. A few years ago, Father values that, when publicly and effectively networks like open and group marriages. Kosnik was forced by the Polish archbishop proclaimed, will counter the proclamations It is difficult to articulate a positive of Detroit to resign from his position as of the Moral Majority, the dogmatic pro- sexual morality based on "shoulds" without dean of the graduate school at St. Cyril and hibitions of fundamentalists, and Vatican becoming dogmatic. But with such guidelines Methodius Seminary because he was the lead anti-sexual morality that is obsessed with we would encourage and promote our author of a study of new directions in Amer- procreation, sexual acts, and taboos. At long growth as persons called to transcend our ican Catholic thought on sexual issues. This last, the mainsteam majority has been chal- finite limitations by joining with others in study, sponsored by the Catholic Theological lenged to ask whether a positive, person- loving relations. For religious persons this Society of America, endorsed positions on and relationship-oriented statement of sexual transcendence of the self will mean com- sexual morality similar to those held by morality can be devised that is acceptable munion with a God. For secular humanists, Curran and Hunthausen. Like them, Kosnik to both humanists and liberal religious transcendence does not go that far. Despite was silenced. persons. this difference, I believe a sex-positive Two other liberal actors in our drama morality, commonly shared by the vast are humanist Lester Kirkendall and sex edu- t is quite easy to spell out and proclaim majority of Americans, is both possible and cator deryck calderwood. Kirkendall I a prohibition-based morality that then desperately needed. authored A New Bill of Sexual Rights and defines the saved as those who observe the Lest you think this kind of statement Responsibilities (Prometheus Books, 1976). taboos and the "damned" as heretics who cannot be articulated, and even if spelled Calderwood was the pioneering creator of do not give both internal and external con- out would not be widely accepted, let me "About Your Sexuality" a program for sent to these prohibitions. It is much easier point out three promising primitive attempts church youth sponsored by the Unitarian/ to rally people with anathemas of masturba- I have observed. Universalist Association. Many things made tors, abortionists, fornicators, adulterers, In 1973, Rustum and Della Roy, authors "About Your Sexuality" revolutionary in the sodomites, prostitutes, pornographers, of Honest Sex: A Revolutionary Sex Ethic early 1970s, but attention focused on its promiscuous libertines, and secular human- by and for Concerned Christians, gathered candid, honest approach, its open-ended ists, and to exclude these "enemies" from two dozen people for a weekend at Kirkridge discussions about sexual morality, and its the company of the saved than it is to win in the Pocono Mountains of Pennsylvania. explicit color filmstrips showing individuals support for statements of tolerance and the The group included a gay couple, a lesbian,

16 FREE INQUIRY a monogamous Catholic couple from Buf- talists for whom creation ended in a Garden enriching, honest, faithful, responsible, life- falo, a group marriage, two or three open of Eden somewhere in the past. But what serving (but not necessarily procreative), joy- marriages, a celibate, several singles of dif- proportion of Americans are wedded to this ful, and transcendent (leading individuals ferent persuasions, a cohabiting couple, a fixed, unchanging world-view and are con- beyond themselves to communion with three-party marriage, and Robert Rimmer, vinced God has given them all the answers? others, the world, and God). author of The Harrad Experiment and other How many are more comfortable with a These brief lists do not do justice to the alternative-lifestyle novels. world that is in the process of seeking the depth and richness of these values and con- By Sunday we had created a list of shared truth and sharing in creation (disregarding cerns, but they do show a clear convergence values. Intimate interpersonal relations, we whether or not one believes there is a divinity from very distinct traditions and different believed, should express a loving concern behind and within this process)? intellectual positions. Other liberal religious for the other person; an acceptance of free- My third observation involves a con- statements could be incorporated in this syn- dom and identity, without coercion, posses- cordance of several contemporary statements thesis: the 1967 values of a group of British sion, or competition; an acceptance of the of sexual values. (Because of space limita- Quakers and Jewish inquiries by Rabbis unexpected, chance occurrences of life and tions, I will not give the details; the reader Marc Tannenbaum and Eugene Borowitz, human relations, as well as the frailty of can check these in the original statements.) for instance. This convergence proves that a ourselves and others; honesty; treating each In 1970, the Roys were part of a United positive statement of sexual values can, in other's continuing growth as an adventure; Presbyterian church work-study group that fact, be created. It has not, however, been and a sense of humor. For marriages and created the much ignored but prophetic created. Nothing has been done with the long-term relations, we valued: a clear, re- statement "Sexuality and the Human Com- liberal statements of the 1970s. They are still negotiable, committed covenant or contract; munity." That statement recognized that isolated and ignored. To be effective, they continuing "care full" candor and honest sexual actions "are not susceptible of being have to be welded together into a positive, communications; fidelity, reliability, and catalogued, for sexual gestures which may open, and inclusive statement for the major- secure loving concern for the other person(s) in one instance cause deep guilt and shame, ity of Americans. in all situations; accepting growth in oneself whether warranted or not, may in another The still isolated humanist and liberal and in others; a secure self-identity that case be vehicles of celebrating a joyous and religious statements have been criticized as reduces the chances of "using" another per- creative communion between two persons." permissive and value-free. Our defense son to achieve or affirm one's identity as a It stresses enhancement of spiritual freedom, against these labels has been a wishy-washy, person, or as a male or female; reinforcement a compassionate and consistent concern for namby-pamby acquiescence. Instead of and support of the other person; and a sense the well-being of the other, the upbuilding standing up and clearly stating our positive of adventure with a sense of humor. of the creative potential of persons who are sexual values, we have wasted time and Soon after the 1977 publication of the stewards of this world, joy, a hopeful out- energy denouncing the enemy. Our strategy (Kosnik) study of new directions in Amer- look on the future, ministering in a healing and goals must change. ican Catholic thought on sexual morality, I way to the fears, hurts, and anxieties of One closing thought, gleaned in Septem- was asked to organize a workshop on sexual others, and building up communion between ber 1986 from a return to Kirkridge and a values for a meeting of the Society for the people. meeting with Robert Rimmer, the Roys, and Scientific Study of Sex. We expected an Kirkendall's New Bill of Sexual Rights members of two alternative-lifestyle groups, audience of fifteen to twenty persons, but and Responsibilities urges us to expand the the Delaware Valley Synergy and the (New well over a hundred professionals joined in boundaries of human sexuality beyond pro- England) Family Tree. one of the most creative three hours I have creation to include intimacy, pleasure, and In the 1960s and 1970s, we spoke about ever enjoyed. Kirkendall spoke for the personal enrichment; to develop a sense of a sexual revolution, new positive values and humanist views, along with Dr. James equity for men and women; to replace re- freedom in lifestyles and relationships that Prescott, a well-known humanist psycholo- pressive taboos with a more balanced and would take us beyond the restrictions and gist. Kosnik and I shared a Catholic per- objective view of sexuality based on sensitive limited views that had functioned well in spective. John Cameron, a family historian, awareness of human behavior and needs; past societies but that were now no longer and the Reverend Anne Ross Stewart, a and to acknowledge each person's obligation functional and growth-promoting. That view Methodist minister, offered Protestant in- and right to be fully informed about the has become myopic. Yes, we need an inte- sights. The audience eagerly added their various civic and community aspects of our grated, liberal, positive statement of our thoughts on sex-positive values. We didn't sexuality. It speaks of the right and responsi- sexual values. But that is not enough. These end with a consensus on a sexual morality, bility of potential parents to plan their fami- values are secondary to more global con- but it was obvious that a few more hours lies; of the need for sexual morality to come cerns. Our positive sexual morality must be and some conscious effort could have re- from a sense of caring and respect for others, integrated with statements of humane and sulted in a very provocative and challenging rather than be legislated (laws regulating humanistic concerns about peace, world statement of positive sexual morality with sexual behavior are needed only to protect economics, global poverty and starvation, which everyone in the audience could live. minors and people of any age from abuse); and nuclear disarmament. Otherwise, it will Can secular humanists accept these basic of physical pleasure as having moral value; be ignored, and rightly so. interpersonal values? Can liberal-thinking of individuals' being able to respond posi- To succeed, to survive, to avoid a fas- Jews, Christians, and other believers accept tively and affirmatively to their sexuality cistic fundamentalism, liberal players repre- them? I think so. throughout their lives; and of a commitment senting all philosophical viewpoints must This list does not focus on specific sexual to humane and humanistic values in all join together in this vital effort. We must acts, but rather on persons who are mutually sexual encounters. move from a defensive posture to an of- involved in the process of their ongoing The 1977 Catholic report begins by listing fensive position with an ecumenical state- creation. This focus, unfortunately, makes eight basic values. Intimate and sexual rela- ment of shared sex-positive values. And we it unacceptable to the hardline fundamen- tionships should be: self-liberating, other- must do it soon. •

Winter 1986/87 17 The Growth of Fundamentalism Worldwide: A Humanist Response Paul Kurtz

This article is based on a paper Dr. Kurtz delivered at the Eleventh Congress of the International Humanist and Ethical Union in Oslo. Norway, August 5 to 8, 1986, held in conjunction with a meeting of the Academy of Humanism.

I

n the late ninteenth century, it was widely believed by the America» This rapid growth is due to two factors: (1) the leading intellectuals that superstitious religions would de- increase in population, and (2) the intensive evangelical efforts I cline and that, with increased education, improved stand- at conversion. Unfortunately, many countries do not have a ards of health, and economic well-being, the classical religious scientific, philosophical, skeptical, or free thought tradition and orthodoxies would be replaced by a humanist civilization based are easy prey of dogmatic religious systems. upon reason and science. But, although the technological According to C. Peter Wagner, professor at the Fuller revolution has made great progress, shrinking the globe, facili- Theological Seminary School of World Missions in Pasadena, tating travel and communication between peoples, and raising California, "the most massive church growth is in China."' the standards of living and education worldwide, tribal and This is surprising to many Western observers. Although it is religious loyalties have persisted. Although some denomina- difficult to estimate the number of new Christian converts in tions, influenced no doubt by humanism, have been liberalized, China, claims range anywhere from 5 million to 100 million. have attempted to accommodate themselves to modern science Christian Communities, Ltd., of Hong Kong, maintains that and democracy, and have even promoted the expansion of the from 35 to 50 million is a "credible" estimate. If this is the case, frontiers of freedom and progress, others have doggedly resisted it would be remarkable, given the previous hostility of the the humanist agenda. In particular, there has been a growth of Chinese Marxist regime to religion. neo-fundamentalism worldwide. In other parts of Asia, the growth of Christianity has been The emergence of neo-fundamentalism in America is a especially rapid. In South Korea, 24 percent of the population puzzling phenomenon. From 30 to 40 percent of Americans is now Christian. In the Philippines, formerly largely Roman consider themselves to be born-again Christians, and if one Catholic, the Protestant churches have been growing by 10 adds the adherents of traditional Roman Catholicism and Con- percent a year since 1975, and church leaders have announced servative and Orthodox Jews, this coalition begins to comprise that they plan to build 46,000 new churches by the year 2000. a majority of citizens. Great efforts have been made for over a century to Christianize Moreover, as neo-fundamentalism makes steady inroads in Japan, with little effect, though some missionaries claim that American life, there is a massive missionary effort under way some progress is now being made. The number of Christian worldwide, much of it financed by ultraconservative American writers in Japan is proportionately very large compared with religions and televangelists. The humanist movement has con- the small church attendance, and this has had an acknowledged centrated on developing its own rather fragile national humanist impact on ethics and values. Christians today hold leading organizations, largely, although not exclusively, in the Western positions in many Japanese academic institutions, including world. Critical of colonialism, humanists have not made any the presidency of a respected Tokyo University. Many Japanese, concerted effort to export their philosophy to the third world imitative of the West, now even celebrate Christmas. and have paid little attention to the extensive evangelizing In Africa, south of the Sahara, there has been a rapid efforts of fundamentalist Christian churches now going on in growth of Christianity in recent years. I visited West Africa in the developing countries. 1984. Although the president of the former French colony had In a recent article in Christianity Today, Patrick J. John- recently converted to Islam, television and newspaper reports stone, international research secretary of the Worldwide Evan- often told of Christian missionary efforts, and evangelical sup- gelization Crusade, claims that "the last ten years have been porters were welcomed to the presidential palace with consider- the most dramatic harvest the world has ever seen" and that, able fanfare. Donald McGavran, founder of the Fuller School although the membership of all churches is growing, the evan- of World Missions, maintains that sub-Saharan Africa is be- gelical, fundamentalist, and pentecostal churches have made coming a "Christian land mass, just as Europe did between the the widest gains, especially outside of Western Europe and years of 200 and 1000.'3. 4

18 FREE INQUIRY In South America, the Protestant churches have also been enemy). A kind of self-righteous moral fanaticism can result; attracting millions of converts from Christo-pagan religions for, since the true believer is doing God's work, he believes that and Roman Catholicism. In Brazil, the Protestant population he is justified in opposing his enemies in any way he can. has grown from 6 percent twenty-five years ago to nearly 20 The contrary, humanistic attitude repels fundamentalists. If percent today. Similarly, the Mormon Church, Jehovah Wit- humanists stress free inquiry and the need for an open mind, nesses, and other sects have made great inroads in South fundamentalists feel it should be kept shut. For humanists, America, especially in Brazil. Some 80 percent of Brazilians are knowledge is tentative, fallible, hypothetical; for fundamen- nominal Catholics and heavily influenced by spiritism. Whereas talists, infallible and certain. Humanists are self-critical and forty years ago only 8 percent of the Brazilians were practicing skeptical, even about their own premises. Fundamentalists never primitive spiritism, today it is estimated that 60 percent do. waver in their firm conviction that Righteousness and Truth When I was interviewed on a leading television program in are on their side. For humanists, tolerance is essential; funda- Brazil, the producer, who was something of a skeptic, told me mentalists are intolerant of any criticism of the Sacred Faith. he was trying in some modest way to counteract the tremendous Humanists can live with ambiguity and uncertainty; fundamen- growth of belief in spiritism and the paranormal. talists cannot. Humanists respect individual liberty, uniqueness, In Argentina, the Protestant churches have grown by nearly freedom, diversity; fundamentalists cannot tolerate other people 7 percent a year since 1980. One might argue that it is well and doing what they consider to be sinful or wicked and they have good that such Roman Catholic bastions are having competi- no use for differences, particularly in the area of moral belief tion, that perhaps this is the beginning of a new Protestant and conduct. Humanists welcome change and find novelty in- reformation. Unfortunately, the evangelicals who are gaining teresting; they are willing to experiment and are open to new ground are not necessarily liberalizing forces; more often they departures in thought and action. Fundamentalists are horrified are reactionary movements, ever more literalist and fundamen- by change and adamantly cling to old verities. Humanists want talist in their interpretations of the Bible and morality. As their children to develop on their own terms into complete Jorge J. E. Gracia pointed out in the Summer issue of this persons and provide them with enriched education; fundamen- magazine, Latin America has had no substantial tradition of talists insist their children be molded to fit their own precon- religious skepticism, and whatever there was is now in eclipse. ceived ideas and values, and any weakening of the faith in their Interestingly, John Paul II has taken the church backward children is viewed with fear. Humanists view truth (with a in doctrinal dogma. In Israel, Orthodox Jews rail against small t) as a product of an ongoing inquiry, tested by evidence secularists and protest the secular aspects of modern Israeli and judged in the light of reason and experience. For funda- life. We have seen a similarly unsettling revival of Muslim mentalists, Truth is Absolute. Once pronounced, it is beyond fundamentalism and a counterrevolution against modernist revision. For humanists, morality is relative to human institu- tendencies in Iran, Pakistan, Lebanon, Egypt, and elsewhere, tions and needs. They are willing to test moral principles and and Islam has been winning large numbers of converts in Asia values by their observed consequences. They believe in moral and Africa. Moreover, there has been a growth in bizarre new decency and moral virtues, but they judge ethical principles by cults and a surprising recrudescence—in this scientific age—of how well they work in practice and by their contributions to paranormal belief systems, including belief in psychic phe- human well-being. Fundamentalists derive their moral principles nomena and astrology. from revealed truth, as handed down in ancient times, and they are inflexible in their insistence that they are God's absolute II commandments. I have perhaps exaggerated the contrast between these two hat does the term fundamentalism mean? As I use it, it polarities; no doubt there are gradations within each of them. Wrefers to any movement or attitude that stresses strict It should also be pointed out that it is possible for secularists and literal adherence to a set of fundamental principles or to express narrow fundamentalist attitudes about their own values. A fundamentalist is one who Eric Hoffer has called "a cherished ideological principles. This is particularly true in the true believer," i.e., one who professes belief in a creed, doctrine, case of those who in the name of building a utopia are willing dogma, code, or ideology that he accepts unreservedly and to suppress dissent. In any case, the persistence of fundamen- without question. His commitment is firm, inflexible, and un- talism is sufficiently prevalent in the world today that it wavering. These principles are taken as absolute, unchanging, threatens the further progress of humanism and the develop- eternal. The system of fundamentalist belief, at least in theory ment of democracy, freedom, science, and reason. if not in practice, is used as a guide for all aspects of life and encourages the development of a pathological authoritarian III personality. Fundamentalists often seek to use the power of the state to hy do fundamentalist forces persist and indeed continue compel conformity in belief and to suppress dissent. They are Wto gain ground, given the enormous technological and sometimes willing to use any methods at their disposal to social changes going on? This a large-order question that I achieve their aims, even violence or terror—all justifiable in the cannot hope to do full justice to in this article. I will mention name of God. There is a battle, they believe, between the only three possible explanations, although there are no doubt children of light (their side) and the forces of darkness (the others.

Winter 1986/87 19 man, head of the Dutch Humanist League and professor The IHEU at the University of Utrecht; and Svetozar Stojanovic, The International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU) editor of the international journal Praxis (published by has more than three million members and is a coalition Oxford University Press) and professor of philosophy at of more than sixty secular humanist, rationalist, free- the University of Belgrade. thought, and atheist organizations in twenty-two coun- The IHEU is headquartered in Utrecht, the Nether- tries. The early sponsors of the IHEU, which was founded lands. It convenes international congresses every four in 1952, were also instrumental in the founding of the years. For information on becoming a member or sub- United Nations. They included Sir Julian Huxley (the scribing to its journal, write to: IHEU, Oudkerhof 11, first head of UNESCO), Lord Boyd Orr (first head of the 3512 GH, Utrecht, the Netherlands. World Food Organization), and Brock Chisholm of Canada (the first head of the World Health Organization). The IHEU publishes the journal International Humanism and provides a platform for the exchange of ideas of particular interest to humanists. The IHEU sponsored the Catholic-Humanist Dialogue (with the cooperation of the Vatican) and the Marxist-Humanist Dialogue, which was held in Eastern Europe and which was attended by dissenters. Elections at the Eleventh Congress of the IHEU, held in Oslo, Norway, from August 3 to 7, 1986, resulted in three new cochairmen. They are (left to right) Paul Kurtz, editor of FREE INQUIRY and professor of philosophy at the State University of New York at Buffalo; Rob Tiel-

The first is sociological. It maintains that religious institu- lined in the Old Testament and the Torah, for more than three tions reflect underlying political, economic, cultural, social, and thousand years, adapting themselves to widely differing social ethnic influences. The major religions that have survived are contexts? And why did the Koran have an unparalleled impact among the most venerable and surely the oldest institutions of in the centuries following the death of Muhammad, inundating human civilization: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, lands from Western Africa on the Atlantic, all the way to the Hinduism, and Confucianism go back thousands of years and Indus River and Indonesia in the east? Why does it persist permeate the entire fabric of the demographic areas in which today in societies that are undergoing rapid transformations? they are dominant. These religions play a stabilizing role be- Whenever atheists, skeptics, or humanists have confidently pro- cause of ethnic inbreeding. They define the linguistic and cul- claimed the death of God in one generation it surprisingly tural heritage of a group of people living and working together. reappears in the next, spurred on by new waves of revivalist There have been unsettling periods of conversion and change, fervor. however, as when Christianity swept through the pagan Roman There are no doubt sociological explanations that can be Empire of the fourth century and overturned the competing given for this phenomenon. In times of uncertainty and stress Mithraic religion and when Islam conquered vast territories, people seem to turn to God. The sudden upsurge of religious displacing ancient Christian, Jewish, Berber, and other com- hegemony can also be given a politico-military explanation. munities. Missionary efforts are ongoing, especially in pluralistic The word of God becomes entrenched when it is reinforced by societies. Diverse sects and cults constantly seek to gain ad- the sword. When religious theocracies have seized control of herents at the fringes of the great religious institutions. At state power, they have dictated the educational system and certain pivotal points in history, there are paradigmatic religious legislated and enforced economic, legal, and moral doctrine. shifts of massive proportions, but these have been relatively Simplified political explanations by themselves do not seem to infrequent, and the staying power of the classical religions is suffice, however, for the classical religious institutions have surprising, in spite of wars, revolutions, and even in the face of survived wars and revolutions and have persisted under widely radical social change. different political conditions: oligarchical, monarchical, dicta- How could the incredible mythological tale about a dead torial, and democratic. and risen son of God, as outlined in the New Testament, have Is there an economic determinant that can explain the been accepted in the simple nomadic and agricultural culture growth and persistence of religious institutions? Christianity of the Middle East of the first centuries C.E., the highly sophisti- and Judaism have prevailed in radically differing economic cated Hellenized Roman cutlure, feudal Europe, industrialized systems: nomadic, agricultural, imperial, feudal, capitalist, and capitalist societies, post-industrial technological societies, and socialist. The Dutch settlers of South Africa, the Australian the diverse Asian and African cultures of today? Similarly, outbackers, and the cowboys of the American west left their why have so many Jews, the members of a beleaguered and established societies to create new ones, yet they brought with persecuted minority, clung to their tribal Judaic traditions, out- them their traditional religious belief-systems, adapted no doubt

20 FREE INQUIRY to frontier conditions. Was Marx then correct in his sociological Now I must say that my rejection of the genetic explanation interpretation of history, that religious institutions are a reflec- has been chastened somewhat by my involvement in the past tion of the underlying forces and relationships of production? decade in paranormal research. As chairman of the Committee An empirical study of what is happening in Eastern Europe, for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, an the Soviet Union, China, and other Marxist countries is of international group of scientists and skeptics, I have been dis- vital significance to this question: Will orthodox religiosity sur- mayed at the widespread prevalence of belief in the para- vive in socialist economies, or will it in time disappear? normal—that which allegedly cannot be explained scientifically Marxism no doubt has had a powerful liberating role in its by reference to normal or natural causes—for example, psychic critique of corrupt economic and religious systems, which were phenomena, UFOlogy, and astrology. It is also a source of often allied to maintain the status quo. Paradoxically, however, astonishment to discover that, when many people abandon the many theologians and priests today are in the forefront of faith of their fathers, they or their children may flock to newer national liberation movements in the third world. Moreover, cults of mystery and transcendence. Moreover, belief in the some Marxist countries have replaced the ancien régimes with paranormal (so popular in today's media and science fiction new forms of a nontheistic fundamentalist faith, especially when fantasies) bears striking analogies to similar psychological and the dialectic laws of history are interpreted as a kind of Ab- social processes discovered in the formation of the ancient reli- solute Truth, and when a state apparatus is developed that gions. Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, Joseph Smith, and other seeks to suppress dissent or attempts to define ideological prophets were not unlike paranormal conjurers and magicians purity. like Eusapia Palladino and Uri Geller. Thus we may wonder There is thus a second possible explanation for the per- whether the same transcendent fixation is simply reappearing sistence of religiosity, and that is the hypothesis that the roots in a new paranormal guise, and whether the fact that fraud and of religion are sociobiological. E. O. Wilson of Harvard Uni- deception work is due to a naive gullibility rooted in a genetic versity, a member of the Academy of Humanism, argues that tendency in the species. there are deep biological and genetic factors that contribute to Not necessarily, for in working closely with college students social behavior, and that these function in similar ways in and adults in courses I have taught on the paranormal and other species, which seem to display a kind of instinctive parapsychology, I have found that extensive and in-depth moral-altruistic behavior that enables them to live and function examination of the evidence or lack of it can lead people to together.' If this is so, then systems of religion, however false abandon their former beliefs in the paranormal and develop a their beliefs may be, may have some survival value in the skeptical attitude. The same thing is true of people who by evolutionary process, for they would enable an inbreeding social critical examination are able to reject their former, deeply group to cope with adversity; they offer solace and a way to overcome existential despair and the tragic character of human Free b existence. These religious systems thus have both psychological and sociological functions. Group survival depends upon the a quarterly development of moral rules and regulations governing behavior; devoted to the ideals of religions provide the transcendental support in terms of sanc- tions and rewards for morality. Religions also celebrate the secularism and freedom rites of passage that are common to all human cultures: birth, puberty, marriage, death. They provide a basis for stability and We invite you to subscribe continuity of the social group. The hypothesis is that those ❑ 1 year $18.00 individuals who conform to the religious structures of the group ❑ 2 years $32.00 and receive its balm are better able to survive and transmit this ❑ 3 years $42.00 genetic disposition to their offspring. Can human beings be described as Homo religious? Is there Subscription includes the Secular Humanist Bulletin a "transcendental gene"? The pervasive character of religious ❑ New ❑ Check or money institutions would seem for some to point in this direction. ❑ Renew order enclosed Nevertheless, I have some reservations about this explanation ❑ Visa ❑ MasterCard for the following reasons: Transcendental and theistic belief- Acct. # Exp. Date systems are absent in significant portions of humankind. This does not deny that an ethical imperative built into the human Name species may be biogenetic, but I doubt that there is also a built- (print clearly) in transcendental imperative. First, not all cultures have dis- Street played it in the same context as it appears in monotheistic religions. Second, if religion has a genetic source, then how City State Zip explain the existence of anomic unbelievers? If belief in the 0utside U.S. add $4.00 for surface mail, $8.00 for airmail. transcendental were a univeral constant in human nature, why (U.S. funds on U.S. bank). are there dissident minorities in many societies who reject the FREE INQUIRY Box 5 • Buffalo, New York 14215-0005 appeal to the transcendental? Is this not evidence against there Tele: 716-8342921 being a fixed genetic determinant?

Winter 1986/87 21 rooted religious beliefs; some even become atheists, agnostics, ment, but learning to use it has been a slow process. The point skeptics, or humanists. The process of deconversion, however, is that scientific knowledge has expanded enormously our is often extremely torturous and difficult to achieve. For if ability to understand and control nature and our concomitant there is not a genetic cause, there is at least a deep-seated sense of power. Thus, in spite of any biogenetic instinctive tendency in the human breast for magical, occult, or super- endowment, the gullibility to which we are prone, and the natural thinking. tendency to allow our passions and wishes to dictate our belief, Thus I offer as a third explanation what I call the "trans- we are still capable as a species of cognitive behavior. Critical cendental temptation," that is, a tendency to believe in an un- intelligence can therefore have a profound and liberating effect. seen, hidden, supernormal world that transcends the natural It can free us from blind ignorance or vain illusions about world of science and controls our destinies.6 The transcendental reality, and it can disabuse us of any lingering hankerings that temptation is both biological and social in origin and function. we may have for simplified anthropocentric and anthropomor- The transcendental temptation cannot be easily identified with phic explanations of the universe. determinate genetic structures, even though there are strong The transcendental temptation has its source in still another biopsychological and sociocultural urges present that tend to dimension of human nature, our capacity for creative imagina- push human beings in the direction of acceptance of an occult tion. In a sense, human civilization is extra-natural; it is a or unseen universe and lead them to supplicate and worship product of art, techné, and praxis. It did not exist before men deities in the hope of achieving deliverance and salvation. The and women came onto the scene. Human culture is a product transcendental temptation is the source of the true believer's of our creative imagination spilling out into the world and exclamation: "Only God can save us!" changing the course of history. Civilization is the sum total of The best therapy for affliction by the transcendental tempta- the visions and dreams bequeathed to us from earlier genera- tion is scientific investigation and critical skeptical rationality. tions who overcame barriers, forged frontiers, made new dis- Since it is possible to overcome it, I do not think it is deter- coveries, built roadways into the interiors, and erected palaces ministically genetic. For human beings are able to transform and cathedrals. Much of human society and culture no doubt mystery into understanding by discovering the natural causes develops unconsciously, but the civilizations that remain are at work. There has been a long and arduous struggle in human the result of the plans and projects of human beings. We en- civilization to discover naturalistic, causal explanations for vision new worlds, which we discover or invent, and which we human suffering and tragedy—death, earthquakes, volcanoes, long to bring about. Religious institutions are also the result of and plagues—that were otherwise inexplicable disasters histor- the creative process. Overladen with mythology and fantasy, ically attributed to occult causes. they are nonetheless products of the passionate yearnings and Modern science is a relatively new phenomenon in human aspirations of human beings, the anticipations of what life could culture—only four centuries have passed since it began to be like in an ideal world in which our fondest desires come develop. Yet even primitive man had to use cognitive thought true, a world in which those we loved in life will live again and to some extent. Critical intelligence or common sense is a pre- be with us throughout eternity. This dream appeals to the requisite for coping with problems encountered in the environ- imagination of every age: A transcendental universe is far more

The Transcendental Temptation A Critique of Religion and the Paranormal Paul Kurtz Why do people accept mythic, supernatu- The Transcendental Temptation provides ral, and paranormal claims in spite of the alternative philosophy of skepticism as strong evidence to the contrary? Why are an antidote to belief in the supernormal. people so easily deceived? Is there within "No philosopher today is defending secular the human species a deeply rooted ten- humanism with greater energy, passion, dency toward "magical thinking," a "tran- The Transcendental Temptation eloquence, knowledge, and common sense scendental temptation"? Add $2.00 for postage and handling. NYS than Paul Kurtz. Nobody is doing a more residents add applicable sales tax. Paul Kurtz has discovered a close af- admirable job of discrediting the inept pur- finity between supernatural religion and the veyors of the paranormal, and the know- Name paranormal. He examines in detail the lives nothing fundamentalists who are the na- of Jesus, Moses, Muhammad, and the re- Address tion's most popular television preachers. ligions founded in their names. He finds The Transcendental Temptation is carefully City/State Zp Fi striking parallels between traditional reli- researched. It is explosive, persuasive, and Prometheus Books gions, the spiritualism of the nineteenth richly informative." 700 E. Amherst St., Buffalo, NY 14215 century and the paranormal belief-systems For VISA or MasterCard orders, —Martin Gardner call toll free: 800-421-0351. of today. In NYS: 716-837-2475. 500 pages Cloth $19.95

22 FREE INQUIRY attractive and comforting than an impersonal or purposeless chapters, societies, churches, or temples. one. It is thus the union of the transcendental temptation with Now I can appreciate their strategies, but I dissent from the creative imagination that produces religious poetry. them if it means that humanists must mute their strong critiques of the Bible, the Koran, the Book of Mormon, and IV other so-called sacred documents. For what is ignored by this passive policy is the fact that most religious movements are t is time that I bring together the strands of my arguments themselves expansionist and constantly seek to win the minds and deal with the question, What is to be done? I would of men and women by universalist appeals based upon un- like to suggest some recommendations for the humanist move- examined theological premises. In their missionary efforts they ment by way of conclusion. attack those who differ with them, and they make no apologies As a starting point, I believe that it is important that we for doing so. Their chief enemies, when they are not fighting embark on a major educational outreach worldwide, but espe- one another, are humanism, unbelief, atheism, and skepticism, cially in the third world—Latin America, Africa, and Asia. We and they are never reluctant to point out our failings. I think cannot remain content to politely espouse our principles in the we must do the same. Many humanists, rationalists, and secu- quiet cloisters of our own societies, but must meet head on the larists think that the victory has been won, and that no one massive challenges in the developing countries of the world. any longer takes seriously questions concerning the existence In one sense the historic expansion of Western countries-- of God or the revelatory claims of the Bible and the Koran. in its exploratory, imperialist, military, economic, and political How wrong they are. It should be apparent that every genera- phases—and their retreat after World War II were due to tion needs to keep alive the faculty of criticism, including the secularist and humanistic factors: The new science provided the debunking of theological pretensions. The victories of the past technological capability of traveling to all corners of the globe, can never be secured in the present or the future unless we are making this planet truly one world. Similarly, the demand for constantly aware of the issues at stake. In my judgment, the self-determination, democracy, and human rights has been world humanist movement needs to embark anew on aggressive carried from the salons of Paris and London to Canada, criticism of fundamentalist and conservative religious claims. Australia, India, Zimbabwe, and other far corners of the earth. We must keep alive the spirit of biblical criticism, whose Today the entire world appreciates the power of the scientific rich tradition has largely been lost to so many of our generation. revolution and the fruits of industry and technology. But the I should point out that in many countries the things that we scientific revolution has languished, and there is a need to care about most are often threatened because of unexamined develop it further. In particular, we need to challenge those theological prejudices. I have in mind liberty of thought; moral religious institutions that have impeded the full development of freedom; the right to privacy, abortion, and euthanasia; and the humanist outlook and morality. For it is not enough to use the desire to end discrimination and to achieve peace and social science and technology without appreciating the methods of justice. rational inquiry and without transforming our view of the Thus humanism is and should be identified with nontheism, universe and of our moral and social values. In particular, we atheism, and agnosticism—or, as I prefer to call it, "skepticism." need a reappraisal of values to accommodate the new world of It should not be dogmatic or fanatic in its opposition, but scientific and technological discovery. That is, I believe, the carefully responsible, yet willing to voice criticism of the many primary imperative of the twenty-first century: we need a new outrageous and unproven claims of theism. And these critiques global and cosmic humanism that expresses a revolutionary ought to be offered with courage and conviction and without approach to values. We must be willing to reconstruct the fear or timidity, even though we may risk condemnation by the values of humankind, overcoming the parochial racial, ethnic, religious establishments. I can think of nothing more important nationalistic, and religious prejudices of the past. We need a in the third world today than this defense of critical skepticism, new moral philosophy, appropriate to the emerging challenges including science and humanism, in regard to the illusions of of the future, with daring new visions. the orthodox systems of religious belief. Humanism must be But if these goals are to be fulfilled, I submit that there are on the cutting edge of a new tomorrow, and we need to enlist two further aspects of the humanist agenda that must be imple- the best scientific and scholarly minds in this cause. mented. First, there needs to be vigorous criticism of the false But if we are to achieve a humanistic world, we must religious mythologies and theologies of today. This means that develop anew our creative imagination. We need to create in- humanism needs again to be authentically radical in its ap- spiring new moral and aesthetic equivalents of the transcen- proach. We need to embark upon sustained criticism of all dental temptation. If we are to sublimate this powerful urge in forms of fundamentalist theological nonsense, especially insofar the human breast, we need to provide constructive alternatives. as it seeks to block the world of the future. There appears to be With the near collapse today of revolutionary utopian visions, an ingrained reluctance among some humanists to do so. It is humanists have been reluctant to dream of new frontiers for considered to be impolite, in bad taste, or excessively revolu- humankind to conquer. But how will we convince others of the tionary. Many humanists make common cause with liberal grandeur and power of the humanist agenda if we do not dare religionists, especially in defending the democratic values that to dream of possible futures that can captivate and fascinate we share, and do not wish to alienate them by attacking reli- humanity. Unfortunately, humanism is now considered to be a gious faith. Some even believe that humanism is, or should be, boring rehash of yesterday's clichés; it is often the rearguard religious and should ape religions by organizing nontheistic defending a retreating army rather than the avant garde of a

Winter 1986/87 23 new movement with new ideas. and travel. By using the rigorous methods of science and tech- I cannot here fully outline what such a dynamic and positive nology, we have for the first time been able to view Mars, humanism would entail; for the new humanism of tomorrow Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus, and the comet Halley up should be the cooperative effort of many hands. I will, how- close. Many of the leaders of the world humanist movement ever, suggest three possible directions that we may take. are deeply involved as scientists in charting the frontiers of 1. Beyond religion. We need to present the ideal of creating space and speculating about it (Carl Sagan, Isaac Asimov, a new civilization that will transcend the need for the religions Francis Crick, Fred Hoyle, et al.). We need to soar with them of the past. We need to show that it is possible to outgrow the and imagine a new future in which we may be able to colonize religious fixations of the infancy of the race. What will the outer space: first our own solar system and then beyond it. world of tomorrow be like? What kind of new institutions will Perhaps we may even encounter extra-terrestrial civilizations. we have to create to supplant ancient temples, churches, and What a great and daring challenge for Promethean humanism. mosques? Those of us who are secular humanists believe that Prometheus, you will recall, stole fire and the arts of science we have an obligation to create a nonreligious humanism, which and civilization from the gods and bequeathed them to man- nonetheless would give meaning to life and contribute signifi- kind. Is it not our task to explore the heavenly domain of the cantly to the enrichment of life for all men and women. mythological gods themselves? What an exciting challenge 2. Beyond ethnicity. We also need to take the lead again, awaits the humanism of the future as we depart from our as we did forty or fifty years ago, in defending the ideal of the earthly terrain and soar into the cosmos. world community, beyond parochial ethnic, religious, racial, or What should be patently clear is that the human family nationalistic loyalties and frontiers. Although the political and lives together on the planet Earth and that the ancient myths economic difficulties of building such a world are enormous, and divisive theologies invented by the speculative imagination men and women do not live by bread alone, and it is the moral of the past will no longer suffice in the future. We need to ideal that must inspire them: that of a global, though pluralistic, make sense out of the universe in which we live. But we can do civilization. so only by testing our hypotheses and theories by the rigorous 3. Cosmic humanism. Perhaps the most exciting aspect of methods of science. We can only do so if we recognize that the creating a new humanism is the need to transcend the limits of high priests of the past are inadequate to the task. It is not the a mentality confined to the planet Earth and to embark upon theologians or mystics who will point the way, but the astro- the building of a humanism appropriate to the Space Age. In physicists and astronomers. We need to embark together on this adventure, we will no doubt compete with traditional reli- the task of building a new and relevant global and cosmic gions, which have always talked about the "unseen world" of humanism that will be truly appropriate to the great exploratory the "heavenly bodies," but which reduce this in the last analysis adventures of the twenty-first century that await us. to anthropocentric dimensions of faith and mystery. I am not betraying humanism in saying that we need to look beyond the Notes earth. The human species has already begun space exploration I. Quoted in "Where in the World Is the Church Growing?" by Sharon E. Mumper, Christianity Today, July 11, 1986. 2. Sharon E. Mumper, op. cit. JESUS IN HISTORY AND MYTH 3. Ibid. edited by R. Joseph Hoffmann and Gerald A. Larue 4. An editorial in the August 8, 1986, issue of Christianity Today (p. 14) Was there a person by the name applauds this development. "The Christian mission to people in other cultures has undergone radical changes in the last century. C. T. Studd was one of of Jesus who lived in Palestine in the famous 'Cambridge Seven' who went to China in the 1880s with the the first century A.D.? Do the JESUS China Inland Mission. He reported: 'For five years we never went outside Gospels and the letters of the New our doors without a volley of curses from our neighbors.' H. J. Kane also Testament really attest to the ac- cites nineteenth century missionaries in an undocumented quotation of one tual existence of a Messiah? of the Chinese literati: 'We would sooner go to hell with our Confucius than By incorporating the works of ;reel 011. go to heaven with your Jesus.' He then adds: 'These quotations point up a biblical scholars, historians, archae- major contrast between the 19th and 20th centuries. In the 19th century, ologists, and experts in the field of thanks to our colonial system, the doors to the Third World were wide religious studies, this challenging vile (49, open—politically; but the hearts of the people were closed against the gospel.' book makes available the very best IN HISTORY "But today, political realities have all but reversed themselves. Newly in biblical criticism and religious AND MYTH independent Third World governments have broken away from political studies scholarship. imperialism and are seeking to complete their independence by cutting off 217 pages Cloth $21.95 what they deem cultural imperialism. It is becoming increasingly difficult to get into some countries, and other countries are closed to the Christian Jesus in History and Myth missionary. But if one can only get in, he or she often finds the hearts of the people wide open. Add $2.00 for postage and handling. NYS residents add applicable sales tax. "George Gallup, Jr., argues that there is abroad in the world an almost Name universal hunger for spiritual reality. Never have the masses in Africa and Address Asia been so open to claims of Christ. And this includes people in all walks City/State Zip of life. As missions historian George Peters sees it: 'This is indeed the day of Fl salvation as far as the Third World is concerned.' " 5. Edward 0. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge: PROMETHEUS BOOKS 700 East Amherst St., Buffalo, NY 14215 Harvard University Press, 1975). For VISA or MasterCard orders, call toll free: 800-421-0351. In NYS: 716-837-2475. 6. For an in-depth discussion of this thesis see my book, The Transcen- dental Temptation (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1986). •

24 FREE INQUIRY

Belief and Unbelief Worldwide Unbelief in the Netherlands

Rob Tielman Translated by N. Klein

esearch has shown that no less than 81 percent of the Humanism likes to be the philosophical driving force behind Netherlands population is of the opinion that the only those emancipation movements that aim at greater freedom, Rbeing who is answerable for his life is man himself. equality, and solidarity. It appears that the ideas about freedom and responsibility Humanism is not a political conviction but a life stance. current in humanist circles are widespread among the Dutch. Thus humanists do not form their own political party, but they Thus 55 percent do not agree with the statement that people make up about a third of the voters of the nondenominational who believe in God will always lead a richer spiritual life than parties. The Dutch Humanist League has never engaged in unbelievers. And 53 percent share our view that the only thing party politics; but, according to its articles of association, it that counts is life before death. Together with 38 percent of the wants to help create a humane society. With our humanist Dutch, we humanists do not hide behind higher powers that ideas as a touchstone we follow critically what the political are supposed to control our lives. We do not assume that life is parties and the government do or don't do, and we support the per se meaningless or meaningful but that we as human beings activities of peace, ecology, emancipation, human rights, and have to shape it and make it meaningful. We try to understand sexual reform movements, and of trade unions that seek to life and the world with human faculties only. We believe people attain a more humane world. We do not fight against the have the power of discrimination and of accounting for their religious institutions but against their disproportionate power choices. We try to create a link between mind and emotion, and their monopoly positions. We are not in favor of institu- between body and consciousness, between individuals and tions (e.g., schools) that are stamped by a specific religion or society. A society is made by people and therefore can be made life-stance, nor of institutions lacking any beliefs or convictions; more humane by people as well. we stand up for pluralism. In our opinion the separation of Our starting point is not a dogmatic rationalism nor a church and state does not provide the government with an blind faith in scientific and technical progress—as some of our excuse for indifference in the field of religions and life-stances. opponents claim. One of the greatest merits of the founder of the Dutch Humanist League, Jaap van Praag, was that he managed to bridge the huge gap between religious and ration- alist humanism. Neither the mind nor the experience of cosmic unity affords reliable guidance in our quest for a more

humane world. Our readiness to account in a scientific manner Amsterdam Haarlemo for our opinions and deeds is not a surrender to technocracy lithe Enschede Hilversumo but a moral attitude that tries to find a balance between good Utrechto Netherlands Rotterdam o Arnhem intentions and the consequences thereof. We do not join in the Dordrecht o West celebration or in the condemnation of the so-called me-decade. \ Germany ••- area.. orthrae As does 90 percent of the Dutch population we think that ~6ndhoven Dusseldorf people should decide for themselves with whom and how they Ostend

wish to live. The cornerstone of our society is neither the family Maastricht Cologne nor the individual condemned to celibacy; in our view every- o Louvvain Belgium lregre body should be able to choose in economic freedom what Liue0 responsibilities he or she wishes to take on in a relationship.

FREE INQUIRY 25 This separation constitutes a challenge to our welfare state to autonomy of people, an example of which is that the Dutch face up to its duty of creating favorable conditions in this field Humanist League does not register children as members as as well, without interference or neglect. many churches do. However, freedom can only be safeguarded for the future if its defenders organize as well as their op- ponents. Until now, many humanists have thought that freedom n the Netherlands the humanist way of thinking has spread of religion and life-stance would grow by itself; as we move considerably during the past years: from 7 percent of the from overoptimism to overpessimism we should remember that population in 1966 to 14 percent in 1978 to 23 percent in 1985. when we sit on the fence we are accomplices in a potential Compared with 29 percent Roman Catholics and 24 percent attack from the foes of freedom. It would be a historical error Protestants, of which one-third are Calvinist, humanists thus to leave the defense of the right of self-determination to others. constitute the second largest stream of thought in our country. Only through concerted action will we succeed in realizing our Although we do stand up on principle for the equal rights of aim of a more humane world. • the 44 percent who do not belong to any church, our first object is the almost 25 percent of adults who subscribe to our purposes. In this we do not claim anybody; on the contrary we Dutch Humanism defend people's right to self-determination. Constitutional law and judicial opinion support us in this matter. Not the number of members of the Dutch Humanist League G. C. Soeters, Editor, International Húmanist but the size of the humanist stream of thought and the proven need (e.g., for moral education and for counselors in the armed forces, prisons, hospitals, etc.) serve as the criteria for equal t the risk of being labeled as a Dutch chauvinist, it treatment. Alas, some people maintain that the size of the appears to me that the Dutch humanist movement money-bag should do so. Just imagine if the composition of Ahas had and still has a not negligible influence on the our parliament were not determined by universal suffrage but development of humanism as such. by the amount of money the political parties possess. Such a The Dutch have always been notorious for feeling inclined procedure would be quite alien to a truly pluralist democracy. to take other courses, especially when the prevailing courses In spite of all our criticism of the Dutch government con- were imposed on them by authorities, whether secular or cerning the unequal treatment of the humanist stream of clerical. They were among the first to embrace the Reformation, thought, we should not lose sight of the fact that we are in a and their atheist movement is one of the oldest in the world. better position than the humanists in practically all other coun- The country is littered with sects; nobody knows the exact tries. In the Islamic world some fundamentalist movements number. The Dutch are known for being more interested in wish to execute all unbelievers. In the United States that third analyzing their differences than in seeking conformity. The of the population that is fundamentalist Christian has started a recent election for parliament offered them a choice from veritable witch-hunt against the tiny percentage of Americans twenty-seven political parties. who embrace humanist ideas. The kind of constitutional treat- On the other hand, the Dutch have a reputation of being ment of religions and life-stances that we know here hardly tolerant. In the course of their history, the Netherlands have exists in any other country. We therefore have a certain feeling acquired the reputation of being a port of refuge for people of responsibility for helping humanists elsewhere to gain equal- who had to flee from their countries. To tell the truth, in many ity before the law. Unfortunately many Dutch humanists con- cases these refugees were particularly welcome because of the sider the current tolerance in the field of philosophies of life as contribution they were expected to make to the economy of an irreversible achievement. They are wrong; for, on the con- the low countries. trary, freedom cannot be taken for granted but should be con- The Dutch never had problems in bridging the gap between tinually defended. the merchant and the pastor. On the contrary, while bartering mirrors, beads, and tools for precious colonial spices they offered their barely clothed partners in business the salvation any humanists who became members of the Dutch of their creed and the concomitant underdrawers and firewater, MHumanist League and of Humanitas (which is mainly the latter also at present still a popular lubricant for social concerned with social work) when they were first founded are relations. disappointed with the rather slow growth of organized human- After forty years of organized humanism in the Netherlands, ism. In fact only some fifty thousand Dutch humanists are the Dutch Humanist League is exploring new courses. Their organized. This is certainly not representative of the much larger leaders have the demanding task of keeping members with number of people who hold humanist ideas. However, we discordant opinions together. At the same time, however, the should bear in mind that the organizations of many modern problems of today and tomorrow require determination; the social movements are small in relation to the number of people humanist movement cannot afford to meet the future by taking who support their aims, as is borne out by the membership of positions that are neither fish, flesh, nor fowl. political parties and of peace, ecology, human rights, and eman- The moment seems to be well chosen to wish the Dutch cipation movements. humanist movement success, especially since the outcome might Also we should not forget that humanism emphasizes the be of interest to the cause of humanism in the world. •

26 FREE INQUIRY Belief and Unbelief in Mexico

Mario Mendez-Acosta

t is not an easy task to discuss the prevalence or the group-related activities. extension of religious belief in a country without a careful On the other hand, in any discussion concerning social I definition of what we understand as such. No matter how problems in countries like Mexico, there is a tendency to lose rationalist or materialist an individual may be, it is difficult to the perspective of the real composition of the country's popula- assert that in any moment of his life, especially if he is under tion. The fact is that Mexico still remains an underdeveloped the influence of fear or sorrow, he will not relapse into some country, with a high proportion of its population unable to kind of prayer or even blasphemy. Deathbed conversions of take advantage of the fruits of progress and modern Western militant atheists are to be attributed more to an irrational fear culture. Because of this, many of the findings of social studies of the passage to the unknown than to internal and pondered that may be valid for urban residents with high or middle reflection. In daily life, belief in some kind of religious idea incomes cannot be applied in any way to the country as a may tinge in many different shades the behavior of any person. whole. That is why we must postulate a definition of religious belief It is in matters of religious belief that the duality of situa- that will allow us to perform some kind of investigation or tions between the underprivileged majority and the affluent make observations about religion's effect on society. What we minority becomes especially apparent. Religious unbelief or will seek is a description of a kind of individual behavior that skepticism, considered as rational choices based on the indi- is the direct outcome or consequence of compliance with a vidual's culture, knowledge, and self-analysis, is practically non- certain religious belief. If we define a significant level of reli- existent among Mexico's poor. When it does occur, it is gious belief in such a way that any individual who professes it basically caused by disenchantment in the face of the deity's will alter his behavior in a noticeable way with respect to other possible lack of response to prayers or supplications or because members of a community, then we will be in a position to of God's failure to lend aid or relief in some painful and make observations and formulate hypotheses concerning the desperate situations. Skepticism adopts the form of rancor effect of such belief on the society. against the forces that be. It is only when individuals reach a The demands a certain religious belief makes upon an indi- certain degree of integration, mainly through the educational vidual may vary from a few daily prayers and occasional at- system, that rational skepticism starts to appear. Among the tendance at religious services to the complete surrendering of strongest influences against traditional beliefs are the individuals his life, activities, and properties to benefit the sect or congre- trained as teachers, educators, social workers, and agrarian gation. Even within one religion, the requisites of its liturgy technicians who return to their underprivileged communities. and worship may vary considerably. Thus, within the Catholic Nevertheless, religious belief is very deeply ingrained among church, the believer may drift away so much from the usual the poor, who make up more than half the country's popula- worshiping practices that the only religious services he attends tion. For about 60 percent of the inhabitants of Mexico, religion are weddings, christenings, and funerals. On the other hand, he is a heavy and even a painful load, especially considering the may abandon himself absolutely to his religion, as do the ad- state of acute poverty in which they find themselves. This reli- herents of the Opus Dei, a rigid Catholic organization in which giosity may act through established religions, such as the the affiliates must give account of their income, must conduct Catholic and the Protestant churches, and especially through their social and family lives in agreement with their religious the residues of pre-Columbian religions in isolated rural areas. perceptor's instructions, and must take part in a series of secret Year after year, some two million peasants undertake leng- thy pilgrimages on foot, heading toward the main sanctuaries Mario Mendez-Acosta is head of the Mexican section of the of the country: the shrine of Guadalupe, San Juan de los Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Lagos, Chalma, el Cubilete, and many others. They leave their Paranormal and a television news commentator in Mexico work and families behind, sometimes for several weeks. During City. the long marches, they suffer uncountable abuses, unsanitary conditions, and even threats to their lives, for it is not uncom-

Winter 1986/87 27 mon for heavy buses or trailers to run them down while they religious, this doesn't constitute an absolute impediment to walk at night along the highways. When they reach the shrine, protest or social-reform movements. Such protest has always they camp in the churchyards and can become the object of been the spark that ignites revolution in Mexico. The uprising economic exploitation. A common procedure, at the shrine of of the peasants has been at the root of triumphant social Guadalupe, for example, is the sale of silver milagros, or offer- upheavals throughout Mexico's history. Nevertheless, the ings, in special authorized stores around the temples. These underprivileged population has sometimes actively opposed offerings—small silver images of hearts, arms, and legs—are social reform and has served as cannon fodder for ultra- then pinned on cushioned planks around the most popular conservative movements. holy images inside the temples. When the pilgrimage is over Generally speaking, the Mexican governments have well and the faithful are safely back home, the clergymen remove understood that the road to real development and freedom all the offerings and sell them back to the salesmen, so the must include a very profound effort to improve the lot of the cycle may go on and on, unendingly. Thus the population's large impoverished population, especially through a highly most miserable sector willingly cooperates in the further enrich- humanistic educational system. Unfortunately, this enthusiasm ment of an already wealthy and powerful church, handing over has been somewhat dampened in the past few decades. a very substantial proportion of their pitiably meager incomes. Of course it is within that smaller part of Mexico's popu- For these marginal groups, religiosity also represents, aside lation who have experienced economic and cultural develop- from economic exploitation, a source of pain and pointless ment where more religious skepticism can be found. It is sacrifice. Self-torment—"mortification," as they euphemistically obvious that a rational education is the principal cause of this call it—and painful pennances, like walking on the knees for skepticism. long distances, strapping spiny branches or cacti to the body, About 90 percent of Mexicans are baptized as Catholics, or carrying heavy bundles of skin-abrasive plants, are a com- even though Protestantism has made significant inroads in rural mon experience in these unhappy people's lives. areas, thanks to intensive proselytizing by American mission- In some Indian tribes, non-Christian religious practices also aries thinly disguised as cultural researchers, such as those of represent an undignified and inhuman load. In many instances, the Summer Linguistic Institute. The appearance of Protestant these ceremonies are partly assimilated into the Christian reli- communities sometimes provokes bloody feuds with neighbor- gion; however, they result in veritable bacchanals of vandalism, ing Catholic villages, and it is still dangerous to be a Protestant brutality, and stupefying frenzy. For instance, the huicholes, a in many parts of Mexico. It is rather amusing to hear Catholic tribe of the western Mexican coastal states of Nayarit and bishops' complain about the "infiltration of foreign, unpatriotic Jalisco, celebrate extensive Holy Week rites and festivities. As sects," as if the Rome-based religion hadn't been imposed by long as they last, all the men from several villages get together the sword of the Spanish conquerors back in the sixteenth and plunge themselves into an orgy of beatings and self- century. The problem is further complicated by the fact that denigration. Some see in this a redeemable folkloric tradition, the Protestant missionaries do not belong to the more or less something worth preserving and photographing. But, even in moderate traditional evangelical denominations, but to funda- the best of cases, it is nothing more than a traumatic escape mentalist sects generally funded by the American New Right. from an existence filled with boredom and poverty. The spec- The impressive number of baptized Catholics among tacle of half-naked adult men, covered with paint, like savages, Mexico's population may be a little misleading when con- and chasing an imaginary demon, may be understandable sidering the extent of skepticism in this country. Baptism is a among the aborigines of New Guinea, but not in a country very important tradition, and even declared unbelievers have with a seventy-year-old social revolution. As in many other their children baptized and act as god-parents for their friends' facets of life, it is the poor who pay most dearly for the burden children. In fact, skepticism, agnosticism, and even militant of superstition and ignorance. atheism are quite common among intellectuals and politicians; and, in this respect, Mexico stands out as the exception among ll attempts to reverse this state of affairs have resulted in most Catholic countries. Aterrible conflicts between the government and the mar- It is no exaggeration to state that Mexico's history is a ginates. Rural teachers, who for many years were given a recounting of the never-ending clashes between the state and socialist-oriented education, face a difficult job. Very often, the church. The Roman Catholic church militantly opposed teachers have been murdered and mutilated by religious the country's war of independence and excommunicated its fanatics. The usual procedure was, as recently as forty years leaders. Later on, the church fought against the federal repub- ago, to cut off their ears. Lynchings, instigated by village priests, lican system and vigorously protested the inclusion of the also occurred in the not-too-distant past. The most notorious principle of religious freedom in the country's Constitution. incident of recent times occurred in 1968 in the town of Canoa, When in 1857 the first liberal Constitution was drafted, in the state of Puebla, where several students were cut down by stating plainly the separation between church and state and a machete-wielding pious mob. creating civil marriages, allowing divorce, secularizing ceme- Naturally, Mexico's educational system is a favorite subject teries, and appropriating all ecclesiastical property, the con- of criticism and vicious attack among those who benefit from servatives rebelled against Benito Juarez's government, with religious exploitation. It is the main enemy of the organized the blessing and backing of the Catholic church. After a three- political right of this country. year civil war, in 1861 the conservatives were finally defeated; Even though almost all of the rural and urban poor are however, they then appealed for the assistance of the French

28 FREE INQUIRY emperor, Napoleon III, who agreed to send troops and called centrated their efforts on removing all anti-clerical rulings from for Maximilian of Austria to take over as emperor of Mexico. the Constitution. In addition to the article that guarantees secu- Defeated once again in 1867, the conservatives and the church lar public education there is a ruling that forbids the clergy's began to recover some of their influence during the long dicta- participation in politics and denies religious ministers the right torship of Porfirio Díaz (1876-1910). to vote. This Draconian measure was imposed because Catholic The church blasted the 1910 revolution that deposed Diaz, priests owe obedience to a foreign chief of state, the pope, who and when, in 1913, its leader, President Francisco I. Madero, historically has shown hostility to liberal Mexican governments. was murdered by rebellious army officers backed by the Ameri- Paradoxically, Protestant ministers and progressive Catholics can ambassador, Henry Lane Wilson, the church gave its bless- have shown their approval of this stern measure, while the ings to the usurpers' regime and condemned all those who Mexican Communist party has pressed for its derogation. resumed the revolutionary struggle. In a very prominent place on the fanatics' hate list we may However, the revolution prevailed. The 1917 Constitution find the excellent textbooks that the government publishes and was drafted and approved. It included further rulings to ensure distributes free of charge to elementary school pupils. Naturally, church-state separation and to guarantee that public education they are criticized as communist inspired, materialistic, and would be secular and with a definite humanistic and demo- atheistic. cratic orientation. The church was denied any juridical presence Wealthy groups in Mexico educate their children in private and was precluded from imparting education to workers and confessional universities. Some, like the Autonomous University peasants. of Guadalajara (UAG), have links with neo-Nazi groups all In 1925, when President Plutarco Elias Calles tried to strictly over the world and maintain armed gunmen—the Tecos—who enforce the new Constitution, the Roman Catholic church again are used for widespread intimidation. Manuel Buendía, a liberal went on the warpath. This wrought a long and bitter rural journalist and implacable critic of the church, was murdered in struggle. Peasant Catholic armies—the cristeros—fought peas- Mexico City two years ago. It is suspected that the Tecos were ant government armies with great cruelty and hatred. In 1929, involved in the crime. the church's hierarchy asked for a truce with a new regime. The state loosened somewhat the anti-Catholic restrictions set t is obvious that the Mexican citizenry is caught in a terrible up in the Constitution, while the Catholic church agreed not to I dilemma. Displeasure with the government, caused by its stir up any further trouble. disastrous management of the economic crisis, is channeled However, up to the present day, the Catholic church has through votes for the largest opposition party. However, this kept active in politics through its backing of the country's organization openly plans to do away with many of the hard- right-wing parties, the National Action Party (PAN) and the won essential liberties and to return all lost privileges to the Mexican Democratic Party (PDM). National Action is the poli- Roman Catholic church. This may pose a threat to the people's tical arm of an ecclesiastical laic movement called Catholic basic rights. Action. Its basic tenets are similar to those of Action Française In conclusion, we may point out that the level of religious of the thirties and other ultraconservative parties from all over belief in Mexico is the same as that in countries with similar the world. All attempts from its more moderate followers to development and historical trajectory. The big difference is reform and modernize this party—for instance, to bring it closer that, in Mexico, real power is not in the hands of groups to Christian democracy—have met with failure and led to the whose beliefs affect the country's civil or political behavior. eventual expulsion of those involved. Leaders of PAN have This is a great advantage and a victory that cost Mexicans a publicly called for a "return to the Middle Ages," and many lot of pain and blood; that is why it should be defended and still cling to the notion of "Christ the King'''as their real leader. publicized. PAN receives the open support of the Republican party of the In the United States there is an enormous lack of informa- United States. tion about ideological and political conditions in Mexico. This PAN is, at this moment, the country's second largest party makes it easy to stumble into condemnations and sensation- and has considerable influence in the northern states of Mexico. alism. Secular-humanist groups in America must try to under- Just last July, PAN received the backing of the Catholic church stand that the Mexican state has managed, after many difficult when, as a result of some disputed elections, it lost some efforts, to separate religious power from the government of the mayoralties in the state of Chihuahua. The bishops then country, based on unambiguously formulated legal rulings. This threatened to suspend religious services in all churches if the has not been done as clearly and specifically in the United elections weren't canceled. Only a direct order from Pope John States. Mexican law also declares the state's intention to educate Paul II made them desist in their sacred boycott. the people to be free from the scourge of superstition. Article While in politics and in intellectual circles skepticism is III of the Constitution states that "the criterion that shall rule more or less the rule, it is quite the contrary in the world of the education imparted by the State will keep itself completely private enterprise in Mexico. Businessmen are, almost without removed from any religious doctrine and, based in the findings exception, right-wing practicing Catholics. Many of them be- of scientific progress, will fight ignorance and its consequences, long to extremist societies, like the Opus Dei. Opus Dei is an serfdoms, fanaticisms and prejudices." authoritarian group that offers indoctrination courses for Mexi- This is not a small victory and, while it must be defended can yuppies. by the Mexicans, it must be applauded by secular humanists In recent years, the most outspoken true-believers have con- all over the world. •

Winter 1986/87 29 How the Old Testament Was Written

The Old Testament was not divinely inspired, writes Gerald Larue, but is the product of many authors who wrote it over a period of a thousand years and were concerned with the needs and the best interests of the Jewish people. In the following article, Professor Larue theorizes about how the canon of the Old Testament was composed and compares the different, conflicting versions we now have.

Gerald A. Larue

nce there was a time when the authorship of the Jewish burial, were not written by Moses: "Joshua wrote ... eight Scriptures was unchallenged by Christians and Jews. verses of the Law" (Baba Bathra 14b-15a). 0 The writings, which Christians were to label pejora- Subsequently, other questions concerning the Mosaic tively "The Old Testament" or "Old Covenant," in contrast to authorship were raised. For example, in Genesis 14:14, Abra- Christian Scripture, which comprised "The New Testament" or ham is said to have led a group to the city of Dan, but in "Covenant," were accepted as documents given by God through Judges 18:29 it is reported that the city of Dan did not come authors whose names were stated or implied within the texts. into existence until the time of the Judges—long after Moses For example, it was believed that Moses had authored the was dead. How could the Gileadite conquest of an area known Torah, or Pentateuch (the first five books of the Old Testament: as Havvothjair be reported by Moses (Num. 32:41; Deut. 3:14) Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy). It was when it took place during the time of the Judges (Judges assumed that King Solomon wrote Ecclesiastes and the Song 10:3-4)? How could Moses have used the phrase "beyond the of Songs, because his identity is inferred in Ecclesiastes (1:1, Jordan" to describe land on the eastern side of the Jordan 12) and mentioned in the Song of Songs (3:9, 11). Each pro- River, which would only be used by someone in Palestine, phetic writing was treated as an integral work by a single when Moses never entered "the promised land" (Gen. 50:10; writer. The psalms labeled "The Psalms of David" were ac- Num. 35:14; Deut. 1:1, 5; 3:3; 4:46)? cepted as the work of that king. And so on. Would a single writer (Moses) entertain contradictions in Modern scholarship has demonstrated that each of these his writing? The number of animals taken aboard the ark is assumptions is wrong. There is no way that Moses could have reported as two of each kind—clean and unclean—in Genesis written the Torah. King Solomon wrote neither Ecclesiastes 6:19, but as seven pairs of clean animals in Genesis 7:21. Ac- nor the Song of Songs. The prophetic books are composites. cording to Numbers 35:6-7, the Levites were to receive certain The authorship of the psalms is unknown, and they were com- territories as an inheritance, but in Deuteronomy 18:1 it is posed at different times over a period of hundreds of years by written that they were to receive no inheritance. Exodus 3:13-15 different writers. Even the fact that Jesus, the Christian messiah, and 6:2-3 states that the Hebrews did not know the personal appears to have accepted the Mosaic authorship of the Torah name of their god Yahweh until it was revealed to Moses on (Mark 1:44, 7:10, 10:3, etc.) bears no weight. Jesus was a man the holy mountain, yet Genesis 4:26 notes that from very early of his own era, and like others who, at that same time, made times people called upon the name of Yahweh. Indeed, the pre- similar statements, Jesus was wrong. Mosaic patriarchs were familiar with the name Yahweh (Gen. Questions concerning the authorship of biblical books are 22:14; 26:25; 27:20; 28:13). not recent or new. As long ago as 500 C.E., a Jewish savant, The list of inconsistencies could be extended. The accumula- whose words are recorded in the Talmud, suggested that the tion of such problems has made it clear that more than one last verses of Deuteronomy, which record Moses' death and author contributed to the so-called books of Moses. Today, although some scholars attempt to ascribe portions of the Torah to Moses, there is really no reason to believe that Moses was Gerald A. Larue is professor emeritus of archaeology and anything more than a hero figure whose name has become biblical studies at the University of Southern California at Los attached to collections of ancient Hebrew law codes. Indeed, Angeles and chairman of the Committee for the Scientific the Mosaic authorship has been replaced by a mosaic of Examination of Religion. authors. It should not be surprising to discover that continuing

30 FREE INQUIRY analysis of the Pentateuch has demonstrated a pattern of con- will. Today, through literary and historical analyses aided by tinuing interpretation within the Hebrew religion. Some writings archaeological discoveries, linguistic studies, and the study of can be dated rather precisely within certain time-frames, and comparative religions, scholars are able to trace the remnants additions can also be dated. For example, the writings of Isaiah of this earliest, tenth-century B.C.E. material in the Torah. These of Jerusalem can be dated as beginning in and around 742 writings, labeled "J" for "Yahwist" (German: Jahvist), are B.C.E., the year that King Uzziah died (Isa. 6:1 ff.). The addi- printed below. Although there may be some debate on certain tions attributed to the unknown prophet of Babylon (chaps. verses, the following analysis is generally agreed upon.' 40-55) can be dated by the reference to King Cyrus of Persia in Isaiah 45:1. Not every scholar will agree upon particular details Beginnings in such analyses, but it is clear that, rather than being a collec- tion of writings dictated by or inspired by some deity, the Bible Gen. 2:4b-3:24 Creation myth. Gen. 4:1-16. Why the blacksmith bears a trade-mark. is a very human book whose production and editing took place over many centuries and whose contents are very much like Gen. 4:17a. The birth of Enoch (the account of Cain as a city dweller in 4:17b contradicts 4:1-16 and those writings found in adjoining ancient cultures (Egypt and hence represents a different tradition). Mesopotamia) whose authors also tried to convince naive fol- Gen. 4:18-26. The beginnings of nomadism (note 4:26b, where lowers that the utterances and pronouncements had divine the beginning of Yahwism is indicated in spite origin. of Gen. 4:1-16). What follows here is an attempt to put in brief form some Gen. 5:29. Noah is blessed for the gift of wine (cf. Gen. aspects of the history of writings that Christians label "The Old 9:18-27). Testament" and Jews call "TaNaK" (T for Torah or Law, N Gen. 6:1-4. The sons of God and the daughters of men. for nebhiim or Prophets, and K for ketubhim or Writings). The Noah Cycle How We Think It All Began Gen. 6:5-8. God's decision to destroy men by flood. Gen. 7:1-5, 7-10, Noah and the flood. uring the tenth century B.C.E., King Solomon constructed I2, 16b, 22-23. Da shrine in Jerusalem to house the "ark of the covenant," 8:2b-3a, the sacred icon of Hebrew religion, which up to that time had 6-12,13b. been kept in a tent (1 Kings 8:20-21). Now the ark was placed Gen. 8:20-22. Noah's offering. in the dark, innermost recess of the temple, a room called "the Gen. 9:18-27. Noah's vineyard and drunkenness. The descendants of Noah. holy of holies" (Heb. debir). Gen. 10:8-19, 21, 24-30. Every religious cult requires a sacred story, a mythos, that recounts the acts of the god or goddess or gods or other sacred The Diffusion of Tongues beings. The story or myth constitutes the spoken part of the ritual or dramatic interpretation of the myth, as in the enact- Gen. 11:1-9. The tower of Babel. ments of Passover, the Mass, the Lord's Supper, Christmas, The Abram (Abraham)-Isaac Cycle Easter, etc. So, too, the Yahweh cult required a sacred story of Yahweh's relationship to his people, the Hebrews. So now, in Gen. 11:28-30. Remnants of the Abram (Abraham) genealogy. the tenth century B.C.E., a cult official, or perhaps several cult Gen. 12:1-4a. The summons to leave home. personages, compiled the literature necessary for temple use. Gen. 12:6-9. Abram in Canaan. The myth began with the creation of the garden of Eden, Gen. 12:10-20. Abram and Sarai in Egypt. Abram and Lot. the first man, the other creatures in the garden who were to be Gen. 13:1-5, 6a, 7-11a, 12b-18. man's companions, and finally with the creation of woman. Gen. 16:1-2, 4-8, Abram's son Ishmael Like other ancient myths in surrounding cultures, the Hebrew 11-14. myth told of the breakdown of relationships between the deity Gen. 18:1-16, The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. and his created humans. From myths developed in ancient 20-19:28. Mesopotamia, the Hebrew writer borrowed and adapted the Gen. 19:30-38. The ancestry of Moab and Ammon. story of the flood. From Hebrew tribal folktales came stories Gen. 21:1-2a, 7. The birth of Isaac. of Hebrew heroes—Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, who became Israel, Gen. 21:33. Abraham at Beer-sheba. and Moses the lawgiver. Some of the laws attributed to Yahweh *Gen. 22:15-18; Renewal of promise to Abraham (*15-18 ap- were borrowed from the Canaanites, who had, for centuries, 20-24. pears to be a redaction; 20-24 come from an inhabited Palestine and who had developed their own high unknown source). Isaac takes Rebekah as wife. culture. Now, stated as commands of Yahweh, these ancient Gen. 24:1-67. Gen. 25: l-6, 11 b. Abraham's other children (because this account laws achieved the status of divine revelations in the Hebrew comes as an intrusion in the J account it is cult. often treated as a late addition). These tenth-century B.C.E. materials became the core of what Gen. 26:1-3a, 6-33. Isaac and Rebekah in Gerar. (Note the repeti- was to become the biblical Torah and during the next five tion of the Abraham legends. Cf. Gen. 26:1-5 centuries were added to, suffered deletions, were edited and and Gen. 12:1-4; Gen. 26:6-11 and Gen. re-edited in a process of continuing interpretation of the divine 12:10-20.)

Winter 1986/87 31 The Jacob Cycle Exod. 8:1-4, 8-I5a. The swarm of frogs. Exod. 8:20-32. The swarm of flies. Gen. 25:21-26a. The birth of Esau and Jacob. Exod. 9:1-7. The death of the cattle. Gen. 25:27-34. Esau sells his birthright. Exod. 9:13, 17-18, The hailstorm (9:14-16, 19-21, 29b-32 are re- Gen. 27:1-45. By deception Jacob obtains Esau's blessing (two accounts are blended; the earliest is: 27:1-10, 23b-24, dactions possibly added by an editor). 17, 18a, 20, 24-27a, 29b-32, 35-39a, 40a, 41-45). 25b-29a, 33-34. Gen. 28:10-22. Jacob at Bethel. (The full account is probably The plague of locusts (10:2 is a redaction). an expansion of the J material.) Exod. 10:1, 3-I 1, 13b, 14b-19. Gen. 29: I-30. Jacob marries. Exod. 10:24-26. Pharaoh accedes to Moses' demands. Gen. 29:31-35. The birth of Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah. 28-29. Gen. 30:1-43. Jacob and Laban (conflation of sources). Prob- Exod. 11:4-8; Death of Egyptian firstborn. ably J = 30:9-16,22,24b, 25,27,29-43). 12:29-30. Gen. 31:1, 3, 21a, Jacob's flight. The convenant with Laban. *Exod. 12:21-27. Passover rite (*late redaction). 44, 46, 48, *Exod. 13:3-16. Firstfruit ritual (*late redaction). and parts of Exod. 13:21-22. Yahweh leads his people. 5I-53a. Exod. 14:5-7, Pharaoh's pursuit. Gen. 32:3-12, 22. Jacob prepares to meet Esau. 10-14. Gen. 33:1-17. Jacob meets Esau. Exod. 14:19b-20, Yahweh saves his people. Gen. 34:3, 5, 7, The defeat of Shechem. 24-25, 11-13,18, 27b, 30-31. 19, 25-26, Exod. 15:22-25, 27. Wilderness wanderings. 30-31. Exod. 16:4-5. Yahweh gives his people daily bread. Gen. 35:21-22a. Reuben and Bilhah. Exod. 17:1 b-2,7. The people thirst. Gen. 38:1-30. Tamar and Judah. Exod. 19:2. At Sinai. *Exod. 19:3b-9. Covenant terms (*a late redaction, probably The Joseph Cycle (overlaps Jacob cycle) Exilic). Gen. 30:22-24. The birth of Joseph (a conflation of sources). Exod. 19:18, Yahweh on Sinai. Gen. 37:3-36. Joseph and his brothers. (The original "J" ma- 20a, 21. terial has been expanded. Probably J = Verses *Exod. 24:1-2,9-11. The Covenant meal (*a late redaction extending 3-4, I2-18, 21, 23, 25-27, 28b, 31-35). the idea of Exod. 18:12). Gen. 39:1-23. Joseph and Potiphar's wife. Exod. 32:9-14. Moses intercedes for the people. Gen. 42. Joseph and his brothers. (An expanded J story. *Exod. 32:25-34. Punishment (*verses 30-34 are editorial). J = 42:2,5-7,26-28,38.) Exod. 33:12-23. The glory of Yahweh. Gen. 43. Joseph and the second visit of his brothers. *Exod. 34:1-28. The tablets of law, including the "ritual deca- Gen. 44-45:4. Joseph reveals his true identity. logue" (*possibly a source reworked). Gen. 45:9-14, 19, Jacob comes to Joseph. Num. 10:29-32.1' Moses with Hobab. (Here Hobab is Moses' 21-24,28; brother-in-law. Cf. Judg. 4:1 1.) 46:28-34. Num. 10:35-36. The Song of the Ark (an old poem used by J). Gen. 47:1-26. Jacob settles in Egypt. Num. 11:4-15, Quails for food. Gen. 47:29-31; Jacob's blessing. 18-23, 48:2b, 9b-10a, 31-35. 13-14, 17-19. Num. 12:16; 13:17b- Spying out Canaan. *Gen. 49:1-27. Poetic form of blessing (*from an early non- 20,22-24,26b, source). 28, 30-32. Gen. 50:1-11,14. The death and burial of Jacob. Num. 14:1, 3-4, The failure of the first attack. Exod. 1:6. The death of Joseph. 11-12,31-32, 39-45. The Moses Cycle *Num. 16:1a, 12-15, Revolt of Dathan and Abiram (*J reworked). 25-26, Exod. 1:8-12. The persecution of the Hebrews. 27b-34. Exod. 2:11-23a. Moses' flight to Midian. Num. 20:íb. Death of Miriam. Exod. 3:2-4a, 5, Moses is told to save the Hebrews. Num. 20:2a, 3. Lack of water. 7-8a, 16, 18; Num. 21:1-3. The struggle at Hormah. 4:1-16, Num. 21:14-18, Early poems probably preserved in J. 19-20a, 22-23. 27-30. Exod. 4:24-26. Yahweh tries to kill Moses. Num. 22:2-3a, 5-7, Balaam and his ass. Exod. 4:29-31. Moses convinces the Hebrews. 17-18, Exod. 5:3, 5-23; Moses and Pharaoh (references to Aaron are 22-35a. 6:1. redactional). Exod. 7:14-15a, Nile waters are turned to blood. tThe J material in Numbers is so interwoven with the material that was 16-17a, 18, added to expand the account that it is impossible to separate J with any certainty. The material attributed to J must be accepted as conjectural. 21a, 23-25.

32 FREE INQUIRY

Num. 24:3-9, Balaam's oracles. 46:1-5. 15-19. Gen. 48:1-2a, 7-9a, Jacob's blessing. Num. 25:1-5. Israel yoked to Ba'al of Pe'or. 10b-12,15-16, Num. 32:34-39, J's summary of holdings of Gad, Reuben and 20-22. 41-42. Manasseh. Gen. 50:15-26. Death of Jacob and Joseph.

Shortly after the death of Solomon the Hebrew kingdom The Moses Cycle was divided. In the nothern kingdom, Israel, two Yahweh Exod. 1:15-2:10. Moses' infancy stories. shrines were built, one in the north at Dan, and one in the Exod. 3:1, 4b, 6, Moses encounters Yahweh. south at Bethel, to discourage pilgrimages to Jerusalem to the 9-15, 19-22. Solomonic temple, which was under the control of Judah, the Exod. 4:17-18. Moses leaves Jethro. southern kingdom. The new shrines developed their own sacred Exod. 4:20b-21. A warning about Pharaoh. stories, exalting northern heroes. Only portions of that myth- Exod. 4:27-28. Moses and Aaron. ology remain in present-day Hebrew Bibles, but analysts have Exod. 5:1-2,4. Moses and Aaron before Pharaoh. been able to trace remnants of the particular Israelite tradition Exod. 7:15b, 17b, E materials pertaining to the plagues. utilizing cognizance of northern idioms. No uniquely northern 20b; 9:22-23a, creation myth is known, so perhaps the "J" myth was utilized. 25a, 35a; 10: 12,13a, 14a, The northern tradition is labeled "E," for "Elohim," by modern 20-23, scholars and it includes the following: 27; 11:1-3. Exod. 12:31-42a; The Exodus. The Abraham Cycle 13:17-19; Gen. 15:1-3, 5 f., Often ascribed to E, but note the name "Yah- 14:15-19a, 11,12a, weh," which was not yet revealed. The material 21-23,26- 13-14, 16. appears to be late. 27a, 28-29. Gen. 20:1-17. Abraham and Sarah in Gerar. Exod. 15:20 f. Miriam's song (vss. 1-18 are a separate ex- Gen. 21:8-21. The Hagar story. pansion). Gen. 21:22-32,34. Abraham and Abimelech at Beer-sheba. Exod. 16-18. Basically a conflation of J and E, so combined Gen. 22:1-13, 19. Abraham and child sacrifice. that any separation is conjectural. (Possible E material = 17:3-6, 8-16, 18:1-27.) The Jacob Cycle Exod. 19. May contain J-E material at 19:1-3a, 18. The remainder has been overwritten by a redactor. Gen. 28:11-12,17- Jacob's dream. Exod. 20:1-23:19. Whether or not E contains legal material has 18,19b-21a, been debated. Many scholars place these two 22. law codes in E. Gen. 30:1-8. Jacob and Laban (a conflation of J and E). Exod. 20:1-20. The ethical decalogue. Gen. 30:26, 28; 31:2, Jacob leaves Laban. Exod. 20:22-23:19. The Covenant Code (based on an old Canaanite 4-17,19-20, civil code). 23:20-33 is by an editor. 21b-43,45, Exod. 24:12-14, Moses receives stone tablets of law from God. 46b, 49-50, 18b; 31:18b. 53b-55. Exod. 32:1-8, The Golden Calf. Gen. 32:1-2. Jacob at Mahanaim. 15-24, 35. Gen. 32:13-21. Jacob and Esau. Discarding of ornaments. Exod. 33:4-6. Gen. 32:23-32. Jacob wrestles with God and Jacob becomes Exod. 33:7-11. The Tent of Meeting. Israel. Complaints at Taberah. Num. 11:1-3. Gen. 33:18-20. Jacob at Shechem. Num. 11:16-17. The seventy elders. Gen. 35:1-8. Jacob at Bethel. Num. 11:24-30. Eldad and Medad. Gen. 35:16-20. Birth of Benjamin and death of Rachel. Num. 12:1-15. Rebellion of Aaron and Miriam. Num. 13-14. Sending out spies. The E material is closely in- The Joseph Cycle terwoven with J and P and the following list of Gen. 30:22-24. The birth of Joseph (a conflation of J & E). E passages is conjectural; 13:17b-20,22-24,26b, Gen. 37:5,9-11, Joseph is sold into slavery. 28, 30-32; 14:1, 3-4, 1 1-25, 31-32, 39-45. 19-20,22,24, Num. 16:lb, 2a, Dathan and Abiram rebel (E mixed with J and 28a, 29-30, 36. 12-15, re-edited). Gen. 40:1-23. Joseph interprets dreams. 25-26, Gen. 41:1-45, Joseph and Pharaoh. 27b-34. 47-57. Num. 20:l b. Death of Miriam. Gen. 42. Joseph and his brothers. (A conflation of J and Num. 20:4-13. Water problems. E. E material may include 42:1, 3-4, 8-25, Num. 20:14-21. Problems with Edomites (contains both J and 29-37.) E). Gen. 45:5-8, 15-18, Jacob comes to Joseph. Num. 21.4-9. The brazen serpent (late addition to J?). 20, 25-27, Num. 21:21-25. The battle with Sihon of the Amorites.

Winter 1986/87 33 Num. 21:33-35. The battle with Og of Bashan. 1 Sam. 27; 28:1-2; David joins the Philistines. 29; 30. Num. 22:3b-4, Oracles of Balaam (interwoven with J). 8-16,19-21, 1 Sam. 28:3-5. Saul's search for supernatural guidance. 1 Sam. 31:1-13. The death of Saul. 35b-41, 23:1 -30; 24:1-2, 2 Samuel. Almost all of 2 Samuel is from the early source 10-14,20-25. with the exception of 5:1-2; 7:1-29; 8:1-18; 22:1-51; 23; 24. Num. 25:1-5. Worship at Ba'al Pe'or (some J?). Num. 32:1-5,16-17, Reuben and Gad settle in Transjordan. 1 Kings 1-2. Conclusion of the David story. 20-27, 34-41. What is most intriguing about the early source in Samuel At the same time that the earliest materials in the Torah and Kings is the intimate knowledge of details about David's were being recorded, the story of the Hebrew invasion of life and the lack of the tendency to idealize him. Whoever Canaan was written. The traditions that have come down to us wrote this excellent early history must have been someone close are mixed and not very reliable. Very little help in clarifying to David, and two names have been proposed: Abiathur (1 the ancient record has come from archaeological research. Two Sam. 22:20-23) and Ahimaaz (2 Sam. 18:19-32). Whoever was separate traditions associated with Moses are preserved in the author, his work provided a basis for the subsequent re- Numbers 13 and 21:1-3. In neither does Joshua, who in later cording of Hebrew monarchies in Judah and Israel. accounts is exalted as conqueror, play any significant part. The Other tenth-century B.C.E. materials that would have sig- opening verses of Judges provides information that differs from nificance for temple rites can be found in Psalms and Proverbs. the Joshua legends. There was no sweep of the Hebrews across Psalms consists of hymns used in worship. Among those that the land and no annihilation of Canaanites as the book of may have been used in the earliest rituals are: Psalm 104, Joshua relates. Instead, there was a bitter struggle for survival which betrays a dependency upon the Egyptian hymn to the as the Hebrews infiltrated the superior culture of Canaan god Aton composed by the Pharaoh Akhenaton; Psalm 24, (Judges 1:1-2:5). which reflects aspects of Babylonian cosmological mythology and The stories about the leaders or "judges," which may reflect which may have been recited in a festival in which the ark was what really occurred, have been reworked by editors and set in enthroned in the temple; and Psalm 45, which was composed an artificial schema that is summarized in Judges 2:11-19 and for a royal wedding and was perhaps used in one or more of the seven hundred marriages of King Solomon (1 Kings 11:3). has four parts: (a) Israel sins and is punished. (b) Israel cries out to Yahweh for help. (c) Yahweh sends a deliver (judge) Proverbs 22:17-23:11 are so close to the Egyptian writings known as the Wisdom of Amenope (older than 1000 B.C.E.) who saves the people. (d) Once rescued the people sin and the pattern is repeated. What is significant in the account is the that they appear to have been borrowed and adapted from that record of the difficulties faced by the Hebrew settlers. collection. The story of the Hebrew monarchy is contained in writings he foregoing lists of tenth-century B.C.E. writings form the bearing the name of Samuel, the cultic priest-prophet of the core of the Old Testament. During subsequent centuries Yahweh shrine at Shiloh. Once again, biblical scholars have T they were modified, edited, added to, and some parts were been able to trace the earliest account and to recognize con- shuffled about. New writings were composed and added to the tributions by later writers who reinterpret the early story in the earliest compilation. The words of the eighth-century light of developing theological convictions. One analysis of the B.C.E. prophets: Amos, Hosea, Micah, and Isaiah were preserved. early source in the story of the monarchy is as follows: During the seventh century B.C.E. the book of Deuteronomy was added to the Torah, and Deuteronomic editors edited the 1 Sam. 4-7:2. Stories of the cultic icon, the ark of the cove- nant. materials in Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 1 Sam. 9:1-16. Samuel is introduced as a clairvoyant, and Saul Kings, in the light of Deuteronomic theology. New psalms as an ecstatic. Some scholars challenge this as were written and new proverbs coined. The words of Jeremiah early material. from the closing years of the seventh century B.C.E. and the 1 Sam. 11:1-11,15; The Saul story. insights of Ezekiel from the sixth century B.C.E. were added, 13-14. along with additions to the earlier prophets. The religion of I Sam. 16:14-23. The beginning of the David story. ancient Israel was dynamic, not static. A process, best described 1 Sam. 17:1-I1, David and Goliath. (Sometimes included in the as continuing reinterpretation of what was handed down, was 32-40, early source. See "Who Really Killed Goliath" in progress, and new materials were continually being added. 42-48a, 49, FREE INQUIRY, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 49-50.) During and following the exile of Jews in Babylon (sixth 51-54. century B.C.E.) priestly writers in Babylon made their contribu- 1 Sam. 18:6-9, David's popularity and marriage. tion to the Torah—materials that modern scholars have labeled 20-29. 1 Sam. 19:11-17. David's escape from Saul. "P." The additions included a new creation myth reflecting the 1 Sam. 21:1-9; David and the priests of Nob. influence of Babylonian thought (Gen. 1:1-2, 4b), new interpre- 22:1-23. tations of the heroes of the faith, new laws that were attributed 1 Sam. 23: 1-23. David saves the town of Keilah. to Moses. By the close of the fifth century the Torah had 1 Sam. 25: I b-44. David's second and third wives. reached its final form—the form in which we know it today. 1 Sam. 26. David spares Saul's life. (See Figure 1 "Composition of the Torah.")

34 FREE INQUIRY THE COMPOSITION OF THE TORAH was translated, then the prophets (Nebhiim), then the large,

RTSLEB amorphous collection called "the writings" (Ketubhim). The ANIfE FEW E CANA legendary account of this translation, which came to be known ORAL OPHSpW '*4 ORAL NIT C ANPR and fB9f and as the Septuagint (abbreviated LXX), can be found in "The Letter HEBREW TRIe1 L CUSTOM WRITTEN • 4 WRITTEN ra \ ea< of Aristeas" in the Pseudepigrapha. SOURCES SOURCES CD / 9f The destruction of the Jewish temple in Jerusalem by the "f \ 'P \ I• ~ Romans in 70 C.E. marked the end of sacrificial worship in Jerusalem. Under the leadership of Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai, a colony of Jewish scholars was established at Jamnia (Jabneh) / IODO \ 1. I /;7 UNITED RINGDOM and by 90 C.E. were in deep discussion about the Jewish canon. \ 11 ) 900 Because the concept of canon signifies writings acceptable as DIVIDED KINGDOM guides for faith and conduct, great care was to be exercised in BOO un selecting the proper books, for by that time it had become Canta„ J P,oPn.M 1 000 clear that Judaism's future was to be anchored in its sacred ASSYPIAN PERIOD writings—Judaism was to become a religion of the book, not a 600 Ja..mlon religion of sacrifice (cf. Hos. 6:6; Matt. 9:13; 12:7). But there Erabal BABYLONIAN PERIOD 500 were at least two other compelling reasons for closing the canon. First the Diaspora Jews had taken a much freer attitude PERSAN PERIOD 400 toward the Scriptures than had the Jews of Palestine; hence, there was a need to decide exactly which books were canonical. Second, the Christians were using the LXX as their source book and quoting questionable passages and translations to sustain their theology. The Jamnia group had no trouble with the Torah—that writing had been closed since the time of Ezra. It was believed to have been written by Moses and provided the basis on

THE TORAH which Jewish religion was to be established.' Among the prophetic writings, Ezekiel came under fire because certain Apocalyptic thought that originated in ancient Persia im- verses in Ezekiel appeared to be at variance with the Torah pacted on Jewish theological discussions. One writing, perhaps (cf., e.g., Ezek. 46:6 and Num. 28:11).3 The controversial pass- composed by the dissident Essene Jews of Khirbet Qumran, ages were harmonized by Hannaniah ben Hezekiah ben Garon, predicted the end of the age, and ultimately became part of who is said to have labored day and night (using up 300 barrels Jewish Scripture—the book of Daniel. of oil) to prove that, when Ezekiel appeared to differ with the Apart from the Torah, there seems to have been no officially Torah, he was really in agreement—thus the idea of the Torah accepted canon of Jewish Scriptures—no official set of guiding as the complete and final divine revelation was preserved and books. Indeed, when the early Christian groups referred to the recognition of Ezekiel as a genuine prophet was upheld. Jewish religious writings to sustain their theological arguments, After debates that extended over a century and a half, the they quoted from books that were circulating in the Jewish book of Esther was admitted. Esther introduced two problems: communities—books that some Jewish leaders were not con- first, it formed the basis for the feast of Purim, which is not vinced had been divinely inspired. For example, in verses 14 mentioned in the Torah, and hence conflicted with the belief and 15, the little tract called "Jude" quotes from the book of that the law of Moses was complete; second, it contains no Enoch (1:9); the quotation in Matthew 27:9 attributed to Jere- mention of the deity. On the other hand, Purim was an ex- miah is not by that prophet and appears to represent some tremely popular feast. Ultimately it was decided that it had unknown writings, perhaps, as Jerome suggested, from a been revealed to Moses. Jeremiah apocryphon; the reference in Heb. 11:37 to those Controversies over the inclusion of Ecclesiastes and the "sawn in two" seems to refer to a writing called "The Martyr- Song of Songs also occupied much time. The followers of the dom of Isaiah," and so on. Then how was the canon finally Jewish teacher Shammai held that Ecclesiastes was a product closed? of Solomon's own wisdom; but the followers of the Jewish savant Hillel argued that it was divinely inspired. Finally, it The Closing of the Old Testament was decided that Ecclesiastes was a product of the Holy Spirit. The Song of Songs was admitted to the canon through a t has been estimated that by the third century B.C.E. more process of allegorization—that is, it was said that the writing I than one million Jews were living in Alexandria, Egypt. was not to be interpreted as a statement of human love and Having been away from Palestine for so long, they were no sexual longing, but as an allegorized statement of God's love longer at ease with Hebrew writings. They requested that the for Israel (later the Christians interpreted it as a statement of Jewish Scriptures be translated into the common language of Christ's love for the church). Indeed, Rabbi Akiba, in a pas- their era: Greek. Their request was granted. First the Torah sionate appeal, stated: "All the Scriptures are holy; but the

Winter 1986/87 35

Song of Songs is the holiest of all." What guidelines did the councils use for determining which "For the scholar who honestly follows the highest books actually constituted revealed writing and were worthy of principles of research and who refuses to be canonization? There were at least four guidelines: 1. The writing had to be composed in the sacred language, blinded by or led by faith, there can be no ques- Hebrew. A few Aramaic passages were admitted (Daniel 2-7; tion that the Jewish Scriptures [are] a time-bound Ezra 4:8-6:18; 7:12-26; Jer. 10:11). collection of writings representing the continuing 2. The writing had to be sanctioned by usage in the Jewish interpretation of the Jewish faith-system over a community, and this rule lay, in part, behind the acceptance of the book of Esther and the rejection of Judith (which is in the period of a thousand years, betraying its human Jewish apocrypha). rather than its divine origin." 3. The writings had to include one of the great themes of Judaism: election (chosenness) and the covenant—and this was the Hebrew writings did not contain the additional books found the basis for the acceptance of the Song of Songs (allegorized). in the LXX, which was the Bible of Roman Catholicism, albeit 4. The writing had to be composed before the time of Ezra, translated into Latin (Vulgate edition). Therefore, Martin the time when Jews believed inspiration had ceased. Jonah, a Luther's translation of the Bible (1534) separated the books late writing, was included because it had been written in the that had been excluded from the Jewish canon and published name of an ancient prophet. Daniel, which we can date rather them in a separate section labeled "Apocrypha," which meant closely to 165-168 B.C.E., was included because it appears to "hidden," with this title: have been written during the Exile. Meanwhile, the developing Christian church continued to Apocrypha, that is books which are not held equal to the use the LXX version, and although some concern was expressed Sacred Scriptures but nevertheless are useful and good to read. from time to time by Christian scholars because the LXX differed from the Hebrew Bible of the Jews, it was not until the In 1535, Coverdale published his English translation with the Reformation that genuine reaction occurred within Christianity. Apocrypha separated from the Testaments with this comment: The Reformers determined to make the Bible available in the languages of the different countries of Europe, and in making Apocrypha, the books and treatises which among the fathers their translations they consulted the original languages—the of old are not to be reckoned of like authority with other Hebrew Jewish Scriptures and the Greek New Testament. But books of the Bible, neither are found in the canon of Hebrews.

In addition to the fact that the Aprocryphal writings were RENEW NOW! not in the Hebrew canon, Protestants found doctrinal bases for Subscription Rates exclusion. For example, the doctrines of Purgatory and Masses for the Dead found scriptural support in 2 Maccabees One Year $18.00 12:43-45); the efficacy of good works in Tobit 12:9 and Ecclesi- Two Years $32.00 astes (ben Sirah) 8:33, etc. The Roman Catholic church reacted immediately and, at Three Years $42.00 the Council of Trent (Tridentum, Italy) 1545-1563, officially accepted both the Jewish canon and the apocryphal books that now make up their Bible. Some Protestant groups took a middle-of-the-road approach: the Anglican church recognized Affix mailing label here. the Apocrypha as suitable for edification but not for doctrine. (Include identification number in upper right-hand corner.) Others pursued a hard line: the Westminster Confession of Faith (1648) stated:

The books commonly called Apocrypha, not being of divine Outside U.S.A. add $4.00 for surface mail, $8.00 for airmail. (U.S. funds on U.S. bank) inspiration are no part of the Canon of Scripture, and therefore are of no authority in the Church of God, nor to be otherwise ❑ Check or money order enclosed approved, or made use of, than other human writings. ❑ Visa ❑ Master Card The Eastern church ultimately accorded several apocryphal Acct. # Exp. Date writings canonical status in the Trullan Council held in Con- stantinople in 692 and again in the Jerusalem Council in 1672. FREE INQUIRY The Vatican Council reiterated the position of the Council of Trent in 1870, but since that time has made no official state- Box 5 • Buffalo, New York 14215-0005 ments pertaining to the canon. Tele.: 716-834-2921 The following chart will clarify the difference between various canons.

36 FREE INQUIRY Most fundamentalist Christians I have met have little or no The Books of the Old Testament comprehension of how the canon came into being. They believe Jewish Protestant Roman Catholic —blindly—that the Bible is divinely revealed and ask, "What The Law (Torah) Genesis Genesis else is there to know."' They read noncritically. They do not Genesis Exodus Exodus ask what ever happened to such books as "The Book of the Exodus Leviticus Leviticus Acts of Solomon" (1 Kings 11:41; "the Book of the Chronicles Numbers Leviticus Numbers of the Kings of Israel" (cf. 1 Kings 14:19, etc.); or "the Book of Numbers Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Josue (Joshua) the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah" (1 Kings 14:29, etc.). Deuteronomy Joshua Judges Judges They appear to read without being aware of the contradictions Ruth The Prophets Ruth and anachronisms that Bible readers have asked about for (Nebhiim) I Samuel I Kings (=I Samuel) centuries. If they do read a Bible published by someone outside 2 Samuel 2 Kings (=2 Samuel) of their particular denomination they do not seem to be The Former (Earlier) I Kings 3 Kings (=1 Kings) Prophets: 2 Kings 4 Kings (=2 Kings) troubled by the fact that the Roman Catholic Bible contains Joshua 1 Chronicles I Paralipomenon material not found in Jewish and Protestant Bibles, and that Judges 2 Chronicles (=1 Chronicles) the Eastern Orthodox Bibles have other differences. In other 1 Samuel Ezra 2 Paralipomenon words they have no awareness of the selective processes that lie 2 Samuel Nehemiah (=2 Chronicles) behind the Bibles as we have them today. I Kings Esther 1 Esdras (Ezra) 2 Kings Job 2 Esdras (Nehemiah) If they read the King James Version they do not seem to The Latter Prophets: Psalms tTobias (Tobit) stumble over the dittography in Lev. 20:10, which is due to an Isaiah Proverbs tJudith ancient Hebrew copyist's error; nor are they puzzled about the Jeremiah Ecclesiastes Esther (with translation of 1 Samuel 14:41, which, if they compared the Ezekiel Song of Solomon additions) passage with a modern translation, is obviously truncated due Isaiah Job The Twelve: to an error by some Jewish scribe (homoioteleuton). These and Hosea Jeremiah Psalms Joel Lamentations Proverbs other changes both accidental and deliberate do not affect their Amos Ezekiel Ecclesiastes reading in faith. Obadiah Daniel Song of Songs For the scholar who honestly follows the highest principles t Book of Wisdom Jonah Hosea of research and who refuses to be blinded by or led by faith, Joel t Ecclesiasticus Micah there can be no question that the Jewish Scriptures in any of Nahum Amos Isaias Jeremias the versions available are not only the product of many un- Habakkuk Obadiah Lamentations Zephaniah Jonah known writers and editors and copyists, but are a time-bound t Baruch (including Haggai Micah collection of writings representing the continuing interpretation the Letter of Zechariah Nahum Jeremiah) of the Jewish faith-system over a period of a thousand years, Malachi Habakkuk Zephaniah Ezechiel betraying their human rather than their divine origin. Daniel The Writings Haggai 0see (Hosea) (Kethubhim) Zechariah Malachi Joel Psalms Amos Proverbs The Apocrypha Abdias (Obadiah) Notes Job Jonas (Jonah) *I Esdras (or 3 Old Testament Life Song of Songs Micheas (Micah) I. All charts and analyses are from Gerald A. Larue, Esdras) Ruth Nahum and Literature (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1968). 2 Esdras (or 4 The concept of "continuing interpretation" introduced in this essay Lamentations Habacuc 2. Esdras) Ecclesiastes Sophonias stands in direct contradiction to the idea that the Torah was divinely given *Tobit and was complete in its revelation of divine will. Scholarly analysis demon- Esther (Zephaniah) *Judith Daniel Aggeus (Haggai) strates that this idea is theological fiction. *Additions to Esther cf. George Foot Moore, Ezra Zacharias 3. For a discussion of the Jamnia decisions, *Wisdom of Solomon (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950), vol. I, chapter 2. Nehemiah (Zechariah) Judaism *Ecclesiasticus Naive reading or reading-in-faith appears to imply that one never 1 Chronicles Malachias (Malachi) 4. *Baruch raises questions even about the most absurd situations. For example, the 2 Chronicles tI Machabees Letter of Jeremiah problem of Moses providing food and water for more than one million t2 Machabees *Prayer of Azariah grumbling Hebrews as they wandered the deserts of the Sinai is answered in and the Bible by divinely provided manna from heaven, the occasional influx of *The Song of the quail and water that gushed forth from rocks when Moses struck them with Three Young Men his magic wand. The response given is "Couldn't God have done all this if he Susanna wanted to?" If, through faith, one can block thinking or questioning when *Bel and the Dragon the incredible is encountered, it should not be surprising to find that questions Prayer of Manasseh pertaining to the canon never arise or, when they do, are made to seem *I Maccabees irrelevant. • *2 Maccabees

*Books accepted by the Eastern Orthodox church but not included in the Jewish Canon. tBooks accepted by Roman Catholics but not included in the Jewish Canon.

Winter 1986/87 37 The Case Against Reincarnation

Part 2

Belief in reincarnation continues to be strong in the United States. Ac- cording to a recent Gallup Poll, 23 percent of all adults and 28 percent of teenagers claim to believe in life after death. This is the first major critical examination of the claims of reincarnation. The third and final part of the series will be published in the next issue.

Paul Edwards

n Part I of this article [FI, Fall 1986], I concentrated on fering and happiness are, at least in a broad sense, observable, pointing out the flaws in the arguments commonly ad- and so are sinful and meritorious actions. There is admittedly I vanced in support of reincarnation and Karma. I now some difficulty about getting a consensus as to what counts as proceed to give reasons why these theories should be rejected. I sinful and meritorious behavior, but we may here ignore all will begin with Karma. It is clear, for reasons stated earlier, problems of this kind. Except for its vastly greater significance, that a rejection of Karma does not by itself require abandon- the Law of Karma is regarded by its proponents as entirely ment of belief in reincarnation. comparable to "natural" or scientific laws. Karma, writes Annie Besant, is a "natural law" and as such it "is no more sacred The Pseudo-empirical Nature of the Law of Karma than any other natural law" (Karma Once More, p. 6). "The sins of the previous life of the Ego," writes Madame Blavatsky, I n all familiar formulations the Law of Karma appears to be are punished by "this mysterious, inexorable, but in the equity an empirical claim. It asserts a causal connection in both and wisdom of its decrees infallible law" (quoted in R. W. directions between two classes of observable phenomena. Suf- Neufeldt, Karma and Rebirth, p. 243). Now, a little reflection shows that the Law of Karma is not Paul Edwards teaches philosophy at Brooklyn College and the an empirical statement and that it is wholly unlike "natural" New School for Social Research. He is the editor-in-chief of laws. To begin with, the Law of Karma has no predictive value The Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the author and editor of whatsoever. A simple example will make this clear. Let us numerous books and articles. He contributed the articles on suppose that a plane takes off in which all the crew and passen- A. J. Ayer, Logical Positivism and Unbelief Wilhelm Reich, gers are, as far as we can tell, thoroughly decent people. The and Voltaire and wrote the Foreword to the recently published believer in Karma cannot predict any more or less confidently Encyclopedia of Unbelief (Prometheus 1986). His Heidegger than the unbeliever that the plane will not crash. The best he und der Tod, which contains a critical discussion of Heidegger's can do is offer a statistical prediction based not on Karma but views on death and "Being," was published in Germany in on data concerning the safety of airplanes or, perhaps more 1985. Professor Edwards was awarded the Butler Silver Medal specifically, of the kind of plane in which these people are for Outstanding Contributions to Philosophy by Columbia flying. Let us now suppose that a madman or a terrorist planted University in 1979. a time-bomb on the plane and, furthermore, that it is a very efficiently constructed time-bomb. The lunatic, because of his

38 FREE INQUIRY empirical information, can predict with high probability that theory, as contrasted with social Darwinism, "fit" can be defined the plane is going to crash. in such a way that it is not synonymous with "surviving" or It may be argued that the lack of predictive content of "winning out," so that the statement "the fittest tend to win out Karma is not a serious matter since some scientific laws, notably in the competition for the means of survival" is a synthetic Darwin's theory of natural selection, also lack predictive con- statement and not a tautology. In social Darwinism, at least in tent. I do not think that this comparison is sound, but I will Sumner's version, the statement that the fittest succeed is a not press the point and will concentrate on a more basic con- tautology. Sumner does not define "fittest" or "fit" inde- sideration that incorporates whatever is significant in the ob- pendently of succeeding. We do not have a statement about the servation that the Karmic law is devoid of predictive value. connection between two characteristics but two words for the Scientific laws and indeed all statements that are not empty are same characteristic. The theory is empty and totally post hoc. not compatible with anything that may happen. All of them We know who is fittest only after the issue has been resolved. exclude some conceivable state of affairs: If such an excluded Sumner's claim is consistent with anything whatever. Sumner state of affairs were to obtain, the statement would be false. himself had no doubt that socialist revolutionaries would never Just like Boyle's law or the second law of thermodynamics, win out; but, if they had, they would automatically have shown Darwin's theory of natural selection is not compatible with themselves to be the fittest. anything. It is easy to see that the Law of Karma, too, is compatible The Law of Karma on the other hand is compatible with with anything and hence totally empty. Let us suppose that a anything. The emptiness of the Karmic theory can be seen horrible criminal like Hitler is finally brought to justice. This most clearly if we compare it to another pseudoscientific theory of course confirms the principle since the criminal's suffering that on analysis turns out to be completely empty. I am thinking was the result of his evil deeds. Suppose, however, that a person of social Darwinism as advocated, for example, by the Amer- who, according to all the best available information, is decent ican sociologist William Graham Sumner. Sumner was a mili- and kind comes to a bad end, as the result of being run over by tant opponent of any kind of social legislation that might help a drunken driver, a judicial frameup, or perhaps because of the poor, the sick, or even the unemployed, and he justified his some dreadful illness. Would this disconfirm the principle? Not stand by reference to the principle that those who are successful at all. It only shows that in a previous life he committed evil have thereby proven their fitness while those who are down- deeds of which his present suffering is the just punishment. Let trodden have thereby proven their unfitness and inferiority. us suppose that we know that the next incarnation of this The following is a report provided by one of Sumner's admirers individual is going to be one long horrendous nightmare of of a conversation between Sumner and a student dissenter: torture and persecution. Would this show that the Law of Karma is not true? Not at all: It would only show that his sins "Professor, don't you believe in any government aid to indus- in past lives were so enormous that the disasters of his present tries?" life were insufficient punishment. "No! it's root, hog, or die." In 1965 there was an instructive exchange in the Philo- "Yes, but hasn't the hog got a right to root?" sophical Quarterly, an Indian publication not to be confused "There are no rights. The world owes nobody a living." with the Scottish journal of the same name, between Professor "You believe then, Professor, in only one system, the Warren E. Steinkraus, a liberal Christian with an interest in contract-competitive system?" Oriental philosophy, and Professor G. R. Malkani, a Hindu "That's the only sound economic system. All others are believer in Karma. Professor Steinkraus expressed his conster- fallacies." "Well, suppose some professor of political economy came nation as to how the Law of Karma can be reconciled with the along and took your job away from you. Wouldn't you be staggering sufferings experienced by a great many people: sore?" "Any other professor is welcome to try. If he gets my job, it The punishments do not fit the crime. Some of the miseries of is my fault. My business is to teach the subject so well that no disease and the excruciating pains of injuries suffered by human one can take the job away from me." [Quoted in Richard beings would not be inflicted by the most vindictive of human Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, p. 54.] judges for the most heinous crimes. [p. 151]

There is some evasion in the last statement, in which Sumner Steinkraus concludes by raising the question: talks about his teaching the subject so well that no one else can take the job away from him. Many people who, by all usual Can the defender of Karma admit that some suffering is out- standards, are inferior teachers might take his job away from rageously severe or must he say that all suffering is a priori just him—by intrigues, by spreading rumors about his private life, and necessarily deserved merely because it occurs? [p. 151] or perhaps by such drastic measures as poisoning him. How- ever, what is relevant for our purposes is that Sumner does not Professor Steinkraus was firmly put in his place by Professor know who is fittest until the outcome, until the competition Malkani, who, as the editor of the Philosophical Quarterly, has been resolved. He, Sumner, is the fittest if he keeps his job. saw to it that he had the last word. After remarking, quite If somebody else, X, gets the job in his place, then X has irrelevantly, that any explanation of evil and injustice in the turned out to be the fittest in virtue of his success. It should be world must leave God "blameless," Malkani insisted that there remarked parenthetically that in Darwinism or neo-Darwinian are certain ultimate mysteries that we must "not seek to probe

Winter 1986/87 39 any further." One of these is the question of "what punishment Karmic Administration Problems is appropriate for what sin or accumulation of sins." We are not gods and cannot know the answer to the question of why nybody not intimidated by the virulence with which the there is "so much punishment and for what." This unavoidable Achampions of Karma brush off objections to their theory human ignorance is not, it appears, incompatible with total will want to raise a very simple and, as it seems to me, utterly assurance that the world is just and that what may appear to devastating question about the execution and more generally be excessive punishment is not in fact excessive at all: the "administration" of Karmic ordinances. It should here be emphasized that many of the believers in Karma do not believe It should suffice to console us that there is no limit to the in a god and that those who do nevertheless maintain that the enormity of the errors of omission and commission which an Law of Karma operates autonomously. Professor Malkani individual might have committed in his countless past lives. combines belief in the Karmic law with "the best form of [p. 45] theism," but he does not maintain that God is in any way involved in the administration of Karma. On the inexorable and autonomous operation of Karma Malkani, who here fairly It should be emphasized that, when the partisans of Karma represents the Hindu position, is in complete agreement with "explain" the misfortunes that befall apparently decent human the atheist and agnostic supporters of Karma. Karma, he writes, beings by telling us that they sinned in a previous life, their "automatically produces the appropriate results like any other pronouncements are just like Sumner's claims about who is law in the natural domain. Nobody can cheat the law. It is as fittest, totally post hoc. Sumner could not identify an individual inexorable as any natural law." as "the fittest" until he was sure that he had won out, and the The claim that Karma operates autonomously invites the Karmic theorists cannot say anything about past misdeeds until following questions: How, to begin with, are good and bad suffering and misfortune have befallen a human being. To this deeds registered? Is there some cosmic repository like a huge it must be added that the "wisdom after the event" possessed central social security office in which the relevant information by Sumner and by the Karmic believer is radically different is recorded and translated into some kind of "balance"? Next, from the real wisdom after the event that we often possess as how and where is it decided what will happen to a person in the result of causal investigations. All of us are often wise only his next incarnation as a result of the balance of his acts in a after the event, but we are really "wise" if we can offer a given life? How and where, for example, is it decided that in retrodictive explanation that is supported by adequate evidence. the next life he will become a human being rather than a A plane crashes on takeoff at the Miami airport. It was not roach, a man rather than a woman, an American rather than predicted, but we find evidence that a certain defect in the an Indian, white rather than black or yellow, physically well engine caused the crash. The Karmic procedure is also post formed rather than crippled, intelligent rather than retarded, hoc but it does not provide any genuine wisdom after the sane rather than insane? Finally, there is still the problem of event. After a person who was a fine human being is run over how such decisions are translated into reality. As an illustration by a drunken driver the Karmic theorist tells us that this hap- I will use a natural disaster, the famous Lisbon earthquake of pened because of his sin in a previous life. Unlike the investi- 1755. A large number of people perished as a result of it. An gators of the plane crash, he is not wise after the event. For he even larger number were injured and also lost their possessions; cannot tell us how and where the person had sinned. He does and a number of people indirectly benefited because of the not have any information corresponding to the information death and injury of others. Somebody who does not believe in obtained by the crash investigators about the engine defect. He Karma and who also does not believe that the earthquake was makes a retrodictive claim; but, unlike the retrodictive statement a special intervention on the part of the Deity would of course about the cause of the crash, his claim is pure dogmatism. regard it as a purely natural phenomenon that is entirely ex- To avoid unfairness to certain reincarnationists, the remarks plicable in terms of natural, in this instance, geological, causes. above require one qualification. Some Karmic theorists who The believer in Karma, by contrast, must be prepared to claim also believe in Nirvana or a superhuman Absolute Mind main- that the earthquake was brought about in order to punish or tain that after his last incarnation the individual will be able to reward the various people who suffered or benefited from the review in one glance the infinite number of lives he has lived. earthquake. How and where were the bad deeds of those killed Reincarnationists holding this view could consistently allow and injured and the good deeds of those spared registered? that their Karmic theory is falsifiable by a review that showed How and where were the penalties and rewards decided? And the absence of any dependable moral pattern. Their position is just how did Karma determine the geological conditions whose thus not compatible with any conceivable state of affairs and existence is not disputed as the "natural" or at least the "im- hence it is not open to the charge that it is empty. However, mediate" cause of the disaster? Surely, if ever intelligent plan- one cannot help wondering how a human being could "in one ning was needed, this is a case in point. Let us assume that the glance" or for that matter in more than one glance survey an chief of a terrorist organization is about to send his forces into infinite number of past lives; and, furthermore, all the pro- a town in which there are 5,000 houses. His instructions are to nouncements about misdeeds in past lives are just as post hoc burn down all but the hundred that belong to secret supporters and just as much pure ipse dixits as those of Karmic believers of his cause. Let us also suppose that these hundred houses are who do not allow a final review. spread all over the town. Such an operation obviously requires

40 FREE INQUIRY a great deal of careful planning and a high level of intelligence also need to be told how they affect natural objects and forces on the part of the planners. Even then it is entirely possible so as to bring about events like the Lisbon earthquake that in that mistakes will be made so that some houses of the sym- one swoop punish thousands of the wicked and reward large pathizers will be destroyed while some belonging to the enemy numbers of the good. To this question Mrs. Besant totally will be spared. The Law of Karma by contrast is infallible. It failed to address herself. never punishes the innocent and never spares the guilty; and it does so although it is not an intelligent person or principle. To The Emptiness of Karmic Directives rephrase our earlier question: Just how did this nonintelligent principle set up the geological forces in the present case so as o, far from providing moral guidance, the doctrine of to achieve the desired results with complete precision? SKarma is bound to lead to perplexity, and it is hence apt In this connection even the otherwise so confident Professor to paralyze action. The ordinary person who does not believe Malkani is almost reduced to silence. All he can offer is the in Karma usually has no difficulty in deciding whether it is following lame response: right to help people who are ill, who have become the victims of accidents, or who are in various other kinds of difficulties. Does the law of Karma act upon the forces of nature and Things are not so easy for the believer in Karma. The suffering bring about cyclones, earthquakes, floods, etc., which in their individual on his view deserves to suffer because he committed turn cause wide-spread havoc and destruction of both life and evil acts in this or else in a previous life. It is not only not our property affecting millions? But if a metaphysical law, like the law of Karma, cannot do that, can it do anything whatsoever? duty to help him but it would seem on Karmic principles that Is it a law only in name? A powerless law is as good as no law. it is our duty not to help him. "It would be impossible," wrote [ p. 43 ] Madame Blavatsky, "either to delay or to hasten the Karma in the fulfillment of justice," and in order to expiate one's sins This bluff and bluster answers nothing. If defenders of Karma fully it is necessary "to suffer all the consequences to the bitter cannot do better they should surely adopt the alternative men- end, to exhaust all the defects until they have reached their tioned in a tone of horror at the end of Malkani's outburst and plenitude" (quoted by Siwek [see Part 1], p. 122). Mrs. Besant, admit that Karma "is as good as no law." who started her career as a radical, apparently had not lost all Unlike the more sophisticated champions of Karma, Mrs. her humanity after she succeeded Madame Blavatsky as leader Besant saw the need for introducing divine Karmic administra- of the theosophists. She reports "some members saying: I can- tors. In The Ancient Wisdom, her best-known work, she first not help this man since what he is suffering is his karma." She insists that "in no case can a man suffer that which he has not thought them cruel and wrong-headed and compared them to deserved" (p. 293). She then speaks of the "Lords of Karma" somebody who says, "I cannot pick up this child who just fell, who are "great spiritual intelligences" keeping "the karmic since the law of gravitation is opposed to it" (Popular Lectures records" and adjusting "the complicated workings of karmic on Theosophy, p. 67). law." They know the Karmic record of every man and with I do not think that this is a fair analogy and it does not their "omniscient wisdom" they "select and combine portions answer the members who refuse to help people in need. The of that record to form a plan of a single life" (pp. 293-294). law of gravitation is not a moral law and the fact that the child This means primarily that they select the race, the country, and fell down does not, without bringing in Karmic morality, imply the parents of the soul or Ego in its next incarnation. Thus an that it is now being punished for an earlier sin. As far as I can Ego with highly developed musical faculties will be "guided to see, no prescription of any kind can be derived from the Law take its physical body in a musical family"; an Ego of "very evil of Karma for this situation or for any other; and, if this is so, type" will be guided "to a coarse and vicious family, whose Karma is completely vacuous as a principle of moral justice. bodies were built of the coarsest combination"; while an Ego No matter what we do, whether we help the individual or who yields to drunkenness will be led to a "family whose whether we refuse to help him, we will be doing the right thing. nervous systems were weakened by excess," and he will be If we help him and cut short his suffering, this means that his born from "drunken parents who would supply diseased ma- earlier deed did not require more severe punishment than what terials for his physical envelope" (p. 295). It is in this way that he suffered until we brought relief. If on the other hand we the laws of Karma "adjust means to ends," ensure the doing of ignore him and let him continue in his misery, this shows that justice, and see to it that the Ego can carry his "karmic posses- his sin was so great as to deserve the total amount of his sions and faculties" into his next life. suffering—what he suffered before we could have intervened as This solution of the "administration" problem calls for two well as what he suffered afterward when we failed to come to comments. In the first place, the lords of Karma have not been his assistance. Believers in Karma constantly and emphatically seen by anybody recently and, even during the decades when insist their theory does not imply fatalism, that, quite on the Mrs. Besant flourished, they were, as far as I know, not per- contrary, it is entirely compatible with belief in human freedom, ceived by anybody other than Mrs. Besant, not even by understood as our ability to shape our lives, within limits, in Madame Blavatsky. Second, Mrs. Besant did not have an ade- accordance with our desires and choices, and that our efforts quate grasp of the scope of the problem. To solve it we not frequently do make a great deal of difference to what happens. only need an explanation of how the lords of Karma secure I see no reason to dispute this claim, but it in no way answers appropriate bodies for Egos in subsequent incarnations. We the challenge of vacuousness. The vacuousness, as far as moral

Winter 1986/87 41 prescriptions are concerned, follows from the Karmic doctrine that the same tendency to restore balance or equilibrium that that the world is just. A Karmic believer's commitment to this appropriate punishments and rewards exemplify is found proposition is unqualified—it is categorical and not merely throughout the universe. Thus in a rather haughty note in the hypothetical. He does not maintain that the world would be Aryan Review of October 1936, in which the editor offers just if we did certain things: He maintains that the world is just advice to the author of the preceding article, the author being regardless of what in fact we do. No matter what happens, none other than A. J. Ayer, we are assured that "Karma is an whether we help the underdog or not, whether our efforts at undeviating and unerring tendency in the universe to restore making lives less full of suffering and sorrow succeed or not, equilibrium." It "operates incessantly" and, what is more, "it the ultimate outcome will be just, in the sense that every human operates on all things and beings from the minutest conceivable being will be getting exactly—no more and no less—what he atom to the highest of human souls." All such claims are open deserves. to the criticism that, if they are interpreted in a fairly straight- This is as good a place as any to point out that believers in forward way, they are simply absurd and, if they are interpreted Karma, especially those in the West, are careful not to spell in such a way as to avoid absurdity, they say absolutely nothing. out certain of the implications of their theory that would strike If it is maintained that the lawful behavior of molecules or most people as appalling. It follows from their principle that mountains or planets are instances of rewards and punishments, Abraham Lincoln, Jean Jaurès, the two Kennedy brothers, and this is plainly absurd, since molecules, planets, and mountains Martin Luther King got no more than they deserved when they cannot perform good and evil deeds. If, to avoid this absurdity, were assassinated. It equally follows that the six million Jews "Karma" is taken in a broader sense in which it is simply a exterminated by the Nazis deserved their fate. I will add one synonym for "lawfulness" or "regularity," then calling the more of the morally outrageous consequences of Karma. Con- various laws of nature instances of Karma is saying nothing at trary to what almost everybody believed and believes, the seven all. It is plain that we do not understand the regularities of the Challenger astronauts who perished earlier this year were en- world any better and nothing whatever has been added to the tirely responsible for their deaths, and the grief felt by millions content of any known law. Calling natural regularities instances of people all over the world was quite out of place. The reckless of Karma is aboutas enlightening as describing them as mani- NASA officials whom the Rogers Commission found to be festations of the Absolute Mind or as instances of the dialectical responsible for the Challenger explosion were in fact (not con- interplay of Being and Non-Being. sciously, of course) only executing the ordinances of Karma. The case of the astronauts illustrates particularly well the com- pletely post hoc procedure of the Karmic theorists. Is there the now turn to the objections to reincarnation itself. Each of slightest empirical evidence that the seven astronauts who died I those I will discuss seems to me decisive against one or in were morally any worse than the astronauts who did not par- some instances all versions of the theory. Some of the objections ticipate in the mission of January 28 and were thus spared? Of are of great philosophical interest, and these I will discuss most course there is no such evidence. The only reason a Karmic fully. There is, however, one important objection, briefly men- theorist would or could give is that they in fact died while the tioned at the beginning, which cannot be adequately considered others are alive. Returning to the Jews and their Nazi extermi- here. This is the objection based on the view that an essential nators, it would seem that, since the Jews deserved extinction, part of what we mean when we say that a person at time Tx is the Nazis were not really criminals and should not have been the same as somebody at an earlier time T, is that he has the prosecuted. I assume that Eichmann deserved to be hanged same body. If this view is correct then none of the facts pre- since he was hanged, but the many Nazis who escaped de- sented by writers like Ian Stevenson, even if they were fully served to escape. Speaking of executions, the main argument authenticated, could possibly be evidence for reincarnation, against the death penalty evidently collapses if the Law of though they might call for a revision of other generally ac- Karma is true. For in that case no innocent man can ever be cepted beliefs. If Edward Ryall remembered fighting and dying executed. People may indeed be innocent of the crime with as John Fletcher at the battle of Sedgemoor in 1645 and if it which they are charged, but if they are executed this is what could be shown that there really was a John Fletcher who they deserved. It makes one dizzy. fought at that battle, that all the events Edward Ryall remem- bers really occurred, and if we could know that Ryall did not "Cosmic" Claims obtain any of his information by normal channels, he would still not be the same person as John Fletcher, simply because y discussion of Karma would be incomplete without the bodies are not identical. We might then abandon the view Msaying a few words about certain "cosmic" claims found that people can have accurate first-person recollections only in the writings of reincarnationists. It is commonly asserted about their own past, but we would not allow the conclusion that all lawful connections in the universe are really "nothing that the same person lived two lives. An adequate discussion of more" than instances of Karma. Dr. Rayner Johnson, the this objection would involve a consideration of the arguments Christian reincarnationist mentioned earlier, writes that "the for and against what I earlier called "corporealism," and the Law of Cause and Effect, as we know it in the material world," present article is not the place for this. I will therefore not say is really "nothing more than a special case" of the Law of anything more about this objection and, although I believe Karma (The Imprisoned Splendor, p. 388). Again, it has been that corporealism is substantially correct, I will proceed on the claimed—and perhaps this is what Dr. Johnson had in mind— assumption that it can somehow be answered.

42 FREE INQUIRY Tertullian's Objection the body, what we refer to is the empirical ego; and it is this empirical ego that reincarnationists like other believers in im- The first objection is a very simple and obvious one. It has mortality would like to survive. This is as true of Hinduists as been stated concisely and forcefully by the early church father it is of Buddhists, whatever they say in their more "philosoph- Tertullian (c. 160-c. 220), in Chapter 31 of his Treatise on the ical" moments. As for the analogy with the actor and the part Soul. "How happens it," he asks there, "that a man who dies in he portrays, it should be remembered that a part or character old age returns to life as an infant?" Whoever continues life in in a play is not a human being living in the actual world. If it a new body might be expected to "return with the age he had were then it would be older at every new performance. The attained at his death, that he might resume the precise life analogy also breaks down at the other end. We have ways of which he had relinquished." 1f "souls depart at different ages of determining the age of an actor, but since it is a transcendent human life," Tertullian continues, "how is it that they come principle that is not accessible to any kind of observation, we back again at one uniform age?" (A. Roberts and J. Donaldson, have no means of determining the age of the metaphysical eds., Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 3, p. 211). John Hick, who soul. In fairness I want to stress that reincarnationists are not endorses this objection, points out that babies are not born responsible for this analogy. It is my work—I introduced it in with adult egos "as they would be if they were direct continu- order to give some semblance of content to the otherwise totally ations of egos which had died at the end of a normal lifespan" obscure assertion that the metaphysical soul ages from life to (Death and Eternal Life, p. 363). life although the empirical ego always starts as a baby. Although several of the more scholarly reincarnationists show familiarity with Tertullian's writings I am not aware that Evolution and the Recency of Life any of them has so much as attempted a rebuttal. Hick suggests that it might be possible to build an answer on the distinction he next two objections are based on scientific findings that between the empirical ego and the metaphysical soul. The Twere of course not available to the individuals who first empirical ego is what Kant called the "phenomenal" self. It is, thought up the idea of reincarnation. Confining ourselves for in Hick's words, "the conscious, remembering, anticipating, the moment to the version that maintains that human beings choosing, acting self." The metaphysical soul on the other hand can be incarnated only in human bodies, it seems clear that is an entity "lying behind or beneath or above the conscious such a theory is inconsistent with evolution. In the first place, self." Once this distinction is made, the defender of reincarna- evolution teaches that the human race descends from nonhuman tion could meet Tertullian's objection by maintaining that what species and that there was a time when human bodies did not survives in a new body is not the empirical ego, which perishes exist. The reincarnationist, however, is committed to an inifinite with the death of the old body, but the metaphysical soul that series of past incarnations in human bodies. Furthermore, as is manifested in successive empirical egos each of which has to we observed a little while ago, whatever believers in reincarna- begin as a baby. To make this rejoinder more convincing a tion may say in their more theoretical moments, in practice reincarnationist could refer to the difference between the age of they refer to the empirical ego when they use the word soul, an actor in a play and his age in real life. In a play an actor and the empirical ego is the most highly developed form of may age from eighteen to eighty, but although he himself ages consciousness. Now, evolution teaches that our consciousness between performances, every time he plays the same part he developed gradually along with the development of the brain starts once again at the age of eighteen. In much the same way and the nervous system. The reincarnationist is committed to the metaphysical soul grows older with every incarnation al- holding that no such development occurred since it is the same though it starts as a baby in all its empirical manifestations. It soul that migrated from body to body. He may indeed concede should be pointed out that this answer to Tertullian is open to that there has been some development—that some souls have Hinduists and other "metaphysical" supporters of reincarnation gradually grown kinder and wiser and better informed. How- who believe that what survives is "Atman," a transcendent ever, this is not the kind of development postulated by evolu- principle, but that it is not available to Buddhists or Western tionary theory. It may be thought that the wilder form of sympathizers with Buddhism whose "Anatta" has often been reincarnation that holds that human souls may have been in- compared to Hume's "bundle of impressions and ideas" and carnated in animal bodies escapes this objection. This is not so. which is in effect the empirical ego. Reincarnationists defending this version do not teach that the Everything in this reply hinges on the plausibility and rele- sequence of bodies in which a soul is incarnated is in any way vance of the distinction between the empirical ego and the parallel to the sequence postulated by evolutionists. A human metaphysical soul. If the notion of the metaphysical soul is being, as we saw, can become a dog or a gnat and, at the other unintelligible, as many philosophers hold, or if it is not unin- end, the soul may most recently have been in the body of a telligible but if there is no reason to suppose that there are such nightingale or a beaver. metaphysical souls, or if there are such souls but if they are not In any event, both versions are defeated by what science what we refer to by the word I, the rejoinder collapses. has discovered about the relative recency of life. It is now I will discuss this distinction in some detail in the section on generally accepted that for many billions of years after the Big the dependence of the mind on the body. Here I will merely Bang the universe contained no life at all. Reincarnation in all observe that quite plainly we do not mean anything as abstruse forms postulates a series of incarnations stretching back into as the metaphysical soul when we use the word I. Aside from the past without limit; and this is clearly inconsistent with the

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February 1985, Vol., no. I - With articles on the new Secular Humanist January 1986, Vol. 2, no. 1 - Prayer Printing and the U.S. Senate; Hatch's Bulletin; the Hatch Amendment; Helms and CBS; Pastoral Malpractice; E Anti-Humanism Law; Helms's Anti-Witchcraft Law; Falwell Slipping; Pluribus Unum; and Is Morality Inevitable? Student Spies; Pat Robertson for President?; and Postal Service Issues May 1985, Vol. 1, no. 2 - FREE INQUIRY's "Jesus in History and Myth" Religious Stamp. conference and its new Committee for the Scientific Examination of Reli- May 1986, Vol. 2, no. 2 - FREE INQuIRY's Faith-Healing Probe; Alabama gion; the Attack on Public Education; Wisconsin Freethinkers; Lincoln and Parents Sue 0ver Secular Humanism in Schools; Media Hype and the Reagan on the Bible; and the Age of Unreason. Brookings `Church-State Book'; Education Department Hits Religious August 1985, Vol. 1, no. 3 - The Supreme Court and Religious Freedom; Neutrality of Textbooks; Canadian Catholic School Battle; Exorcism; List More on Public Education; the Legal Status of Priests; Christian Rock; and of the "Damned." Christian and Muslim Fundamentalists. August 1986, Vol. 2, no. 3 - Media Notes F1's Faith-Healing Exposé; November 1985, Vol. 1 no. 4 - "Parochiaid" Ruling; Hurricane Elena; Reagan Conservatizes Supreme Court; Krol Blasts Humanism; IRS Rules Favor Churches; Alabama Public School Suit; Faith-healers for President; Pornography; Right to Die; Anticlerical Persecution in West Germany; Gorbachev; St. Jude; the Christian Nation Debate; and Battles over Atheism Delinquent "700 Club"; Circumcision Coverage Dropped; Pastor Distri- butes Snuff Tape; Catholics Return to Mystery. in Virginia. Issues of the Secular Humanist Bulletin also contain "The Secular Humorist," "Biblical Scorecard, "and "Education Update." FREE INQUIRY • Box 5 • Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 • Tel.: 716-834-2921 facts. Pythagoras and the founders of Eastern religions can a stationary or decreasing population, reincarnationism appears hardly be blamed for not knowing these facts, but this does not to be refuted by the population statistics. make the objection any less cogent. As for contemporary It is noteworthy that this argument has hardly ever been Western believers, I have already noted that they usually are explicitly discussed by any of the academically respectable rein- not the least bit interested in the findings of science. carnationists. I suspect that the reason for this is the great It should be pointed out that in reincarnationist publications difficulty of finding an answer that would strike a sober person of the twentieth century, especially those by theosophists, the as even remotely credible. The less inhibited reincarnationists, word evolution is constantly used in a highly eulogistic fashion. however, have attacked the population argument with relish. It is suggested that reincarnation is not only consistent with Morey Bernstein, the author of The Search for Bridey Murphy, evolution but that it is in fact its completion and logical ex- has an easy answer. We can dispose of the objection by bringing tension into the spiritual realm. In every reincarnation we are in the population of the astral world. slightly better and wiser than in the one before and eventually we will attain perfection. Whatever may be thought about such The total number of entities both in this and the afterworld a view, it clearly has nothing to do with evolution as this term can remain the same while the balance shifts between the is understood in biology. Let us grant for the sake of argument numbers of entities on earth and the number in the unseen that the human race will develop into a "higher" species, what- world. [p. 259] ever that may mean, and this higher species into a still higher one, and so on. Such a development in no way implies that the If we refer to the human population on earth by the letter e bodies of the members of those higher species are inhabited by and to the population of the astral or unseen world by the souls that once lived in human bodies. letter u we can answer the objection by simply maintaining that, although neither e nor u are constant, the total of e + u The Population Problem never varies. Substantially the same answer is offered by numerous theo- rr he next objection is based on the well-established fact that sophists. Writing thirty years before Bernstein, Irving C. the human population of the earth has shown enormous Cooper, my favorite theosophist, some of whose fascinating increases throughout recorded history. In an article published ideas I mentioned earlier, also maintains that every increase in in the July-August 1981 issue of BioScience, Professor Arthur the human population on earth can be explained as due to a H. Westing of Amherst summarized the best available informa- corresponding decrease in the number of inhabitants of the tion about the number of human beings alive at various times. astral plane. Cooper takes note of the fear in some quarters At the time at which he wrote, the population was estimated at that the constant increase in the earth's population will eventu- 4.4 billion. In 1945 it had been 2.3 billion, in 1850 1 billion, in ally deplete the astral plane. He therefore assures his readers 1650 500 million, at the time of Christ 200 million, and in 8000 that no such dire fate is in store for the astral world. It can B.C.E., approximately 5 million. Among other interesting calcu- absorb mass emigrations without serious damage, much as a lations Professor Westing estimated that the 1981 population giant corporation can easily absorb losses by a subsidiary here of 4.4 billion amounted to 9 percent of all human beings who and there. In view of "the length of period between incarna- ever lived and that it was greater than the number of people tions," which Cooper evidently considers very great, "the popu- who lived through the entire Paleolithic age, a period account- lation of the unseen world at any time must be many times ing for 86 percent of the duration of human life. It should be that of the earth" (op. cit., p. 57). added that in spite of famines and wars the same trend has V. F. Gunaratna, a Buddhist philosopher whose slender continued since 1981. According to figures supplied by the volume Rebirth Explained (1971) comes recommended by the United Nations the earth's population reached 4.8 billion at the Venerable Narada Mahathera as the "profound treatise" of a end of 1985, and just a few weeks prior to my writing these "learned writer," fully endorses the Bernstein-Cooper view that words, on July 7, 1986, it passed the 5-billion mark. If current we must not focus our attention exclusively on the earth and trends continue the total human population will be 10 billion should remember that there are "countless other world systems by the year 2016. of which the Buddhist texts speak." We must also remember These facts are incompatible with the less fanciful version that, just as human beings may turn into animals or gods, so of the reincarnation theory according to which human souls earlier incarnations of a human being may well have been on a can occupy only human bodies. As we saw earlier, reincarna- nonhuman plane. "An animal or a celestial being can be reborn tionism is opposed to any doctrine of "special creation" of as a human being" (p. 80). If, as before, we represent the souls. It denies that "new souls" are ever added to the world. human population on the earth as e and if we refer to the All souls have always existed. Every birth is a rebirth—the animal population by the letter a and to the totality of gods by rebirth of a soul that has already existed. All this clearly rules g, reincarnationism is not committed to the view that e is out any population increase. Reincarnationists who maintain unchanging. It is committed to the very different proposition that some souls are eventually allowed to give up their earthly that e + a + g is the same at all times. The facts of population existence and merge into the Absolute or Nirvana are com- growth do not in any way conflict with this broader view. mitted to the view that in the long run the population must Another Buddhist writer who has dealt with the population decrease. Other reincarnationists imply that the total human argument is K. N. Jayatilleke, who until his death in 1970 was population is stationary. In either case, whether committed to professor of philosophy at the University of Ceylon. Jayatilleke

46 FREE INQUIRY held an M.A. from Cambridge and a Ph.D. from the University evidence and that its purpose was to "save" the Newtonian of London. Although he professed himself an admirer of A. J. theory, i.e., to retain it in spite of observations that seemed to Ayer and regarded himself as an empiricist, he swallowed even contradict it. In 1846 Leverrier requested the Berlin astronomer the most extravagant of claims made by and on behalf of Johann Galle to carry out the appropriate telescopic observa- Edgar Cayce and he fully endorsed the Bridey Murphy case as tions, and the result was the discovery of Neptune, one of the evidence for reincarnation. Jayatilleke has a twofold answer to so-called giant planets with a mean diameter of approximately the population argument. Like Gunaratna, he appeals to the 28,000 miles and a mass of 17.2 times that of Earth. The possibility that human beings were animals in previous incarna- Adams-Leverrier hypothesis of a new planet was not "noxious- tions. To this he adds that we must not rule out the possibility ly" ad hoc for two reasons: the theory that it was meant to save of the transmigration of souls from other planets. The Buddhist was itself powerfully supported by a vast array of observations view of the cosmos holds that there are "hundreds of thousands and, although ad hoc, it was independently testable. of galaxies spread out in space" and that they include "thou- By contrast, the various rejoinders to the population argu- sands of inhabited spheres." It is entirely possible that some of ment are "noxiously" ad hoc because reincarnationism, unlike the population increase on the earth is the result of invasions Newtonian mechanics, is not a theory for which there is power- of human embryos by souls from these spheres. If, as before, ful observational evidence—in fact of course there is none— we represent the human population of the earth as e, the animal and because the assumptions that are introduced are either, population as a, and the souls living in human or nonhuman like mass immigrations from the astral world or from "other form on other planets as p, the unchanging totality is not e but planes," not even in principle testable or, as in the case of e + a + p. population reductions on other planets, so vague as not to be ' The second component of Jayatilleke's rejoinder has the testable in practice. It is perhaps of some interest to note that wholehearted endorsement of Professor Geddes MacGregor, Leverrier later postulated the existence of a further planet he who is perhaps the most distinguished Christian theologian called Vulcan to explain the perturbations in the orbit of writing in defense of reincarnation at the present time. Holding Mercury. However, astronomers have never been able to ob- degrees from Oxford, the Sorbonne, and Edinburgh, he is a serve such a planet and the Vulcan hypothesis is now dis- Fellow of the Royal Society for Literature and taught for many years in the philosophy department of the University of South- ern California. MacGregor admits that in Tertullian's time bringing up the population increase was "pardonable." How- ever, now that we "know of the vastness of the galaxies and of Help Further the Cause the extreme likelihood that there are millions of inhabited planets besides our own," the objection no longer has "any of Humanism. force at all" (Reincarnation As a Christian Hope, p. 47). Please remember FREE INQUIRY in your will. The sufficient answer to all these rejoinders is that they involve what I call "noxious" ad hoc assumptions. Not all ad Won't you consider making a provision in your will hoc assumptions are automatically objectionable, and it will be for FREE INQUIRY and the Council for Democratic and worthwhile to explain the distinction between those that are Secular Humanism? This will ensure vital support and those that are not. The difference is essentially the same as for the defense and development of humanism. Although humanists do not believe in immortal- the one between the two kinds of post hoc pronouncements ity, they know that the good work they do will sur- noted earlier when discussing Karmic assertions about sins vive them. By leaving a percentage of your estate to committed in past lives. All of us constantly make perfectly FREE INQUIRY (CODESH, INC.), you will be furthering reasonable ad hoc assumptions in everyday life and occasionally the ideals of humanism. ad hoc assumptions have proved highly fruitful in the history We would be happy to work with you and your of science. The discovery of the planet Neptune provides a attorney in the development of a will or estate plan particularly instructive illustration of a reasonable and success- that meets your wishes. Besides a will, there are many other possibilities, ful ad hoc assumption. Full details can be found in most such as living trusts and charitable gift annuities histories of astronomy, but for our purposes the following brief from which you receive an annual income from the summary will suffice. By the end of the eighteenth and the transfer of property now. Or you might make a con- beginning of the nineteenth centuries Newtonian celestial tingent bequest, by which FREE INQUIRY (CODESH, mechanics enabled astronomers to calculate the orbits of most INC.) will receive a gift only if your primary bene- of the planets with very great accuracy. The orbits of two ficiaries do not survive you. planets, however, those of Uranus and Mercury, defied all For more information, contact Paul Kurtz, Editor Of FREE INQUIRY. their calculations. To explain the discrepancy between the cal- culated and the observed orbits of Uranus, two astronomers, John Adams (1819-1892) and Urbain Leverrier (1811-1877), P.O. Box 5 • Central Park Station Buffalo, New York 14215. 716-834-2921 postulated the existence of a new planet having a certain size, All inquiries will be held in the strictest confidence. shape, mass, and position in the sky. This was an ad hoc hypothesis in the sense that it was not based on any direct

Winter 1986/87 47 credited. In the sense in which I am using the word here, the competent philosophers would not agree that a person cannot Vulcan hypothesis, although it turned out to be false, was not be in several bodies at the same time. However, allowing such noxious because, like the Neptune hypothesis, its purpose was multiple occupations as logical possibilities, the actual facts to save an empirically well-supported theory and because it clearly defeat Dr. Goldberg's rejoinder. "Goldberg's Law," as was independently testable. we may call his fission theory, is presumably not confined to There is also something disingenuous in the appeal to the the future but has always operated in the past. If this is so, we possible decrease in the number of animals (and gods) that is should not find five billion separate souls but a handful, perhaps supposed to occur simultaneously with the increase in the a few hundred souls, each occupying millions of bodies. Yet human population. Let us suppose that we could obtain an that is not at all what we find. There are not, sad to say, absolutely reliable census of the animal and god populations of millions of Ronald Reagans, William Rehnquists, or, for that the universe during the period between 1900 and 1950 and that matter, Bruce Goldbergs. it revealed no such decrease as is required by the answer of the The population difficulties can be avoided by somebody reincarnationists. I very much doubt that they would then who is prepared to offer a drastically modified version of rein- abandon their belief. As for the constant influx of souls from carnationism. Professor Ducasse never discusses the population other galaxies postulated by Professor MacGregor, would he objection, but at the end of his article "Life After Death Con- abandon reincarnation if he could be shown that there is no ceived As Reincarnation" he refers to such a revised position. life elsewhere in the universe, something that more and more Speaking of the Bridey Murphy case (of which he was a astronomers have come to believe in recent years? In an article vigorous champion) and the spontaneous recollections of earlier published in 1974 Ian Stevenson concedes that if "the recent lives by certain children, he observes that, if these cases are as increase in the world's population" continues, it would "bring strong as their supporters maintain, they are evidence for the difficulties for the reincarnation hypothesis." He adds that these view that "reincarnation, whether general or not, occurs at difficulties "have not reached us yet" ("Some Questions Related least sometimes." Ducasse leaves this question open; but, ac- to Cases of the Reincarnation Type," Journal of the American cording to Stevenson, some Turkish believers are quite definite Society for Psychical Research, 1974, p. 400). Stevenson omits that only those who die a violent death are reborn ("Charac- to tell us how great the population increase has to be before teristics of Cases of the Reincarnation Type in Turkey and the difficulties do reach us. However, it is worth pointing out Their Comparison with Cases in Two Other Cultures," Inter- that since 1974 the increases have continued at an enormously national Journal of Comparative Sociology, 1970, p. 4). Some- accelerated pace and yet, so far from abandoning his belief or body who holds the view that reincarnation occurs but that it flirtation with reincarnation, Stevenson has become an ever is not general could quite consistently admit the population more convinced and forthright supporter. growth without invoking any of the noxious ad hoc assump- I have left to the end the rejoinder by Dr. Bruce Goldberg, tions. He would maintain that, while the origin of some human the futurologist from Baltimore. Dr. Goldberg is up to form beings has to be explained in terms of the transmigration of and, with his usual confidence, offers a theory that is as bold souls, the origin of many (perhaps most) human beings is of a as it is ingenious. There is no reason to suppose that the same natural kind. By this I mean that the latter sub-class of the soul cannot occupy "more than one body at a time." If we human race is entirely the result of biological reproduction. modestly assume that one soul occupies three bodies, the popu- Such a position could then also explain population growth in lation problem can easily be disposed of: the usual way, by references to biological and social factors. There is something appealing about the modesty of this If one soul occupied three bodies in the year 300 B.C., for revised position, but it is easy to see why it has not commended example, and if each of these sub-souls occupied three addi- tional bodies each, it would not be difficult to see how one itself to most believers in reincarnation. It does seem more soul could occupy one and a half million bodies in a matter of than an a priori prejudice to hold that all human beings have thirteen lifetimes. [op. cit., p. 181] the same kind of origin: they are either all the result of a divine infusion of a soul into an embryo or they are all the result of Unfortunately this soul-fission theory does not solve the prob- transmigration or they are all produced in a purely biological lem. In the first place, the logic of personal identity makes it fashion. Furthermore, many of the arguments for reincarnation, impossible for a person to occupy more than one body. If two if they were valid, would show that all human beings are the bodies, B, and B2, were to behave in exceedingly similar ways reincarnation of previously existing souls. Finally, somebody and if we had reason to believe that their sensations, feelings, taking this position is faced with the unenviable task of sup- and thoughts were qualitatively similar in all respects, we would plying criteria allowing us to tell who among human beings is still not describe them as the bodies of the same person. If, for naturally produced and who is the result of reincarnation. example, B, were Ronald Reagan's body, we would not say Part 3 of this series will discuss the two most basic objec- that Ronald Reagan also inhabited BZ but rather that the mind tions to reincarnation—the status of a person between incarna- associated with B2 is Ronald Reagan's double. I do not wish to tions and the dependence of consciousness on the brain. It will lay too much stress on this consideration here because to defend also deal with the notion of the astral bodies, which is closely it fully would require a long discussion and also because some tied to most forms of reincarnation. •

48 FREE INQUIRY Jefferson wrote the phrase about the wall thirteen years later, in 1802, when respond- Viewpoints ing to a letter from the Danbury Baptists Association in Connecticut: "... I contem- plate with sovereign reverence that act of Justice Rehnquist vs. the Founders the whole American people which declared that their legislature should 'make no law The Founding Fathers intended more than neutrality between the sects. respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof,' thus building a wall of separation between Church and State." Robert Heard But Jefferson's temporary locale in 1789 did not dethrone him as spiritual champion of religious freedom any more than Albert he moment President Reagan nomi- enshrines original intent, inflamed the public Einstein's absence from the Manhattan Pro- Tnated William Rehnquist to be chief debate over the majority decision in Jaffree ject stripped him of the leadership in theo- justice of the United States, the issue of by saying that the Founding Fathers would retical atomic physics. Every congressman— government-sponsored school prayer moved have found it "bizarre." The Founders indeed every student of the subject world- from our national back steps to the parlor. sought neutrality between sects, Mr. Rehn- wide—knew of Jefferson's Statute of Vir- Justice Rehnquist (or, more likely, his re- quist and Mr. Meese say, not between "reli- ginia for Religious Freedom, which James search clerks) sifted through all the historical gion and irreligion" (a phrase Justice Rehn- Madison pushed through the legislature in data before he crafted his twenty-four page quist uses five times in his dissent). 1785 and which provides: "We the General dissent last year in the Alabama moment- Religious fundamentalists embrace this Assembly of Virginia do enact that no man of-silence/ school-prayer decision. That view, and their pied pipers reach millions shall be compelled to frequent or support monograph in Wallace v. Jaffree boldly with this message through cable television. any religious worship, place, or ministry swept aside Thomas Jefferson's "wall of "This thing about separation of church and whatsoever...." Jefferson thought so much separation between church and state," calling state," said Dallas's W. A. Criswell, "is the of it that he dictated this inscription for his it "a metaphor based on bad history, a meta- figment of some infidel's imagination." Pat tombstone: "Author of the Declaration of phor which has proved useless as a guide to Robertson said, "The Constitution of the Independence, of the Statute of Virginia for judging. It should be frankly and explicitly United States is a marvelous document for religious freedom, and Father of the Uni- abandoned." self-government by Christian people. But the versity of Virginia." He didn't even mention Justice Rehnquist obviously intended this minute you turn the document into the the presidency. dissent to serve as his benchmark on issues hands of non-Christian people and atheist In his "Notes on Virginia" a decade involving the First Amendment's guarantee people, they can use it to destroy the very earlier, Jefferson wrote: "But it does me no of religious freedom. Indeed, less than a foundation of our society." Jimmy Swaggart injury for my neighbor to say that there are month later, he cited it in a one-paragraph said, "I'm concerned that the U.S. Supreme twenty gods, or no god. It neither picks my dissent in a New York City case in which an Court is an institution damned by God." pocket nor breaks my leg." He did not say appeals court struck down the use of public- Jerry Falwell prophesied, ".... One day, twenty gods or one god. school teachers to provide remedial instruc- Jesus is going to come and strike down all Justice Rehnquist said the metaphor is tion in religious schools. With his promo- the Supreme Court rulings in one fell useless as a guide for judging. He listed eight tion, and with Antonin Scalia now on the swoop." activities the Court has held government may bench, he can make the Alabama dissent As I began my research, I worried about do and eight closely related things it may the intellectual bedrock for fresh entangle- proving original intent. Aware that many of not do. Government may pay for bus trans- ment of church and state. the Founders were deists, I still doubted I portation to religious schools, he said, but Never mind that Jefferson said, in 1816, could find evidence contradicting Mr. Rehn- may not pay for bus transportation from that some men look at constitutions with quist and Mr. Meese. Established churches the parochial school to the public zoo or sanctimonious reverence and deem them too existed in several colonies. Citizens could be natural history museum for a field trip. sacred to be touched, ascribing to their fined for nonattendance. As late as the Truly, the court has created a mess. authors a wisdom more than human. He 1780s, taxes supported those churches, There is a simple way to unscramble it. said new discoveries and progress of the heresy remained a capital offense, and denial Restore the wall by changing the eight human mind require change in constitutions of the Trinity could fetch a prison sentence. "mays" to "may riots." to keep pace with the times. Protests against such religious tyranny had Well and good, but so far I had not Mr. Rehnquist wants a jurisprudence of to be subtle. George Washington, for in- solved my problem of refuting the argument original intent, using history, as someone stance, refused to take communion. When of Mr. Rehnquist and Mr. Meese. I went to recently said, the way drunkards do lamp- criticized for this by the Reverend James the same biographies, histories, and collec- posts—more for support than illumination. Abercrombie of Philadelphia, Washington tions of writings I assume Mr. Rehnquist's Attorney General Edwin Meese, who also stayed home on communion Sundays. clerks did. This is soil plowed and replowed A debater's point can be made for Justice for two hundred years. What did I hope to Robert Heard is a lawyer and the author Rehnquist's assertion that Jefferson's meta- find? of five books, including Miracle of the phor is bad history, since Jefferson served Madison, who wrote the final version of Killer Bees: Twelve Senators Who Changed as our minister to France in 1789, when the First Amendment, said in a letter nine Texas Politics. Congress proposed the First Amendment months before its adoption that he particu- and the remainder of the Bill of Rights. larly sought to safeguard "the rights of Con-

Winter 1986/87 49 science in the fullest latitude." On the day The Senate rejected that motion. chip away at the edges of Moral Majority he introduced in Congress amendments for Precisely the position Mr. Rehnquist and humbug. The thing that leaped into my hand a Bill of Rights, June 8, 1789, he proposed: Mr. Meese tell us the Founders intended was a lance of steel to pierce its heart. Oh "The civil rights of none shall be abridged was considered by the Founders and voted happy weapon. on account of religious belief or worship, down. An otherwise excellent index in nor shall any national religion be established, The Senate ended up weakening the Schwartz's tome omitted page 1148 on this nor shall the full and equal rights of con- House version by deleting "nor shall the issue, leaving only a few scholars, and none science be in any manner, or on any pretext, rights of conscience be infringed." But a of Mr. Rehnquist's clerks or Mr. Rehnquist infringed." conference committee, on which Madison himself, aware of the weapon that would He didn't say the civil rights of Chris- served, replaced the tame Senate version kill this bedtime story. tians. He didn't even say the civil rights of with Madison's final version. Government is to be neutral between those who believe in a Supreme Being. He 1 had raked through the historical rubble sects and also between religionists and those said the civil rights of none shall be abridged. looking for a chisel or even a shard. This with no religion. • As the wording changed and changed was no chisel kicked up by me to use to Copyright ©1986, by Robert Heard. again, several members of the House spoke of their fears that the amendment might have a tendency "to abolish religion altogether" Free Inquiry in Court: Half a Loaf or "be extremely hurtful to the cause of reli- gion" or would "patronise those who pro- mom. fessed no religion at all." (Justice Rehnquist he U.S. District Court for the District Halverson's remarks raise "serious constitu- notes these in his dissent but seems not to Tof Columbia has made its final ruling tional concern." The Reverend Halverson understand that the speakers indeed worried in the two lawsuits brought by FREE then initiated an exchange of letters between about the conflict between religion and no INQUIRY editor Paul Kurtz regarding certain himself and Paul Kunz. In his letters, the religion, not just about preference being practices of the chaplains of the United Reverend Halverson maintained that "[djis- given to one faith.) Congressman Thomas States Congress. In this litigation, FREE paragement was the furthest thing from my Scott of Pennsylvania, discussing conscien- INQUIRY has achieved some, but not all, of mind.... I not only regretted that dispar- tious objection to bearing arms, told that its objectives. One of the lawsuits, Kurtz v. agement had been communicated, but have first Congress he wanted "to guard against Kennickell, effectively ended the use of pub- tried subsequently to guard against such a those who are of no religion. It has been lic funds to print collections of the prayers possibility." urged that religion is on the decline; if so, of Senate chaplains. In the other lawsuit, Indeed, since the lawsuit was filed, there the argument is more strong in my favor, Kurtz v. Baker, a claim challenging the con- has been a perceptible decline in the number for when the time comes that religion shall tent of some of the Senate chaplain's official of remarks that could be interpreted as dis- be discarded, the generality of persons will remarks did not produce a formal ruling paraging. Based on the Reverend Halver- have recourse to these pretexts to get ex- against the Senate chaplain, but it did result son's "enlightenment" and his stated "intent cused from bearing arms." in a public commitment from the chaplain `to guard against' making further disparaging Justice Rehnquist rightly noted the "to guard against" disparagement of nonthe- remarks," the district court decided that it sketchy nature of reports on the House ists. The other claim in Kurt v. Baker, a would not make a formal ruling against the debate and the absence of any record of the challenge to the exclusion of nontheists from office of the Senate chaplain. Instead, the debate in the Senate, which met behind participating in the opening ceremonies of court stated that it would publish the letters closed doors. Already having checked every the Senate and the House of Representatives, between Halverson and Kurtz as an appen- page cited under "religion, no establishment was denied. dix to its opinion, by way of making public of' in the index of Bernard Schwartz's mon- The last claim to be resolved was the the commitment the Reverend Halverson umental The Bill of Rights: A Documentary challenge to the content of the Senate chap- had made to refrain from making remarks History, I hurriedly flipped through nearby lain's official prayers, which he uses to open that could reasonably be interpreted as dis- pages. That's when I found it, on page 1148, the daily sessions of the U.S. Senate. The paraging the beliefs of nontheists. volume 2. An electrical charge ran down Senate chaplain, the Reverend Richard Reflecting on the results of all three my spine. Halverson, had on a number of occasions claims, it can safely be said that FREE Granted, there is no record of the Senate made statements during his opening remarks INQUIRY has won the proverbial half a loaf: debate, but we know what proposals that that, objectively interpreted, disparaged a partial victory that satisfies some, but cer- body considered and voted on. The version those who do not believe in a deity. For tainly not all, of our hunger for justice. of the First Amendment the House sent over example, he asserted that those who do not Given the increasing conservatism of the to the Senate read this way: "Congress shall believe in God do not have any "concern courts, it is perhaps remarkable that FREE make no law establishing religion, or pro- for human rights, minorities and ... people." INQUIRY has achieved this much. hibiting the free exercise thereof; nor shall In its 1983 decision in Marsh v. Chambers, An appeal of the claim that was denied the rights of conscience be infringed." the Supreme Court, while upholding the in its entirety, i.e., the challenge to the ex- Always more conservative on fundamental constitutionality of legislative chaplains, in- clusion of nontheists from taking part in issues, the Senate considered several pro- dicated that there is a limit to what publicly the opening ceremonies of the House and posed changes in the House version. The funded legislative chaplains can say. Speci- Senate, is being considered. However, the first motion proposing a change called for fically, the Supreme Court stated that in prospects for a victory on appeal are un- striking out "religion, or prohibiting the free their official remarks legislative chaplains certain, especially in light of the number of exercise thereof' and substituting these were not "to advance any one, or to dis- appointments President Reagan has made words: "one religious sect or society in parage any other, faith or belief." to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District preference to others." In March the district court ruled that of Columbia Circuit.— The EDITORS •

50 FREE INQUIRY school curriculum—the "three Rs" Soviet style—sounded just like the "back to basics" championed by our Secretary of Education Atheism Is Not Humanism: and other conservatives. Moral education is not explicitly included in Soviet schools but "good" behavior is a goal of all schooling. Reflections on a Visit to The approach reminded me of what is called "character training," i.e., courtesy, honesty, the Soviet Union patriotism, respect for elders, etc., a point of view characteristic of the nineteenth- century moralism that is having a revival in our country today. Moral development Howard B. Radest theory and practice, as in the work of Piaget, Dewey, and Kohlberg, is unknown. Critical thinking as a skill to be learned is unheard wenty-five members of the North spond to human needs at times of personal of. To be sure, Marxism/ Leninism is taught TAmerican Committee for Humanism crisis? What was done to celebrate marriage, in the upper grades and at the university, (NACH) visited Moscow in the summer of to welcome children, to mark death? Were but as "science" not as "ethics." 1986 for several days of meetings with the there holidays and celebrations that enriched We witnessed a wedding at the Wedding Institute for Scientific Atheism. Established communal and family life? Obviously, we Palace in Moscow and talked with its direc- in 1963, the Institute is responsible for re- believed—and after our visit confirmed it, tor. What we saw and heard was quite tra- search on religion and for anti-religious still believe—that human needs in some de- ditional in form while not in language. Music "propaganda" (this was the word used by gree transcend national and ideological was played, the bride wore white, the groom the Institute's associate director in a descrip- boundaries. We were interested, too, in find- was nervous, the relatives and friends sur- tion of its mission). Its popular magazine, ing out if and how Soviet elementary and rounded the couple with congratulations Science and Religion, has a circulation of secondary schools provided for "moral" afterward. The officiant, a woman wearing about 350,000. Theoretical monographs are education. As humanists, we had a special robes and the large gold medallion of her issued annually in fields like the sociology interest in discovering how a society offici- office, conducted a ceremony that was brief, of religion. Public lecturers are trained, and ally free of "God" might go about dealing formal, secular, and solemn. Divorce is relationships with university departments of with matters ordinarily reserved for religious tolerated, and the rate is high. "Pornogra- philosophy and pedagogy are actively main- organizations in the United States. In other phy" is prohibited, but pornography means tained. words, is atheism a philosophy of living? any exposure of the body in the popular Present at our discussions were the Insti- By focusing on intimate and interper- press, films, or magazines. (Our attorney tute's associate director (the director was in sonal issues we hoped to avoid ideological general and Jerry Falwell would feel quite Vladivostok with Premier Gorbachev), the posing. For the most part, we succeeded. at home. A magazine like Playboy would editor of Science and Religion, the head of We did not deal with Chernobyl or Afghan- be banned as pornographic.) Alcoholism, as the Moscow Center of the Institute, several istan; the Soviets did not talk about Nicara- has been widely reported, is a serious prob- teachers from local schools, and a teacher- gua or Libya. However, we were quite aware lem. However, it is not regarded as an illness. trainer from the university. Our group from of the hidden workings of ideology on all Shops selling liquor have restricted their the United States included Ethical Culture sides, which showed up, explicitly at one hours in order to limit purchases. The goal leaders, humanist counselors, and Unitarian- point. We were pressing our Russian col- is behavior modification. It reminded me of Universalist ministers. Rabbi Sherwin Wine, leagues about their stands on abortion, capi- the approach taken by our panicky legisla- founder of the Society for Humanistic Juda- tal punishment, and death and dying. While tors to restrict the flow of addictive drugs ism, chaired the delegation. abortion is legal in the U.S.S.R., it is "dis- by imposing criminal penalties. My impres- We had planned for the discussions with couraged" as a matter of national policy. sion, in short, was of a radically conservative a particular concern in mind: We expect Capital punishment was unhesitatingly de- society and culture. virulent fundamentalism and the attack on fended. Honesty with those who are dying It is customary to attribute this conserva- "secular humanism" to continue, and we is deliberately discouraged by the medical tism to the Russian and not the Soviet influ- humanists, in reaction, are more explicitly profession. Pushed to justify the latter, we ence. Indeed, one of our hosts, in com- atheistic today than we've been since the were told that a patient who knew he was menting on funeral practices and the cele- eighteenth century. For example, Humanist dying would "give up the struggle." Unsatis- bration of traditional holidays, noted that Manifesto I (1933) called for naturalistic fied, we kept up a barrage of questions. cultural habits have by no means disap- religion. Manifesto II (1973) referred to Finally, one of the Soviet participants said, peared, particularly as one gets farther and "non-theism" but not to atheism. Recently, impatiently, that the reason we were so con- farther from large cities. Yet the Soviets are however, all sides seem to equate humanism cerned with death was that we were "capi- seventy years away from the czars. The with atheism. talists." Asked to explain, he pointed out policies and practices we saw and heard Thus we were interested in exploring an that medical economics forced us to talk of about are self-conscious social decisions, not avowedly atheistic society. How did it re- "unwanted children" and euthanasia. Unfor- cultural habits. True, those making the deci- tunately, there was just a hint of truth to sions cannot escape their own past. Yet, Howard Radest is director of the Ethical the claim—or perhaps, more than a hint! much more than history is at work. Con- Culture Schools and dean of the Humanist Our discussions covered many subjects servative policies support state authority in Institute. and our Russian hosts responded to our ways that liberal education, critical think- questions courteously, fully, and clearly. The ing, intimate celebrations, and counseling do

Winter 1986/87 51 not. This would not warrant comment except that Soviet conservatism is allied with athe- ism and not, as in our country, with funda- mentalism. The obvious implication— uncomfortable, no doubt, for rationalists Communism, Secular Humanism, and freethinkers—is that atheism does not at all ensure a free society. Indeed, as I've and AIDS tried to suggest, it seems more comfortable with fundamentalism than with liberation. Atheism is not the same as naturalism either. It is instead a narrowly drawn mirror-image of its opponent. Naturalism, by contrast, deals with processes, inquiries, Vern L. Bullough discoveries, developments, emergents, etc. For naturalism, the edges are blurred and surprises are likely. Possibilities are worth ne of the most headline-grabbing The only way the United States can be exploring. There is a mood of fascination, 0evangelical fundamentalist Christian strengthened is by a return to the Christian of curiosity. So the meanings carried by groups during the early 1960s was the Chris- God. It is the secular humanists who oppose atheism are by no means the same as those tian Anti-Communism Crusade. Though the this, and so secular humanists have not only carried by naturalism. They do intersect in perceived threat of communism has not less- caused AIDS but are the main opposition a common denial of an extra-natural reality, ened in any noticeable way since the 1960s, to a reinvigorated anti-communist move- but they depart widely from each other after the Christian Anti-Communism Crusade ment. Though Schwarz has not yet changed that. Humanists who confuse the two are under the Reverend Fred Schwarz has long the name of his organization to the Christian making a mistake. been out of the headlines, and its income Anti-Humanism Crusade, he has subsumed Another reflection of our experience can has dropped. Fundamentalist right-wing humanism under the target of communism. be seen in the description of the Institute groups, however, are resourceful, and it is Some days everyone seems to be hopping for Scientific Atheism as an agency for worthy of note that, in his recent appeals on the same bandwagon. Obviously there "propaganda," i.e., for disseminating the for funds, the Reverend Schwarz has linked must be more money to be made by being truth. That way of thinking, so alien to the secular humanism and AIDS with com- against secular humanism than by being humanist tradition of "free inquiry," is also munism. against communism. I often wonder what a telltale sign of the radical difference be- Schwarz argues that the appearance of else we will be blamed for. tween atheism and naturalism. Here, the AIDS and the threat it poses to others is Institute comes closer to the Vatican Con- due to the drastically increased incidence of Decline in Child Abuse gregation for the Propagation of the Faith homosexual conduct. "What," he asks, "has than to fundamentalism. Once the truth is led to the increase in homosexual conduct? n "Child Abuse: Myth or Reality?" (FI, found, "error has no rights." What is at stake This is due to a change in the moral climate is our sense of what "doing science" is all I Summer 1985), I argued that, in spite of due to the rise of what is generally called all the publicity to the contrary, child abuse about. In a striking anecdote, we heard 'secular humanism.' "* He states that the about a nonconforming youngster in a high has been declining. Data are now available God-derived ethic of the Ten Command- to document this, based upon two national school of 450 students. His parents, as I ments has been replaced by the secular recall it, were religious believers. The teacher surveys made between 1975 and 1985 and humanist concept that man is his own final reported by Murray A. Straus and Richard who told the story made it quite clear that authority and the source of all morality. The J. Gelles ("Social Change and Change in her goal was to "help" the student find his prohibitions based upon Judeo-Christian way to the truth, i.e., to the view taken by Family Violence from 1975 to 1985 as Re- ethics have been eroded. Religion has been vealed by Two National Surveys," Journal the school, the faculty, and the other 449 excluded from the educational system, and students. Her concern for the well-being of of Marriage and the Family, 48 [1986]: the litany of ills goes on—all with disastrous 465-479). her student was genuine and deeply felt. results. Notions of pluralism, personal development, These studies showed a 47-percent de- "What," he asks has all this to do with crease in child abuse between 1975 and 1985. and a sense of doubt were, however, utterly communism?" And he answers: "A great absent. For the purposes of these surveys, victims deal. It must be kept in mind that the of child abuse were defined as children who Our Soviet discussions were timely for formula for the communist conquest of the those of us concerned that fundamentalist were kicked, punched, bitten, beaten up, or United States is: `External encirclement, plus attacked with a knife or gun. attacks have stimulated a corresponding internal demoralization, plus thermonuclear humanist fundamentalism. The god/no-god Though the rate of child abuse reported blackmail, lead to progressive surrender.' " by these surveys is still much too high, it is battle and the need to defend the integrity Success of this formula depends upon the of secular society has led us down pathways important to emphasize the decline because demoralization of the United States, and it demonstrates that there are ways in which that could be more destructive of humanism since the AIDS epidemic is demoralizing it from within than any attacks from outside. society can lessen child abuse. It also under- has weakened the United States relative to scores the need to find better ways to report That, apart from the pleasure of encounter- its communist opponents. ing another culture and a new group of child abuse than the panic-inducing news- colleagues, is a consequence of the meetings *Christian Anti-Communism Crusade, Newsletter, paper headlines that imply an ever-escalating last summer. • 26, no. 16 (August 15, 1986). rate. •

52 FREE INQUIRY The main text of the report begins in Volume 1, Part 2. Primary credit for its Books authorship is given in some quarters to Frederick Schauer, a professor of law. (Chairman Hudson verified for me that Schauer wrote about 150 to 200 pages of the final report.) I found the opening sec- The Emperor's New Pornography tions of Part 2 highly readable, even absorb- ing. In fact, sandwiched between the largely Report laborious opinions preceding them and all the egregious, pseudo-scholarly prattle that follows, the sections probably penned by Dr. Schauer are luminous. Chapter 5 of Part 2, "The Question of William F. Ryan Harm," warrants special note. Therein, rational inquiry and speculation seem to be on a honeymoon in Disney World. The re- port is at its worst when the commissioners wax analytical. Their professional compe- Attorney General's Commission on Por- ing such a staggering amount of ugliness, tence isn't in question for a moment. But in nography, Final Report. (Washington, D.C.: listening to many troubled and anguished the netherworld of hard-core porn, I suspect U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), 2 witnesses, visiting adult theaters and so- that some of these analysts are out of their vols., 1,960 pp., $35.00. called adult bookshops across the country. depth. Clearly some of these academicians and The two volumes tell a good deal about ooks can edify, enlighten, encourage, other experts weren't cut out for the task. the production, distribution, and sale of Bsalve, soothe. They can outrage as well. This isn't to say that I would have relished sexually explicit films, videos, and maga- The Reagan administration surely had one their undertaking, either. zines, and about the organized-crime con- of those effects in mind when the attorney Remarkable among the opinions are nection with what the commissioners report general's eleven-member Commission on those of Dietz, Dobson, and Ritter and the is a multi-million-dollar industry. And there Pornography was impaneled and set to work joint statement of Becker, Levine, and is more than a mere glimpse of persons in early 1985. On July 9, 1986, the commis- Tilton-Durfee. Psychiatrist Park Elliot Dietz (mainly women) who have been seriously sion's chairman, Henry E. Hudson, handed appended his remarks with the full text of a injured by association with that industry. I the completed report, printed and bound, professional article he coauthored with two don't doubt the verisimilitude of these in- to Attorney General Edwin Meese during a colleagues on sexual sadism in detective stances or individuals. But I don't believe press event at the Department of Justice. It magazines. Insofar as the report concludes for two minutes that the Justice Department was the culmination of one year's research that the printed word is constitutionally pro- and the local police were unaware of such and investigation into hard-core pornogra- tected and should not be prosecuted, this clearly criminal activity long ago. phy as it is sold and consumed in these article is decidedly out of place. Psychologist To its credit, the commission sets child United States. James C. Dobson asserts, in his essay, that pornography apart as an extraordinarily Some of the major media trumpeted this pornography is "addictive and progressive." heinous and abhorrent crime. Beyond that, report as a probable best-seller because of Father Bruce Ritter, a Catholic priest, is the sexually explicit materials are sorted into its discussion of sexually explicit materials, founder and president of Covenant House three broad categories in order to argue their excerpts of testimony from prostitutes and in New York City, a shelter for runaways possible harm to society, whether law en- various "victims" of pornography, portions and abused kids. Father Ritter, the only forcement is adequate relative to pornogra- of scenarios from dirty films and videos clergyman on the commission, submitted phy, and whether some materials should or reproduced in type, long lists of titles of three very lengthy treatises on aspects of shouldn't be challenged in court. Category magazines and videos, detailed descriptions pornography. The sum total of the Ritter 1 is the "violent and degrading" group of of some pictorial content from select sleazy papers is a minority report to the commis- materials; category 2, "degrading but not publications, and similar appetizers to the sion, to wit: that all pornography is poten- violent"; category 3, "neither violent nor palate of a Rabelais, Restif, or de Sade. If tially harmful; that no form of erotic ex- degrading." The majority chose to go soft the report is ever a best-seller it will signal a pression should be exempt from close scru- on category 3. Chairman Hudson took some peculiar epoch in cultural history. tiny; that pornography is a "plague" and its exception to a general conclusion that cate- Volume 1 opens with thumbnail biogra- worst symptom is child abuse. Judith gory 3 items were harmless in all cases and phies of the commissioners, followed by in- Veronica Becker is a psychologist; Ellen to all people. There were apparently a num- dividual commissioners' statements of Levine is the editor-in-chief of Woman's ber of debates about the categories and other opinion. These compositions reveal shock, Day, Deanne Tilton-Durfee is a specialist in matters that are only hinted at in the report. horror, dismay, and depression from perus- child abuse. Their joint statement presents a When news first broke of the recruitment slightly liberal amelioration of the report's of a special Justice Department Commission recommendations for law enforcement. The on Pornography, my response was nothing short of dismay. The Nixon administration William F. Ryan is a freelance writer in reader must hew through the leaden verbiage had launched a similar project. When Washington, D.C., and a frequent contribu- and ponderous pace of Father Ritter to Nixon's eighteen commissioners released tor to FREE INQUIRY. reach the women's secluded oasis of reason in the first volume. their report in 1970, after spending more

Winter 1986/87 53 time than their counterparts of 1985 and ing read its fulsome and highly discursive The 1970 President's Commission on Ob- 1986, Nixon renounced it for concluding that report. Perhaps Alan E. Sears, the commis- scenity and Pornography expended much pornography was not harmful and not re- sion's executive director, acted on his own time and many pages mulling over the U.S. sponsible for society's ills. when he distributed a threatening letter to Supreme Court decision of 1957, Roth v. Hudson was named U.S. Attorney for twenty-three companies who run conven- United States. That famous case was the the Eastern District of Virginia, just as the ience store chains and retail outlets. He first time the highest court of the land had Commission on Pornography was closing warned them to stop displaying and selling set a standard for judging obscenity. Then, shop. He agreed to discuss the report with such "mainstream" magazines as Playboy on June 21, 1973, the nine justices blanketed me as long as I had read it. Other reporters and Penthouse or they would be cited in the five cases of alleged obscenity with a ruling had not, he complained. final report as distributors of pornography. meant to clarify and amplify the Roth deci- Hudson is annoyed and impatient with This "blacklist" letter was enjoined in federal sion. The new triad of standards was dubbed anyone who links printed books or so-called court, but not before its purpose was served. the "Miller Test," after one of the five de- mainstream magazines or motion pictures Playboy, Penthouse, and other popular fendants, a California publisher named with the work of his commission. True general magazines of this sophisticated vari- Marvin Miller. In the Miller Test, obscenity enough, the report treats the printed word ety lost advertising revenue, newsstand sales, is determined by: (1) whether the average as virtually inviolate and doesn't target such and subscribers, and are striving to recover person, applying contemporary community magazines as Playboy or Penthouse or even even now. Hudson would not comment standards, would find that the work, taken most movies with X ratings. He insists that about the publishers' protests. He did say as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest; his mission was to investigate the prolifera- that the U.S. Supreme Court couldn't have (2) whether the work depicts or describes, tion of legally obscene pictorial magazines been clearer on what could be prosecuted as in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct and films beyond the range of what used to "legally obscene." This is debatable, but not specifically defined by the applicable state upset people. with Mr. Hudson. He will tell you that the law; and (3) whether the work, taken as a He rejects the obvious comparison of his magazines targeted by the Sears letter were whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, politi- commission's report to the 1970 Report of essentially all right with the commission. cal, or scientific value. The Court offered the Commission on Obscenity and Por- (Please note that we didn't talk about Sears examples of what obscenity laws could for- nography because of the vast difference in or his letter.) But in contemporary cases of bid as "patently offensive": (a) "representa- sexually explicit matter then and now. He books banned, magazines seized, and per- tions or descriptions of ultimate sexual acts, sees an evolution of erotica from fun and sons indicted for the printed word, Hudson normal or perverted, actual or simulated"; frolic with nude damsels in body paint to a leans on the three-tiered "contemporary (b) "representations or descriptions of sick era of psychotic lust, violence, and community standards" criterion set forth by masturbation, excretory functions, and lewd depravity. What's really on trial, it would the High Court, which leaves the raids and exhibition of the genitals." Justice Brennan, seem, is mal de siècle, a social and cultural prosecutions to state and local law-enforcers. who had written the majority opinion on decadence. Conservatives of the late Vic- If the U.S. Department of Justice was Roth, dissented this time and declared that torian years were shocked and outraged by doing its job, truly mindful of the civil rights the Miller Test was just as vague as the the directions of art, literature, and enter- of women and children and the federal Roth standard. Justice Douglas, always a tainment in the gaslight period. Hudson is criminal code as it outlaws coercion, kid- champion of the free press, dissented in all looking at a similar turn of events, whether napping, torture, child abuse, homicide— five cases, as he had in the Roth decision, he admits it or not. the real crimes out there—no presidential emphasizing the vagueness of all of them. Moreover, he smarts from the manner commission on pornography would ever That vagueness was a mixed blessing in which the press covered the commission have been thought of. If the FBI can't during those three decades when books still and his own role in it. Nobody read the shoulder this work load, then Reagan and mattered. It precipitated the imprisonment report, he says, so they don't know the Meese should name a panel or two to check of the late Samuel Roth and another pub- issues. Anyone who raises the possibility of out the gumshoes. A commission paid out lisher of erotica, Ralph Ginzburg. In the censorship is, in his words, "intellectually of the federal treasury to ferret out excuses same span of years it lifted long-standing dishonest." For Hudson, censorship was and rationales for legislated morality, cen- barriers to the publication in the United never on the commission's docket—only sorship, and the dissection of the Bill of States of such literary classics as D. H. obscenity was. He spoke to me of critics of Rights is a sham and yet another national Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover, Henry the commission, some of whom testified in disgrace. In the months ahead, the president Miller's Tropic of Cancer, John Cleland's open hearings against book banning and and his minions, plus the electronic preachers Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure (a.k.a. suppression of the rights to publish and read. and monarchical brain-trust of the New Fanny Hill), and Frank Harris's My Life Those witnesses were embarrassed and Right, will cook up peptalks and media and Loves. There would have been no mortified, he says, when they were shown campaigns to persuade us all that censorship chance on these shores for Vladimir Nabok- published photos demonstrating sodomy, and the abandonment of the First and ov's Lolita, William S. Burroughs's Naked gay and lesbian intercourse, and assorted Fourth amendments are correct courses Lunch, Terry Southern's Candy, or J. P. sadomasochistic practices. The former chair- under heaven. Donleavy's The Ginger Man. Some books, man is convinced he is correct in his assess- It used to be that you could take things particularly some novels, will always en- ment. I would say that he isn't entirely to court for rescue or redress. But, again, if counter trouble. Witness Mark Twain's wrong. But he overlooks some crucial the courts had done their job, nobody would Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Because factors—overlooks them or just refuses to have summoned those commissions on por- of the escape hatch of "redeeming social deal with them. nography. All they needed to do was uphold value" in the Roth decision, most Americans The existence of the commission did the Constitution. can now read J. D. Salinger's Catcher in severe damage to the free exercise of First The standard on obscenity has never been the Rye. No writers or publishers should Amendment freedoms without anyone's hav- clear or reasonable, as the record will show. fall through that thirty-year-old safety net.

54 FREE INQUIRY Some do, despite legal precedent and all the obscenity standard "doesn't lend itself to Edwin Meese. This must do for an answer. supposed reverence for the printed word scientific exactitude." Of course not. But the I didn't ask Hudson about the readership expressed in the July 1986 Commission on chairman had concurred with the majority of the report. The answer is my own, and Pornography's final report. of his commission that the printed word, purely derivative. I believe there is a sub- The most opaque, obtuse portion of especially in books without graphics, should strata of society that consumes audio-visual Roth, restated in Miller, is the part on "con- be protected from prosecution by virtue of garbage and magazines designed by psy- temporary community standards." In the First Amendment freedoms. chotics for other psychotics. The commission spring of 1982, the jovial, cigar-chomping Scientific exactitude wasn't disputed agreed that such materials are not in the Studs Terkel was in the nation's capital to much during the commission's tenure. Com- "mainstream." I therefore posit a maverick give talks for the American Civil Liberties missioner Dobson, in his statement of liberal's opinion that the audience for the Union and the Institute for Policy Studies. opinion, called hard-core pornography "ad- sexually explicit materials deemed obscene His oral history, Working, was having cen- dictive and progressive." I asked Hudson if by the commission is small—a genuine sorship difficulties in many places. By 1982 he agreed with this. In a cautionary reply, "underground" in American culture on the the purveyors of hard-core smut had intro- he said he was uncertain about the narcotic fringes of or even within the criminal under- duced kiddie porn, "snuff" films, and all that properties of pornography to physiologically world. The public at large is not interested disgusted and incensed those who served on addict anybody. He did, however, find in in this stuff and has no use for it, or for the Hudson's commission three years later. After hard-core pornography an element of psy- report. We have a pornography report in Terkel gave an informal speech at the Korn- chological habituation for some individuals. two volumes not so lots of people will read blatt Gallery, I asked him if he believed, Most of all, 1 wanted from Hudson the it and praise it but so the Reagans and based on the Roth/ Miller test, there could answers to two paramount questions. First, Edwin Meese and the rest of the New Right be any such criteria as "contemporary com- who provided the stimulus for the Commis- phalanx can hoist it high. The actual con- munity standards." sion on Pornography in the first place? tents of the volumes are almost meaningless "It's town standards," Terkel answered. Second, who or what group of people are when piled against this greater threat. "Whoever is in power in that town. The the target audience for its immense, two- Put another way, the mallet-headed tele- shifts in power of that conglomerate power volume report? Hudson told me that the vision shamans like Jerry Falwell and bloc will determine the community primary push for a commission to investigate Donald Wildmon and Mel and Norma standards." pornography came from the president and Gabler have some 1,960 pages to vilify their When 1 asked Henry Hudson the same the first lady, who were concerned that the foes in publishing and other media, and lend question relevant to Studs Terkel's Working, nature of such materials had become far aegis to their own dangerous and obscuran- Hudson granted that community standards more explicit and violent since 1970. They tist agenda. The report's mere existence, with can't be applied the same way in every legal had so informed then Attorney General the Department of Justice seal emblazoned jurisdiction because of plurality and regional William French Smith, who framed the in gold on the navy-blue paper covers, is diversity. He said candidly that applying the commission. The project was inherited by enough to serve sinister purpose. •

from Yale to Berkeley, and in archives of the LDS (Mormon) Church in Salt Lake Polygamy in City, Utah, and the RLDS (Reorganized) Church in Independence, Missouri. Emma Hale, whose genealogy goes back the Mormon Church to the Mayflower, lived in Harmony (now Oakland), Pennsylvania, in 1825 when her uncle's business partner, Josiah Stowell, hired Joseph Smith to use his magical seer- stone to divine the location of hidden George D. Smith treasure. Since the site was near Emma's home, her father boarded the digging com- Mormon Enigma: Emma Hale Smith, by of the Latter-day Saint prophet, in Mormon pany, and Emma met her future husband. Linda King Newell and Valeen Tippetts Enigma: Emma Hale Smith by Linda King Two years later, soon after they had eloped, Avery (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Newell and Valeen Tippetts Avery. The Joseph claimed to recover some gold plates 1984), 394 pp., $19.95. Index, bibliography, mother of eleven children by the Mormon from a hill near Palmyra, New York, which endnotes, genealogical charts. founder, Emma was to discover her hus- supposedly contained a record of the Hebrew band's secret marital relations with many of ancestors of the American Indian. This solu- he curious story of Joseph Smith's her friends in the small, nineteenth-century tion to the question of the origins of the Tpolygamy has now been told from the religious community of Nauvoo, Illinois. American Indian, much discussed in those perspective of Emma Hale Smith, first wife Both Mormons, Newell and Avery re- days, reassured believers in the Adam and searched Emma Smith's life for nine years Eve story. George D. Smith is the president of Signa- to produce this closeup view of early Mor- Although Joseph kept the gold plates ture Books, which publishes the works of monism. The authors pieced together this boxed under their bed for months, Emma Mormon authors. He has written for Dia- well-documented story from diaries and cor- said she never saw them. She reported that logue and Sunstone, two intellectual Mor- respondence that emanated from Emma's Joseph used a seer stone in a dark hat to mon magazines. twelve homes in five states, much of which translate the Book of Mormon from the in- is now found in major university libraries scribed plates. Her father could not help

Winter 1986/87 55 but notice that "the manner in which he marriage, he wrote this explanation to her: band, she was "stunned." The authors then pretended to read and interpret was the same "That which is wrong under one circum- describe a physical confrontation between as when he looked for money diggers." stance, may be, and often is, right under the two women, which by some accounts Mormon Enigma makes it clear that the another.... Whatever God requires is right, has Eliza falling down the stairs. This inci- aspects of plural marital relations were no matter what it is." dent in 1843 forced the issue of polygamy present near the inception of Mormonism, Joseph offered "spiritual blessings" to into the open: "Emma could no longer be- and reformist opposition to polygamy pre- parents who consented to give their young lieve that Joseph was not involved and he cipitated Joseph Smith's arrest and assas- daughters to him in marriage. Helen Mar could no longer deny it." sination fourteen years later, nearly destroy- Kimball was promised to the prophet at the Eliza was forced out of the house in ing the church. age of fourteen and was apparently unaware February of that year, but in March Joseph In 1831, the year after Joseph Smith of the consequences. She wrote in her auto- secretly married two daughters of a Bishop founded his church, he made public a revela- biography, "I would never have been sealed Partridge who moved into the Smith house- tion that allegedly conveyed God's request [married] to Joseph had I known it was hold that month. From this and other epi- for seven elders of the church, five of them anything more than a ceremony." sodes, a question arises that is not addressed married, to take Indian wives "that their Although the evidence is hard to docu- in the book: Did Joseph Smith have con- posterity may become white, delightsome, ment, the authors report that "persistent oral current marital relations with all of his wives and just." The Indians' dark skin was and family traditions insist that Joseph or only with the wives who were living in thought to embody God's curse for their fathered children by at least four of his the Smith home at any one time? Was his iniquity, described in the Book of Mormon. plural wives." polygamy cumulative or sequential? This is one of the earliest references to poly- The authors point out that Joseph Smith The authors do not understate the case: gamy in the Mormon church. kept his marital relationships secret from all "By late summer 1843 most of Emma's Although Joseph Smith's first docu- but a select few, especially from his wife, friends had either married Joseph or had mented plural wife was Louisa Beaman in Emma. They present evidence that Emma given their daughters to him." 1841, the authors suggest that as early as eventually learned of at least seven of It was ironic that while Emma used the 1830 he may have been accused of improper Joseph's plural wives. To the public, and to Mormon women's Relief Society as a pulpit conduct with women. Mary Elizabeth the church members outside the inner circle, to investigate "scandalous accusations upon Rollins claimed that in 1831, when she was Joseph denied rumors of polygamy. In 1844, the prophet," Joseph's secret plural wives just twelve, the Mormon prophet told her just before opposition to plural marriage led sat in the congregation. Furthermore, the he had had a vision indicating that she was to his arrest and assassination, Joseph Smith woman who often delivered Joseph's mar- "the first woman God commanded him to responded from the pulpit, "What a thing it riage proposals was assigned to do the in- take as a plural wife." Several years later, is for a man to be accused of committing vestigating. she did become one of Joseph's plural wives. adultery, and having seven wives, when I When Emma discovered the extent of The next year, when Emma saw her hus- can find only one." Joseph's extramarital relationships, she band commit an "act" with a hired girl, she The authors fail to determine just how threatened him with divorce and, the authors appealed to the First Presidency of the many wives Joseph Smith took. Assistant note, was even accused of poisoning his cof- church and extracted a confession and an LDS Historian Andrew Johnson identified fee. Joseph Smith responded with a revela- apology from Joseph. In a similar incident, twenty-seven wives, twelve taken before tion stating that, under the law of priest- Apostle William McLellin later told the Salt Joseph Smith's 1843 revelation validating the hood, a man "cannot commit adultery with Lake Tribune that the first authenticated practice. Other historians claim there were that that belongeth to him and no one else. case of polygamy took place between Joseph more. In addition to women who reported And if he have ten virgins given to him by Smith and Fanny Alger, a comely nineteen- full marital relations with the prophet, there this law, he cannot commit adultery, for they year-old hired into the Smith household in were numerous "temple sealings," many of belong to him." He said the revelation spoke 1835. Emma peeked through a barn door which were performed after his death. directly to Emma, saying that if she did not and witnessed the "transaction," which took When Emma found out that her friend accept this law of plural marriage she "shall place on a hay mow. Emma soon forced Eliza Snow was secretly married to her hus- be destroyed." Fanny to leave the house. The secret practice of plural marriage adversely affected the church for years. As the authors record, Joseph Smith's number- STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND CIRCULATION two man, Book of Mormon scribe Oliver Date of filing: September 29, 1986 Aver. no. Actual no. Title: FREE INQUIRY copies copies Cowdery, separated from the church over Frequency of issue: Quarterly each issue single issue Joseph's sexual involvements. In an 1838 Complete mailing address of known office of during published publication: P.O. Box 5, 3151 Bailey Ave., preceding nearest letter, Cowdery characterized Joseph Smith's Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 12 months filing date Complete mailing address of headquarters of A. Total no. copies printed (Net Press Run) relations with Fanny Alger as a "dirty, publisher. P.O. Box 5, 3151 Bailey Ave., 22.703 26,000 B. Paid Circulation Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 1. Sales through dealers and carriers. nasty, filthy affair" and was excommunicated Publisher. CODESH, Inc., 3151 Bailey street vendors and counter sales Ave., Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 773 835 that year on charges that included "insinu- 2. Mail Subscription 17,780 20,735 Owner. CODESH, Inc., 3151 Bailey C. Total Paid circulation 18,553 21,570' ating that the prophet had been guilty of Ave., Buffalo. NY 14215-0005 D. Free distribution 2.511 Editor. Paul Kurtz, 3151 Bailey 2,826 E. Total distribution (Sum of C d D) 21,379 24,081 adultery." Ave., Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 F. Copies not distributed Managing Editor. Andrea Szalanski, 3151 The authors describe how young women 1. Office use, left-over, unaccounted, Bailey Ave., Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 spoiled after printing 1,324 1.919 Known bondholders, mortgagees and other were persuaded to become plural wives. 2. Returns from news agents 0 0 security holders: None. Emily Partridge recorded Joseph's telling her G. TOTAL (Sum of E, F 1 and 2) 22.703 26,000 that "the Lord had commanded" her to enter 'As of Novambar 22, 1988, paid circulation was 22,011. into polygamy. After nineteen-year-old Nancy Rigdon refused Joseph's offer of

56 FREE INQUIRY For a while, Joseph seemed to get his assassination. Emma, who stayed in Illinois with her chil- way. However, some Mormons who were Two years later, Brigham Young was dren and mother-in-law. She remarried and unhappy with polygamy, made an effort to able to unite a large body of the church and refused even to acknowledge that she once reform the church. On June 7, 1844, in the take them westward, where they continued shared her husband with other wives. Her newspaper Nauvoo Expositor, the reformers the practice of polygamy. Some of Joseph son, Joseph Smith Ill, became the prophet affirmed their faith in the LDS religion, but Smith's wives married Brigham Young and of the monogamous Reorganized LDS condemned the doctrines that were "being other church leaders. Some of those who Church, now headquartered in Indepen- taught secretly and denied openly." The were already married when Joseph Smith dence, Missouri. At the age of seventy-four, Expositor disclosed the methods by which took them for his own wives went back to Emma reaffirmed her faith in her prophet- women were approached to become plural their original husbands. It was not until 1852 husband, saying that Joseph Smith was wives, and it proposed fourteen points of that plural marriage was publicly adopted "everything he professed to be." reform regarding polygamy and other as a doctrine of the Mormon church. This book is thoroughly researched and practices. A biography of Emma Smith will not written in an intimate, lively style. The Joseph Smith ordered the newspaper's satisfy the readers' curiosity about the status characters emerge, as it were, from the many press destroyed, an action that resulted in of polygamy in the Mormon community. documents and letters to tell their own his arrest and, as events developed, his After Joseph's death, the story follows story. •

with communal societies, the people sought a political and a religious issue. After Orson Valeen T. Avery to find a unifying theme for their fragmented Pratt announced the practice of plural lives. Christian primitivism suggested an Old marriage as church doctrine at Brigham Testament answer: Polygamy should be a Young's request during an 1852 church con- Mormon Polygamy: A History, by Richard part of the Mormons' attempted "restitution ference in Salt Lake City, the issue of the S. Van Wagoner (Salt Lake City: Signature of all things." But public pressure to conform "twin relics of barbarism," slavery and Books, 1986), 307 pp., $19.95. Notes, bibli- demanded that Joseph Smith's polygamous polygamy, became part of the first plank of ography, index, illustrations. example should be practiced in private while the newly formed Republican party. Two publicly denounced. For twenty years, from views existed about polygamy. The Amer- n Mormon Polygamy: A History, 1831 to 1852, the Mormons privately ican public generally believed the whole of Richard S. Van Wagoner explores the I adopted the practice of plural marriage as a Utah was a harem dominated by lascivious phenomenon of Mormon plural marriage. religious doctrine, all the while denying in- males. The Mormons, on the other hand, It is a finely crafted study of America's most volvement. When the Mormon church ad- believed they espoused an essentially virtuous misunderstood social experiment, though mitted to the world that polygamy was both puritanical marriage system that avoided the few among those who supported it or con- a doctrine and a practice in Utah in 1852, evils of divorce and the use of prostitutes. demned it were dispassionate enough to see the stage was set for a battle of epic propor- While some Mormon men undoubtedly en- it as such. The issue of whether polygamy tions that would continue for thirty years; joyed their wives far more than duty would was intended as a religious practice by divine until Congress abolished it by law, and for account, both Mormon men and women commandment throughout its years of active twenty more years until the Mormon church nearly always entered polygamy because they practice by the Mormon church was hotly abolished it. The answer to how that hap- believed it was essential to their salvation debated during the late nineteenth and early pened is in Van Wagoner's fine book. and was required by God. twentieth centuries. And still it continues to The first six chapters deal with the diffi- One strength of this book is its frank be a contested issue whenever families who cult beginning of the practice of plural acceptance of the difficulties inherent in continue to practice it become items worthy marriage in the 1830s and early 1840s before personal relationships. Avery relates how of coverage in the media. But little has been Joseph Smith's death in 1844. Van Wagoner when one husband, anxious to have an addi- said or written about how polygamy came approaches his topic with objectivity and tional wife, told his wife that he had received to be, by what means it flourished, how it documents the upheavals in Smith's own life a revelation commanding him to take became unlawful and rejected by the church as well as the problems for others created another, she announced a day later that she, that once made it one of the foundation by Smith's insistence that a select group of too, had received a revelation—to shoot any stones of its tenets, and why and how some his followers take plural wives. The Mormon polygamous wife he brought into the house. groups continue the practice in America position was to deny to the public the Van Wagoner discusses in depth the anti- today. Van Wagoner's book provides the private practice of polygamy, and to a re- polygamy legislation that forced the church proper historical background for a rational markable degree it was successful. Few out- to abandon the practice in 1890. He analyzes and systematic study of what was un- side the Mormon church in Nauvoo, Illinois, the church's resistance to the legislation, the doubtedly America's most controversial reli- were aware of the doctrine or its application. horror and disruption brought to families gious practice. In the interim between Smith's death in 1844 by the trials attempting to determine who The book introduces the milieu of upstate and the Mormon movement west to Utah was involved in polygamy, and the resultant New York and Ohio's Western Reserve: in 1847, several groups under the leadership efforts of a whole people to change their "Burned-over" by religious rivals and flirting of men like James J. Strang and Sidney social customs overnight. Rigdon flirted with polygamy as a doctrine, This book is an excellent study of a most Valeen T. Avery is director of the Center but it remained for Brigham Young to set interesting episode of American society. It for Colorado Plateau Studies at Northern both the tone and the example on the terri- is written with grace and clarity, candor and Arizona University, and coauthor of Mor- torial frontier. From the time of the Mor- compassion, and no one who aspires to be a mon Enigma: Emma Hale Smith. mons' initial settlement in the West to the a student of Mormon religion or history turn of the century, polygamy became both should ignore it. •

Winter 1986/ 87 57 not aware of its existence or airing until my initial contact with her, she was understand- CSER's Faith-Healing Update ably upset that Popoff would exploit her daughter in this manner. Mrs. A. had known for several years that the shadowy area on Nonhealing a Nonexistent Tumor the November 29 scan was not a tumor. In fact, Amanda's physicians (including the radiologists) were in agreement by early 1984 Petersburg, Florida Gary Posner, M.D., St. that it was only an artifact in the scanning process (as it appeared throughout all levels eldom do we have the opportunity to chemotherapy, no surgery will help." of the left side of the brain, and was not Sexamine critically a claim of faith- We are then introduced to Amanda's confined within any particular anatomical healing in which an incurable medical condi- grandmother, whose photo is shown and structure). tion is definitively diagnosed, a prayer is whose voice (or so we are to assume, but Amanda had been suffering from mi- offered, and the affliction is "miraculously" more on that later) informs us, "That's why graines, affecting the muscles of her left eye healed, with resolution of the confirmatory Mandy was having these migraine head- since the age of thirteen months (she is now X-ray findings. Such a claim was made in a aches." At this point, with all of Amanda's eight years old). Migraines, caused by exag- riveting and moving video segment of the physicians (and X-rays) confirming the pres- gerated constrictions and dilations of cere- "Peter Popoff Miracle Ministries" program ence of an untreatable, incurable "brain-stem bral arteries, should not be associated with (which aired in St. Petersburg/Tampa on tumor," we hear that the grandmother any anatomical abnormalities on a C.T. August 17, 1986). mailed a "prayer request" to the Reverend scan. In fact, at the age of twenty-six On that tape, introduced by the Reverend Popoff. "A couple of weeks later," she ex- months, during her first complete neuro- Popoff as the story of a "miracle" in the life plains, in a voice choked with emotion, logical evaluation, a C.T. scan had been per- of a little girl with an "inoperable brain another C.T. brain scan was performed and formed on Amanda and was negative, as tumor," we see the adorable face of Amanda "the tumor in Mandy was gone!" The narra- expected. A. (last name withheld in this report at the tor concludes: "The doctors can't explain it. But in November 1983, because of a mother's request), who suffered from For them, it's a mystery. But for Mandy disturbing loss of vision in the affected eye, migraines that had prompted an X-ray series and her grandmother, it's no mystery. Jesus Amanda's pediatric ophthalmologist at USF known as a C.T. brain scan to be performed completely healed her, and here is the scan ordered another scan. Although confident on November 29, 1983, at Tampa General taken December 12 [ 1983] to confirm it." of his diagnosis of "ophthalmoplegic Hospital. An image from the scan is shown, An image from that scan is shown, and migraine" (her symptoms were classic), he containing an unmistakably dark, shadowy indeed appears normal. (I should note that dared not risk overlooking some other possi- area on the left (viewers' right), described neither image shown was of the "brain ble problem that might be apparent in an by the narrator as a "brain-stem tumor." stem.") X-ray. Yet he was surprised and perplexed This diagnosis, we are told, was "confirmed" My investigation consisted of interviews when the radiologist described "an area of by "doctors at the University of South with Amanda's mother, several of the low density . . . on the left. . . . A very Florida [Tampa] and John [sic] Hopkins." physicians (including the radiologists) in- minimal mass effect [i.e., swelling] may be A second scan is then said to have estab- volved, as well as a review of all of Amanda's present [emphasis added].... Possibilities lished "the same diagnosis ... a brain tumor. medical records and X-rays.' When I played would include . . . neoplasm [tumor], There is no treatment. No radiation, no the Popoff tape for the mother, who was demyelinating disease, [e.g., multiple sclera

Peter Popoff Revisited nounced a meeting in Long Beach, at able to find out that Popoff had done some faith-healing but no calling out. David Alexander the Golden Sales Inn, just a few miles from my house. I couldn't miss this He had identified a few people with Long Beach, California opportunity to see him in action and ailments, but that could have easily ecently I had the opportunity how his draw might have changed. I been accomplished by matching prayer Rto see, firsthand, how effective checked with the hotel and learned cards that had been collected with seat our investigation of the Reverend that they were told by Popoff to re- numbers and simply reading from a Peter Popoff has been. Popoff had serve a room for 300 to 500 people. crib sheet held in his hand as he went left the mainstream VHF television Fewer than 150 people actually at- about his "healing." Popoff then an- station in Los Angeles for an obscure, tended. This was a far cry from the nounced that those who were on his all-religious broadcaster, Channel 30, last meeting he had had locally, in mailing list should bring forward their in San Bernardino. the Anaheim Convention Center, offering and receive a special word Channel 30 also carries W. V. where he drew 2,500 people. from him. Grant and several other, lesser-known When 1 arrived Popoff was hand- It must have been incredibly gall- faith-healers and fundamentalist/ ing out envelopes, in which money was ing to Popoff, once able to draw audi- charismatic evangelists. Popoff buys to be enclosed. After those envelopes ences of thousands, to have to work time twice a week and hits his audi- were handed out he asked who in his such a small room. I suspect if this ence hard. One of his major themes is audience needed a financial break- trend continues, he won't be on the that his ministry is under "Satanic" through. He then handed out another scene much longer because of certain attack and he needs money to combat batch of envelopes in which people fixed costs that he must meet each it. were to enclose twenty-seven dollars. month, including some rather hefty On one program Popoff an- Although I had arrived late, I was salaries. •

58 FREE INQUIRY millimeters (about one-quarter inch) before she was called out. One man Followup on The Reverend shorter than his left. Grant announced Grant had helped to walk down the W. V. Grant that he would lengthen Juan's left leg aisle was quite unsteady because he one and a half inches to make the was hemiplegic (paralyzed on one Stephen Barrett, M.D. two legs equal. When Juan insisted side). At the meeting's end, he was Allentown, Pennsylvania his right leg was the shorter one, Grant just as unsteady and had to lean on proceeded to "lengthen" his right leg his wife to maintain his balance while one and a half inches. Then Juan was walking. bout seven hundred people came asked to walk so the audience could 5. One man said he had prostate Ato see the Reverend W. V. Grant see that he was no longer limping. cancer that produced severe pain when when he performed at Calvary Temple Having watched him walk prior to he walked. Grant "healed" him of pain in Allentown, Pennsylvania, on Octo- being called out, I can assure you that and then asked him to walk across ber 6, 1986. I observed the following: he did not limp beforehand. the front of the room. When the man I. During individual healings, 3. Grant asked two elderly indi- returned, he said the pain was still Grant pushed several of his subjects viduals who said they had serious there. Undaunted, Grant said the pain backward so that they would fall into heart disease to run down the aisle. would be gone by next July when he the arms of an assistant standing be- Considering that strenuous activity returns to Allentown. hind, but he suggested to the audience can trigger a heart attack in suscepti- 6. Grant made four fund-raising that they had fallen spontaneously. ble individuals, this request was irre- appeals during his performance. He When an eighty-four-year-old woman sponsible. also said that anyone who wasn't resisted his push, he dug two of his 4. Grant told several people they healed should blame himself for not fingers quite hard into her neck would no longer need canes to walk. having enough faith. toward the rear of her jaw and forced After he threw their canes onto the It would be very easy to investigate her to fall backward. stage, most were able to walk quite Grant's alleged cures if he permitted 2. One of Grant's helpers ("Juan") easily without assistance. However, I their names and phone numbers to be was selected for healing of his "shorter noticed that one of these people had collected during his performance. I leg." He told Grant that his X-rays walked quite briskly into the room plan to ask him. Do you think he will had shown that his right leg was five without using a cane a few minutes consent? • sis] . . . and perhaps degenerative white decided to take her daughter to Johns Hop- shadow became apparent. It is clear that Peter Popoffs televised matter disease.... The picture is not typical, kins Hospital in Baltimore. Amanda and her claim of a documented "miracle," nearly however, for any of these." No discrete scans were examined there by a pediatric three years after the fact, is without founda- tumor was described, even following injec- neurologist on January 26, 1984, who, al- tion. Had Popoff bothered to check his tion of contrast dye in Amanda's vein (in- though noting the "low-density area" on the tended to enhance the appearance of any November scan, agreed with the diagnosis "facts" with the mother, or with any of highly vascular lesion such as a malignant of "ophthalmoplegic migraine." As an addi- Amanda's physicians, before televising his account (without permission), he would tumor). As noted in the radiologist's report, tional theoretical consideration, he did men- have discovered that no tumor had ever been "neoplasm ... would be difficult to postulate tion the possibility of a "very small optic documented. Nor, unfortunately, has there without enhancement." glioma [tumor] ... not observable on CT To help determine with certainty whether scan" [emphasis added]. been any decrease to this day in the fre- or not a surgical lesion was present within After informing Popoffs staff in Decem- quency or severity of Amanda's migraines, Amanda's brain, she next was evaluated by ber 1983 that Amanda's followup scan was or their neurological consequences. a Tampa neurosurgeon on December 5, who normal, and assuming that a "miracle" had Amanda's grandmother, once a regular also noted the "area of decreased density occurred as a result of her prayer request, financial contributor to the Popoff ministry, ... on the left ... of uncertain etiology." A Amanda's grandmother agreed to a visit by no longer supports his efforts. Amanda's repeat scan with additional views was or- a Popoff representative at her home in mother is contemplating legal action. And, dered to rule out the possibility of a tumor, Tampa. At that meeting, she allowed photo- by the way, the emotional voice on the tape and as noted on the television program, the graphs of Amanda and herself to be taken is not that of the grandmother! Perhaps, dark area was no longer apparent. Amanda for use in a planned article in Popoff s news- just perhaps, it is the voice of "God" (a.k.a. then visited a pediatric neurologist at USF letter. At the mother's urging, she specifically Elizabeth Popoff; see FREE INQUIRY, Sum- on January 11, 1984, who concurred with denied permission for videotaping for tele- mer 1986). the diagnosis of "ophthalmoplegic migraine." vision.2 Notes He reviewed both C.T. scans, and noted the Because none of Amanda's physicians "lucency or edema" on the first, remarking could correlate her brain scan anomaly with 1. As of this writing, the grandmother has de- clined to be interviewed for this article. The that "a mass was not seen" [emphasis the findings of her physical examination, or mother has confirmed in writing the accuracy of added]. explain its sudden disappearance, a reexami- my comments as they relate to the grandmother, If a team of highly skilled physicians can nation of her scans by the Tampa General based upon her firsthand knowledge. be rendered at least a bit confounded by an radiology staff was requested and under- 2. For reasons of family harmony, it was imperative that Mrs. A.'s husband know nothing unusual-looking scan, imagine the apprehen- taken. Finally, as the original radiologist and of the Popoff involvement. Televising the story sion of the mother of the patient. Desiring a neuroradiologist now observed, the telltale was out of the question, though a limited-circula- still another independent opinion, Mrs. A. artifactual nature of the ubiquitous left tion newsletter article was acceptable. •

Winter 1986/87 59 In fact, they said the statistical evidence strongly suggested that the material couldn't have been put together, it its odd patterns IN THE NAME OF GOD of hidden basic words, by a mortal at all. The particular phenomenon "cannot be M explained rationally," said Wiener. "So we need a non-rational explanation. And ours God's Candidate for President by the Lord Jesus Christ and filled with the is that the Bible was written by God through Holy Spirit. the hand of Moses." ... (Cleveland Plain "We need a man to call us back to righteous- "The world probably says that this effort Dealer) ness. There is a growing feeling among many is hopeless, but if God be in it, it doesn't Christians—myself included—that [Pat] really matter what the world says. Pat Robertson may be ordained by God for this Robertson is one of us. That doesn't neces- task. . . . The ability to hear from God sarily mean the right church or the right Alcohol A Gift from God should be the number one qualification for particular persuasion, but it does mean being the U.S. presidency. If Christians believe part of the same purpose and the same The Catholic Church has defended a brewing God has a plan for this nation, shouldn't we cause. "... (New York Times) company's donation to the cost of the papal want a man in the White House who listens visit [to Australia] by saying that alcohol is a gift from God. to God, rather than a man who acts on the One Author of the Bible? basis of political expediency. "(Jamie Buck- It was announced in Adelaide that the South Australian Brewing Holdings group ingham, editor of the Buckingham Report New York—Researchers in Israel said that had made a big donation to the tour. The and founding pastor of the Tabernacle data gleaned from some special computer amount has not been revealed, but one re- Church in Melbourne, Florida, in an inter- analysis of the first five books of the Bible port says it runs to six figures. view in Christianity Today) shattered the notion that they were written The church has vigorously defended the by different persons at different times. donation, saying that alcohol is God's gift Such multiple authorship of the so-called Swaggart for Robertson and that Adelaide's first Catholic church was books of Moses, called the Torah in Juda- a disused brewery.... (Melbourne Age) Baton Rouge—Reversing an earlier position, ism, has long been commonly assumed by Jimmy Swaggart, the television evangelist, most modern biblical scholarship, outside has endorsed the Presidential aspirations of fundamentalist circles. The Afterlife for Organ Donors the Rev. Pat Robertson. But Scripture scholar Moshe Katz and computer expert Menachem Wiener of the At a prayer meeting, Mr. Swaggart said: Dear Ann Landers: Maybe you do some "For the first time in human history, the Israel Institute of Technology said their good in the world but you also do some possibility exists that the hand that is laid unusual system of analysis dispelled the view harm. You sure put me in one heck of a on that Holy Bible can be joined to a that the books were a collection of docu- mess. Since you caused my trouble I think shoulder, a head and a heart that are saved ments of varied authorship. you owe it to me to straighten things out. Four years ago 1 read in your column how nice it would be if lots of people sent away for donor cards and pledged their organs in case they died in an accident. I I SEE A VOTER WITH thought it sounded like a generous thing to A TOOTHAO.1E. TWAT ToOTNArIE do so I signed up. is GONE! THERE IS A VOTER About six months ago 1 became involved WITH SHINGLES. THE SHINGLL with a group of heavy thinkers. I am certain DYING ARE HEALED! A VoTER that I was here on earth 500 years ago in 0F AIDS. Gosh, THAT'S Too DAD! another body. I am also sure that I will be A VOTER WIN HEMoRR110IDs, cuĄED!.... coming back, probably as an inventor or a scientist. After having donated my eyes, liver, heart and kidneys, what am I to do when I return? I didn't realize when I filled out the card that I might be needing these parts myself. I want to see this letter in the paper and your advice along with it.—Looking to the future and fearing it. Dear Looking and Fearing: Calm down. Donor cards are not binding. Anyone who changes his or her mind need only tear up the card and forget it. Also, if you should SEPARATED fllURtI4 AND return in another body, that body should STATE ?I CM 'X I1 have its own parts. (Toronto Star)

60 FREE INQUIRY (Letters, Coned from p. 3) From my point of view, this unsubstan- tiated case of faith-healing doesn't have Subliminal Scriptural Messages much credence, but it sounded great on the television program.

Pauline Cotter Mount Pleasant, Mich. F. K. Donnelly

I hope to see a continuation of your excellent undamentalists have for years been in- in phonetic reversal. investigative journalism on faith-healing. Fforming us that popular music contains Of even greater concern are the many Your special issue (FI, Spring 1986) tops secret subliminal messages of a satanic proper names found in Scripture that in anything I have seen on the subject, includ- nature. It appears that when certain popular reverse read very differently. "Zion" or ing work by yours truly. Philip Singer ("A lyrics are played backward, dark and sinister "Sion" is really "noise" when pronounced Medical Anthropologist's View of American communications can be discerned. In the phonetically in reverse. The obscure Old Shamans") was kinder to the medical pro- latest of these episodes, the words to the Testament place name "Ziklag" is a shocking fession than he need have been, for aren't song "A Horse Is a Horse," the theme to "gal kiz" or "gal kiss" when read backward. they silent accomplices to the hucksters of the old television series "Mr. Ed," were More sinister is "Samaria," mentioned some miracles? Physicians enjoy a degree of re- found to contain such messages as "Some forty times, because in reverse it is "a[n] spect and affluence as keepers of the highest sung this song for satan" when played in I.R.A. mas[s]." Is it a secret order for a public trust, and their primary, if not their reverse. While only fundamentalist Chris- prayer on behalf of the Irish Republican sole, claim to that trust is in their rigorous tians play lyrics backward, the claim is made Army? Equally disturbing is "Sisamai," the training as scientists. If they cannot collec- that this subliminal process also affects the name of one of David's descendants, which tively investigate the practices and claims of unwary conventional listener. This is there- becomes "I am a sis[sy]." And what about religious healers and publish their findings fore a very serious matter worthy of a more "Rabmag," "Sela," and "Etam," which when in lay terms, then are we not to ask why? systematic investigation. Indeed, one reversed are "gam[e] bar," "ales," and We hear much about modern "quacks" and wonders why fundamentalists limit their re- "mate," respectively. The name "Amos" is, even "marginal practitioners" who are sternly search in this area to popular lyrics and rock of course, "Soma" backward, and "Soma" condemned by the medical profession for music. Surely if this is a real problem, then is the social-control drug of Aldous Huxley's their chicanery. Most of us have seen we should widen the scope of the investiga- anti-utopian novel, Brace New World. Its health-education pamphlets warning the tion to ascertain the true dimensions of the plural "Somas" is the biblical place name public about health-care fraud, some of problem. To this end it was decided to "Samos" backward. Some biblical names which tell how to "spot" shysters by observ- examine the King James Version of the Bible also contain hidden messages in only some ing their manner of conducting business and and common religious expressions for sub- of their parts. Thus the ruler "Artaxerxes" certain things they say. What prevents the liminal messages. has the hidden subliminal accolade "sex rex" American Medical Association from an- Even the most common biblical words within the last part of his name. Even "Beth- nouncing that they have been unable to give rise to suspicion. The words live and lehem" contains the hidden reversed expres- verify any examples of miraculous cure, that top are used literally dozens and dozens of sion "me hel[1]." faith-healing fits their definition of fraud, times in Scripture. Yet experts in subliminal Clearly the subliminal message problem and that its victims should have legal re- studies are acutely aware that in reverse they is a real one and much bigger than even the course? are evil and pot, respectively. Likewise the fundamentalists imagined. On the basis of It is time to "call out" the American word lived is used some twenty times in the the limited analysis presented here, there is medicine men. It may be difficult for them scriptures. Instead, the authors and transla- enough evidence to proceed with a more to respond at a time when our chief execu- tors could have used "resided" or "was so systematic study. I would therefore propose tive presides over an impending theocracy, many years old" as the case warranted. But that all religious writings, including Greek, and his successor may very well be a faith- they did not and chose "lived," which of Latin, and vernacular versions of Scripture, healer himself; but I, for one, trust that the course is "devil" when reversed. The word and all theological works, be analyzed by a medical establishment really does have the god also creates a worry as it is dog spelled computer program to determine whether or patient at heart and that, given the oppor- backwards. Therefore a person hearing the not they contain secret subliminal messages. tunity, they will take a stand for his interests. common Christian expression "son of god" Only then will we know for certain what it might receive the subliminal message "son is absolutely safe to read. John Trimpey, M.S.W. of [a] dog," which is a gross insult in most In the meantime, we must thank the good Lotus, Calif. cultures. The term lord in reverse is the churchgoers of Ironton, Ohio, for drawing facetious "drol[I]" and even music itself be- attention to the very disturbing and negative comes "[k]iss some" or perhaps "kiss [th]em" subliminal messages found in the words to the "Mr. Ed" theme. Some in Ironton do F. K. Donnelly is in the Division of tend to see the dark side of things before A specific kind of convulsive disorder called Humanities and Languages at the University the rest of us. After all the name of the "temporal lobe epilepsy," or partial complex of New Brunswick. town spelled backward is a very negative convulsive disorder, is often caused by ab- "not, nor I." • normalities of the temporal lobe of the brain.

Winter 1986/87 61 Since many personality characteristics are hate-filled breath, though Hitler never Hocutt, that the Christian faith is the source affected by the temporal lobe, it is not un- equated Judaism with Christianity and of Kant's ethics. Undoubtedly, pietistic up- common for people with temporal lobe epi- Islam. Most absurdly, he puts into Hitler's bringing helped Kant decide what a rational lepsy to have personality abnormalities. One mouth the trendy word genocide. The term morality would include among its precepts, of the personality characteristics that has was invented during the war and it is most but these precepts are acceptable only when been described in people with abnormalities unlikely that Hitler used it. If he ever did, they can pass the test of the independently of the temporal lobe is called "hyperreligios- he would have given it its original meaning, valid Categorical Imperative, which was ity." People with hyperreligiosity are ex- as later codified in the United Nations partly inspired by the Enlightenment ideals traordinarily involved with thoughts and acts Genocide Convention. Mr. Harwood's use of human dignity and freedom. Autonomous of a religious nature. of genocide in its present-day exclusive sense ethics by no means constrains aspiration; Anticonvulsant medication commonly of "mass slaughter" is unhistorical and rather, it can help determine which aspira- stops the epileptic seizures as long as the obfuscatory. tions are of questionable value to humanity. medication is taken, but does not alter the Such tendentiousness on the author's part hyperreligiosity. As you might expect, these merits a dubious honor: his recognition as a people commonly frequent the faith-healers careless researcher, and perhaps as a hoaxer. who "cure" their epilepsy. They discontinue their medication, and subsequently have an Robert S. Maier epileptic attack, hopefully not while driving Tucson, Ariz. on the freeway. I have had patients who are CLASSIFIED not convinced by this series of events on the On Humanist Ethics first occasion, and seek out a second healer for another cure and subsequent seizure. Konstantin Kolenda's good review ("De- A few years ago I received a letter from fending Humanist Ethics," FI, Summer a staff member of "The 700 Club" asking 1986) of Richard Taylor's superb book CLASSIFIED me to confirm a miracle in a patient of mine. Ethics, Faith, and Reason would be even RATES Evidently my patient believed she had been better without its penultimate paragraph. cured by the efforts of "The 700 Club" and Taylor is right to affirm and Kolenda wrong Per word (single insertion) had stopped her medication. I wrote a letter to deny that the source of Kant's ethics is 10-word minimum 70 cents explaining the above and asked the organi- Christian faith, not critical reason. Kant 10% discount for placement in 3 con- zation not to place this patient and others claimed otherwise, of course; but he made secutive issues. in danger by their faith-healing efforts. I this claim seem plausible only by redefining Payment for insertion must accom- asked the patient to be told to continue the reason. Where behaving rationally had once pany copy. medication and seek medical evaluation. I meant doing what will fulfill one's aspira- All classified ads are accepted at the have not heard from the patient or "The tions, it was redefined to mean doing one's discretion of the publisher. 700 Club" since. Christian duty. People eager to have their For additional information and rates Christian prejudices demonstrated often for classified display advertising, write: Robert N. Tyson, M.D. represent this as a proof; but one might as FREE INQUIRY Auburn, Washington well argue that cats are really dogs, then try Box 5, Central Park Station to prove as much by redefining a dog as a Buffalo, N.Y. 14215-0005 A Morally Retarded God feline rather than a canine animal.

William R. Harwood's "Yahweh: A Morally Max Hocutt Retarded God" (FI, Fall 1986) should never Professor and Chairman have been allowed to disgrace your pages. Dept. of Philosophy ASSOCIATIONS Observing that Judaism and Christianity University of Alabama Learn about Atheist freethought and activism cherish time-honored scriptures, he claims in the Midwest. FREE Information. Write that both are "saddled with gods that [sic] Konstantin Kolenda replies: INDEPENDENT ATHEISTS, Box 4123, 0ak conform to the moral standards of long ago Park, IL 60303-4123. but not to those of today." His method of One of Kant's outstanding philosophical BERTRAND RUSSELL S0CIETY. Informa- proof is to cite three passages from Deu- contributions was his unequivocal and con- tion: FI, RD1, Box 409, Coopersburg, PA teronomy, inelegantly translated by himself, vincing defense of the autonomy of ethics. 18036. and a "paraphrase" of Adolf Hitler. He He insisted that morality is not derivable "EVANGELICAL AGN0STICISM!" e thinks he discerns similarities. from any facts—natural or supernatural, Free information and logo. Har- Leaving aside the question of Mr. anthropology or theology. He thought that, SEA, Box 515fí, Auberry, CA 93602. wood's translations from the Hebrew (is he if religion is to make sense, it must first competent in the language?), 1 note that his accept the independence of moral judg- THE MILLENIUM FELL0WSHIP: Are you looking for a caring, supportive, extended paraphrase of Hitler has no source other ments—a claim not exactly welcome to community practicing humanism in everyday than his imagination. He makes Hitler speak theologians. Kant himself was of the opinion life? Write: The Millenium Fellowship, P0 Box of "gassing down [sic] inferior races," though that religion is not rationally indefensible, 63, Reading, MA 01867. no remarks of Hitler on the Nazi gas cham- but it must be built on a moral foundation. Six Rural Communities invite visitors/mem- bers are extant. He has Hitler speak of "syn- This, however, is a far cry from, and indeed bers. Sane alternative lifestyles. Equality. agogues, crosses and mosques" in the same incompatible with, saying, as does Professor Cooperation. Peace. Self-supporting. Feder-

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Winter 1986/87 63 The Academy of Humanism The Academy of Humanism was established to recognize distinguished humanists and disseminate humanistic ideals and beliefs. The members of the Academy, listed below, are nontheists who are (1) devoted to free inquiry in all fields of human endeavor, (2) committed to a scientific outlook and the use of the scientific method in acquiring knowledge, and (3) upholders of humanist ethical values and principles. The Academy's goals include furthering respect for human rights and freedom and the dignity of the individual, tolerance of various viewpoints and willingness to compromise, commitment to social justice, a universalistic perspective that transcends national, ethnic, religious, sexual, and racial barriers, and belief in a free and open pluralistic and democratic society. Humanist Laureates: Isaac Asimov, author; Sir Alfred J. Ayer, fellow of Wolfson College, Oxford University; Brand Blanshard, Sterling Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, Yale University; Sir Hermann Bondi, professor of applied mathematics, King's College, University of London; Mario Bunge, Frothingham Professor of Foundations and Philosophy of Science, McGill University; Bernard Crick, professor of politics, Birkbeck College, University of London; Francis Crick, Nobel Laureate in Physiology, Salk Institute; Joseph Delgado, professor and chairperson in the Department of Neuropsychiatry, University of Madrid; Milovan Djilas, author, former vice-president of Yugoslavia; Sir Raymond Firth, professor emeritus of anthropology, University of London; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, professor emeritus of medical ethics, University of Virginia Medical School; Yves Galifret, professor of physiology at the Sorbonne and director of l'Union Rationaliste; John Galtung, professor of sociology, University of Oslo; Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University; Adolf Grünbaum, professor of philosophy, University of Pittsburgh; Alberto Hidalgo, president of the Sociedad Asturiana de Filosofia, Oviedo, Spain; Donald Johanson, Institute of Human 0rigins; Franco Lombardi, professor of philosophy, University of Rome; Joli Lombardi, organizer of the New University (laic) for the Third Age; André Lwolf, Nobel Laureate in Physiology and professor of science, College de France; Paul MacCready, Kremer Prize winner for aeronautical achievements; Jean-Claude Pecker, professor of astrophysics, College de France, Academie des Sciences; Sir Karl Popper, professor emeritus of logic and scientific method, University of London; W. V. Quine, professor of philosophy, Harvard University; Max Rood, professor of law and former Minister of Justice in Holland; Carl Sagan, astronomer, Cornell University; Andrei Sakharov, physicist, Nobel Peace Prize winner; Thomas Szasz, professor of psychiatry, State University of New York Medical School (Syracuse); V. M. Tarkunde, chairman, Indian Radical Humanist Association; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, Union College; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck College, University of London; Edward O. Wilson, professor of sociobiology, Harvard University; Lady Barbara Wootton, former Deputy Speaker, House of Lords. Deceased: George O. Abell, Ernest Nagel, George Olincy, Chaim Perelman. Secretariat: Vern Bullough, dean of natural and social sciences, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Antony Flew, professor of philosophy, Reading University, (England); Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, New York University; Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, State University of New York at Buffalo, editor of FREE INQUIRY; Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical studies, University of Southern California at Los Angeles. Executive Director: Steven L. Mitchell. Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion (CSER) The Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion was developed to examine the claims of Eastern and Western religions and of well- established and newer sects and denominations in the light of scientific inquiry. The Committee is interdisciplinary, including specialists in biblical scholarship, archaeology, linguistics, anthropology, the social sciences, and philosophy who represent differing secular and religious traditions. Committee members are dedicated to impartial scholarship and the use of objective methods of inquiry. Gerald Larue (Chairman), professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical studies, University of Southern California at Los Angeles; John Allegro, former lecturer in Near Eastern and Old Testament Studies, University of Manchester (England); Robert S. Alley, professor of humanities, University of Richmond; Michael Arnheim, professor of ancient history, University of Witwatersrand (South Africa); Joseph Barnhart, professor of philosophy, North Texas State University; Paul Beattie, president, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; H. James Birx, chairman of Anthropology/ Sociology Department, Canisius College; Vern Bullough, dean of natural and social sciences, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, professor emeritus of medical ethics, University of Virginia Medical School; Antony Flew, professor of philosophy, Reading University (England); Van Harvey, professor of religion, Stanford University; Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, New York University; Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, State University of New York at Buffalo; William V. Mayer, director, Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, University of Colorado; Delos McKown, professor of philosophy, Auburn University; Lee Nisbet, associate professor of philosophy, Medaille College; George Smith, president, Signature Books; A. T. Steegman, professor of anthropology, State University of New York at Buffalo; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck College, University of London (England); Steven L. Mitchell (ex officio). Biblical Criticism Research Project (CSER Subcommittee) The Biblical Criticism Research Project (Subcommittee) was founded to help disseminate the results of biblical scholarship—studies in comparative religion, folklore, scientific archaeology, and literary analysis. It investigates the claim that the Bible is divinely inspired; the historical evidence for Jesus and other Bible personalities; the role of religious myth, symbol, and ritual; and the possibility of basing morality upon reason and experience instead of biblical doctrine. The Research Project's goals include compiling bibliographies of the best sources of information about the Bible, publishing articles and monographs about different facets of biblical research, and convening seminars and conferences. R. Joseph Hoffmann (Chairman), assistant professor of New Testament studies, University of Michigan; David Noel Freedman, professor of 0ld Testament, University of Michigan at Ann Arbor; Randel Helms, professor of English, Arizona State University; Robert Joly, professor of philosophy, Centre Interdisciplinaire d'Etudes Philosophiques de l'Universite de Mons (Belgium); Carol Meyers, professor of religion, Duke University; James Robinson, director, Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont College; John F. Priest, professor and chairman, Department of Religion, Florida State University; Morton Smith, professor of history, Columbia University; Steven L. Mitchell (ex officio).

Faith-Healing Investigation Project (CSER Subcommittee) David Alexander, Southern California Skeptics; Robert S. Alley, professor of humanities, University of Richmond; Luis W. Alvarez, (professor emeritus of physics, University of California); Stephen Barrett, M.D., consumer health advocate; Dr. Bonnie Bullough, R.N. (dean, School of Nursing, SUNY at Buffalo); Dr. Joseph Fletcher, professor emeritus of medical ethics, Univerity of Virginia Medical School; William Jarvis, chairman, Department of Public Health Science, School of Allied Health Professionals, Loma Linda University, California; Richard H. Lange, M.D., chief of nuclear medicine, Schenectady, N.Y.; Gary Posner, M.D., St. Petersburg, Florida; Wallace I. Sampson, M.D., Stanford University; Al Seckel, Executive Director, Southern California Skeptics; Robert Steiner, Chairman, Occult Committee, Society of American Magicians; Dr. Rita Swan, President, Children's Health Care Is a Legal Duty, Sioux City, Iowa. Coordinating Council: Joseph Barnhart, Paul Kurtz, Gerald Larue, and James Randi, conjurer and principal investigator of the Project.